Journal of Constructional Steel Research 80 (2013) 252–263

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Journal of Constructional Steel Research

Review

State of the art on the time-dependent behaviour of composite

steel–concrete structures
Gianluca Ranzi a,⁎, Graziano Leoni b, Riccardo Zandonini c
a
School of Civil Engineering, The University of Sydney, NSW2006, Australia
b
School of Architecture and Design, University of Camerino, 63100 Ascoli Piceno, Italy
c
Department of Mechanical and Structural Engineering, University of Trento, 38123 Trento, Italy

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Composite steel–concrete structures represent an efficient and economical form of construction for building
Received 7 April 2012 and bridge applications. This paper presents the current state of the art on the time-dependent behaviour of
Accepted 23 August 2012 composite steel–concrete members, i.e. columns, slabs and beams, and how this influences both service and
Available online 31 October 2012
ultimate conditions. In the case of beams, only H-shaped or box steel sections with solid and composite slabs
have been considered. In the initial part of the paper, a brief outline of the main aspects related to the
Keywords:
Composite
time-dependent behaviour of the concrete is provided. This is followed by the description of the work carried
Concrete out to date on the long-term response of composite columns, slabs and beams considered separately. In the
Creep case of composite columns, particular attention has been devoted to the influence of time effects on the
Shrinkage ultimate response, role of confinement at service conditions and possible occurrence of creep buckling.
Steel Very limited work has been carried out to date on the long-term response of composite slabs. Because of
Time effects this, only brief considerations are provided on this solution while still presenting recent research dealing
with the development of shrinkage gradients through the slab thickness when cast on steel decks. The
work outlined on composite beams has been categorised according to different design issues, which include
shear-lag effects, the shear deformability of the steel beam, influence of time effects on the ultimate response,
prestressing, time-dependent buckling, and sequential casting of the slab. Recommendations for possible
future research work are provided in the concluding remarks.
© 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
2. Time-dependent behaviour of the concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
3. Composite columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
3.1. Time-dependent behaviour of the concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
3.2. Time-dependent analyses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
3.3. Influence of time effects on the ultimate behaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
3.4. Considerations on confinement at service conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
3.5. Creep buckling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
4. Composite slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
4.1. Time-dependent properties of the concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
4.2. Modelling creep and shrinkage effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
5. Composite beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
5.1. Time-dependent behaviour of the concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
5.2. Time-dependent modelling of composite beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
5.3. Shear-lag effects and concrete slab effective width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
5.4. Shear deformability of the steel beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
5.5. Influence of time effects on the ultimate response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
5.6. Influence of shrinkage on the composite flexural stiffness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260

⁎ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: gianluca.ranzi@sydney.edu.au (G. Ranzi).

0143-974X/$ – see front matter © 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jcsr.2012.08.005
 G. Ranzi et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 80 (2013) 252–263 253

5.7. Internal and external prestressing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260

5.8. Time-dependent buckling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
5.9. Sequential casting of concrete slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
6. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Acknowledgments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261

1. Introduction problem defines the condition in which a concrete component is

Composite steel–concrete structures are widely used throughout
the world for building and bridge applications leading to economical
and efficient structural solutions. Their design is carried out ensuring
a number of limit states, e.g. ultimate and serviceability, to be satisfied.
This paper is concerned with those affected by the time-dependent
behaviour of the concrete, such as creep and shrinkage, which include
both service and ultimate limit states. The latter is included here
because time effects can influence the buckling and ultimate response
of composite members.
In the case of geometrical actions, i.e. enforced displacements or
settlements, concrete stresses tend to reduce over time. Depending
on the cross-sectional properties and geometry, the eccentric location
of the steel member or profiled sheeting with respect to the concrete
component, as it is usually the case in floor members, can produce
significant deflections and secondary effects in statically indeterminate
systems when subjected to shrinkage and prestressing actions. The
latter effects are produced by the elastic restraining action provided
by the steel member against the shortening of the concrete slab at
their interface. A further significant factor peculiar to composite con-
struction is the influence played by the interface between the concrete
and the steel on the overall structural response. For example, in
the case of composite beams this is governed by the deformability of
the mechanical devices, usually installed in the form of shear connec-
tors which are connected to the top flange of the steel beam and
embedded in the concrete during pouring. When composite members
are subjected to static actions, their time-dependent response is affect-
ed by increasing deformations and stress redistributions taking place
from the concrete to the steel component.
In the first part of the paper the main aspects related to the time-
dependent behaviour of the concrete are described to provide an
overview of creep and shrinkage effects. Their influence on the
long-term response of composite columns, slabs and beams is then
presented. No attention is devoted to work published to date on the
composite linear-elastic behaviour. For the case of beams, only
sections formed with H-shaped or box steel beams supporting solid
or composite slabs are dealt with, i.e. this paper does not deal,
among others, with shallow floors, partially infilled beams, composite
concrete–concrete members, concrete–timber elements and profiled
composite beams. General details on various aspects of this form of
construction can be found in textbooks, e.g. [1–6], and state of the
art papers, e.g. [7–11].
subjected over time to a constant deformation (i.e. constant strain)
and, due to creep, reduces its time-dependent stress state over time
(Fig. 1b). Shrinkage is a stress-independent effect and leads to signif-
icant volume changes which, if restrained, can induce the develop-
ment of internal stresses and possible occurrence of cracking [12,13].
It is usually convenient to express the total deformation exhibited
in an uncracked uniaxially loaded concrete element at an instant in
time t as the sum of an instantaneous strain component εe(t0),
which depicts the elastic strain that occurred at the time of loading
t0, a creep strain εcr(t,t0), a shrinkage strain εsh(t) and a temperature
strain εT(t). Based on this, the concrete strain developed in a point
of a structure at constant temperature can be calculated using:
εðt Þ ¼ εe ðt 0 Þ þ εcr ðt; t 0 Þ þ ε sh ðt Þ: ð1Þ
Eq. (1) implies that these strain contributions are conveniently
treated independently from each other, even if this might not be
strictly the case in reality. Fig. 2 depicts the variations in the deforma-
tions taking place for a concrete component kept at constant temper-
ature and subjected to a constant sustained stress σc0 first applied at
time t0. In this representation shrinkage is supposed to begin at time
td, the instance in time immediately after the concrete sets or at the
end of moist curing.
The extent of the time-dependent behaviour of concrete depends
on its mix design, dimensions and geometry of the component consid-
ered, as well as the environmental conditions. A convenient parameter
used to capture the tendency of concrete to creep is referred to as the
creep coefficient and is defined as the ratio between the creep and
instantaneous strains induced by a sustained stress at time t first
applied at time t0:
εcr ðt; t 0 Þ
ϕðt; t 0 Þ ¼ : ð2Þ
ε e ðt 0 Þ
(a) creep problem (b) relaxation problem
σc
εc(t) εc(t) εc

2. Time-dependent behaviour of the concrete

The time-dependent behaviour of concrete, characterised by creep

and shrinkage, produces variations in deformations and stresses over t0 t time t0 t time
time. In particular, when concrete is subjected to a sustained stress it
undergoes deformations which increase with time. There are two σc(t) σc(t)
limit conditions which are usually referred to when dealing with
this behaviour, namely the creep and relaxation problems. The former
relates to the case in which a concrete member is loaded with a con-
stant sustained load and, being unreinforced and unrestrained, is free t0 t time t0 t time
to deform with time. The consequent time-dependent deformations
are accompanied by no changes in stress (Fig. 1a). The relaxation Fig. 1. Limit cases describing creep effects.
254 G. Ranzi et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 80 (2013) 252–263
εc(t)
εcr(t,t0)
εe(t0)
εsh(t)
td t0
σc(t)
σc0
t0
Fig. 2. Time-dependent concrete deformations under a constant sustained stress.
For compressive stress levels smaller than half of the compressive
concrete strength, creep deformations are approximately proportion-
al to the stress and this representation is commonly referred to as
linear creep. For higher stress levels creep increases at a faster rate
and becomes nonlinear with respect to stress [12,13].
3. Composite columns
Composite steel–concrete columns are usually and conveniently
classified into fully encased (Fig. 3a), partially encased (Fig. 3b),
concrete filled (Fig. 3c) and concrete filled double skin members
(Fig. 3d). The first typology consists of fully encased sections. These
were the first composite columns used in construction where the
concrete was included to satisfy the fire requirements of the steel
member. With this arrangement, the surrounding concrete also pro-
vides protection against corrosion. A lower degree of encasement is
obtained in partially encased columns in which the concrete compo-
nent surrounds only some of the plate elements of the steel section.
One advantage of this solution relies in its use of less formwork
when compared to fully encased columns. In the case of fully encased
members, commonly referred to as concrete filled tubes (CFTs), the
concrete is poured into the steel section, which therefore acts as per-
manent formwork. The exposed steel in CFTs is not as effective
(a) fully encased (b) partially encased
Fig. 3. Typical composite column sections.
against fire and corrosion when compared to fully encased sections.
Despite this, this solution speeds up construction time because it
enables the erection of the steel frame prior to the pumping of the
concrete. This methodology enables different tradespeople to be si-
multaneously working at different storeys of a building. For example,
while at the top levels workers are erecting steel columns and floor
beams, steel fixers are placing the steel decking and installing the
shear connectors at lower levels, followed two-three levels below
time by concreters pouring concrete, and other tradespeople completing
and installing services in the constructed floors. To comply with fire
requirements it is possible to place conventional reinforcement, a
steel section or a second smaller steel tube in the concrete (Fig. 3c).
A recent development of CFTs consists of concrete filled double skin
tubes in which concrete is poured within two steel sections leaving
the internal tube unfilled (Fig. 3d).
time Another advantage provided by the presence of the concrete con-
sists in its ability to reduce or eliminate the possible occurrence of
local buckling of the steel section, therefore potentially improving
the cross-sectional classification to be used in design. In the case of
fully encased columns, the occurrence of local instabilities is com-
pletely eliminated under the assumption that there is sufficient
cover and any required reinforcement to avoid premature spalling
of the concrete. For partially encased and concrete filled sections,
the local instability modes are not fully prevented even if the buckling
factors are usually increased when compared to those of bare steel
solutions, because these instability modes are associated with differ-
ent buckling mode shapes. This case is illustrated in Fig. 4 for a square
hollow section with and without concrete, in which the presence
of the concrete infill prevents the first local buckling mode shape
that occurred for the bare steel, leading to the mode depicted in
Fig. 4b.
The characteristic of the concrete to exhibit higher Poisson's ratios
than the steel at high levels of loads leads to the development of
confinement in which the steel provides a restraining action to the
transverse expansion of the concrete (Fig. 5). This effect has been
recognised to lead to higher levels of strength for short columns and
to a pronounced ductile behaviour for the composite system, provid-
ing some of the advantages which contributed to the popularity of
this form of construction in seismic areas.
Most of the research carried out to date has been devoted to the
long-term behaviour of CFTs while only limited attention has been
placed on fully and partially encased columns. For this reason, this
state of the art focuses on CFTs unless noted otherwise.
(c) concrete filled tubes (d) concrete filled
double skin tubes
 G. Ranzi et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 80 (2013) 252–263 255

(a) bare steel section (b) composite section ϕ

basic
1 basic, fc' =20 MPa

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2
fc ' (MPa)
Fig. 4. Examples of first buckling modes for bare steel and concrete filled sections. 0
20 40 60 80 100

Fig. 6. Variation of basic creep for different concrete strengths.

3.1. Time-dependent behaviour of the concrete

Concrete poured inside steel tubes is not able to dry with the component while it does not affect the development of autogenous
surrounding environment. For this reason, the initial studies carried shrinkage. Long-term measurements carried out to date on unloaded
out on the long-term behaviour of composite columns aimed to identi- specimens, i.e. subjected only to shrinkage effects, recorded small
fy how both creep and shrinkage were affected by these sealed condi- deformation values, based on which it was suggested that shrinkage
tions and to evaluate how these variations relate to the behaviour of could be neglected. [14,15,17,18] With the use of high strength con-
exposed concrete. crete this situation requires further attention as highlighted in
The initial experimental work reported in the 1990s highlighted Fig. 7, which outlines for different concrete strengths the variation
that the creep coefficients to be used for composite columns were of autogenous shrinkage. From these graphs it is clear that the
about 50–60% of the corresponding values typically recommended for autogenous part can reach 0.6 of total shrinkage for grades
conventional concrete members [14,15], with some investigators approaching 100 MPa (Fig. 7a) and that its magnitude overcomes the
reporting even smaller values [16]. Later work confirmed this range drying one for increasing strengths (Fig. 7b). Despite this, the total
of values [17–20]. With the current trend towards the use of higher shrinkage strains for a high concrete grade are smaller than those at
concrete grades the influence of creep effects reduces even further be- lower resistances; for example, the total shrinkage for 100 MPa con-
cause its non-drying component (i.e. basic creep φbasic) tends to signif- crete can be about 35% smaller than the value exhibited by a 25 MPa
icantly decrease for higher strengths. This trend is depicted mix. In this context, further research is recommended to adequately
qualitatively in Fig. 6 in which creep coefficients, normalised against quantify the influence of shrinkage on composite columns filled with
their corresponding value for 20 MPa concrete, are plotted for different high strength concretes.
concrete strengths between 20 MPa and 100 MPa. The smaller creep
coefficients at higher concrete grades reduce the time-dependent
stress distributions which would usually take place between the steel
(a) autogenous shrinkage versus total shrinkage
and concrete components for lower concrete strengths. 1
Recent work aimed to evaluate suitable creep models to be used ε she
for the service design of composite columns, which can be used for ei- 0.8 ε sh
ther building or bridge applications, including CFST arch bridges [21].
The use of the B3 model [22] is recommended for the determination 0.6 t = 30 years
of the creep coefficients in unpublished work reported in [23] based
on extensive comparisons between numerical and experimental re- 0.4
sults, while [24,25] suggested the use of the Eurocode 2 [26] for
both normal and expansive concretes. From the consideration that t = 28 days
0.2
linear creep prediction models were able to describe well the
long-term response of composite columns subjected to high levels f ' (MPa)
c
of sustained loads, Geng et al. [25] raised the possibility of extending 0
25 50 75 100
the validity of these linear models to higher limit stress levels
than those commonly accepted for conventional concrete members,
i.e. about 50% of the concrete compressive strength [12]. (b) autogenous shrinkage versus drying shrinkage
In the case of shrinkage, the lack of moisture egress provided by
the presence of the steel section prevents the occurrence of its drying
5 ε she
ε shd
4 t = 28 days

Tensile stresses in steel 3

2 t = 30 years
Concrete confinement
1
f ' (MPa)
c
0
25 50 75 100

Fig. 5. Example of concrete confinement in a circular CFT. Fig. 7. Variation of autogenous shrinkage for different strengths of concrete.
256 G. Ranzi et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 80 (2013) 252–263

More pronounced creep and shrinkage effects were observed from
long-term tests carried out on recycled aggregate CFTs by Yang et al.
[27] when compared to those of normal concrete mixes. Considering
the variability of the time-dependent properties of the concrete [12],
more experimental data is required for an accurate validation of these
results, especially when dealing with high-strength concretes.
3.2. Time-dependent analyses
The time-dependent behaviour of the concrete results in stress
redistributions which take place over time between the steel and
concrete components of a composite column. An accurate prediction
of this response is necessary for an adequate representation of the
deformation and stress states to be used in design, for example to
determine column shortening in tall buildings or to evaluate the possi-
ble occurrence of yielding or instabilities in structural members induced
by excessive deformations. Full shear interaction theory, which relies on
the assumption of perfect bond between the concrete and steel compo-
nents in the longitudinal direction of the column, is commonly used to
capture the composite time-dependent behaviour [28–31]. This meth-
od of analysis is easy to use and has been shown to provide good predic-
tions against long-term measurements [14,16,17,24,25,28,32–34].
Extensive parametric studies have been carried out using these models
to consider the influence of different material and geometric parame-
ters, e.g. [19,20,35–38]. Depending on the magnitude of the deforma-
tions undergone by a member, the steel section might approach its
yield strain and, in these cases, account should be placed to consider
the effects of possible permanent deformations on the overall structural
response [34].
3.3. Influence of time effects on the ultimate behaviour
A number of studies investigated the possible influence of creep
effects on the ultimate composite response reaching diverging con-
clusions. Reductions in carrying capacities up to 20% were reported
in [23,39,40] comparing the strengths of composite columns
subjected to a previous sustained load with those measured from
samples maintained unloaded. An opposite trend of similar magni-
tude was described in [24,32,33]. Based on the results of tests carried
out on partially encased composite columns, Chicoine et al. [41] ob-
served that both time effects and loading sequence had no influence
on the ultimate capacity. Further work is hence required to evaluate
the influence of creep on the ultimate response of composite
columns.
3.4. Considerations on confinement at service conditions
Research carried out to date on the ultimate response of composite
columns highlighted the beneficial influence of the confinement effect
on their load carrying capacities. This effect is usually manifested at
high levels of concrete stresses because of the larger Poisson's ratio of
the concrete, when compared to the one of the steel, exhibited at
these loads. Ichinose et al. [17] pointed out that its occurrence is facil-
itated by the lower level of shrinkage exhibited in CFTs. Kwon et al.
[19,20] highlighted that confinement can occur at service conditions
when the sustained load is applied to the concrete component only,
while observing that no confinement develops when the sustained
load is applied to the entire composite section or to the steel section.
Further research is required to clarify the role of confinement at service
conditions, with particular attention devoted to the use of different
loading conditions and connection details, because the latter affect
the way the internal actions are shared between the concrete and
steel components.
3.5. Creep buckling
Several researchers have investigated the possible occurrence of
creep buckling in composite columns over the last decades, e.g.
[28,30–33,42,43] Some of these studies concluded that reductions in
the buckling load factors can take place over time when accounting
for the time-dependent behaviour of the concrete and when consid-
ering the effects of previous load histories. However, this potential
effect was not significant for the usual range of materials and slender-
ness ratio. Modern construction is favouring the use of high strength
materials which enable the use of smaller cross-sections and conse-
quent larger usable floor spaces. These solutions possess higher
slenderness values which make them more prone to instability
problems. Because of this, further study needs to be devoted to consid-
er the possible occurrence of time-dependent buckling of composite
columns. For the case of CFST circular arch bridges, recent work has
proposed numerical formulations to predict the long-term in-plane
behaviour highlighting the importance of accounting for time effects
in the calculation of buckling loads, because these can be reduced by
the time-dependent behaviour of the concrete especially for solutions
with shallow arches and low cross-sectional ratios of steel to concrete
areas [44,45].
4. Composite slabs
Composite slabs represent an attractive form of construction for
the building industry and consist of thin-walled profiled sheeting,
reinforcement and concrete (Fig. 8). Common cross-sectional geome-
tries available on the market for steel decks range from re-entrant
profiles to trapezoidal ones, of which some examples are illustrated
in Fig. 9.
One of the main advantages of composite slabs relies on the ability
of the sheeting to be used as permanent formwork and, once the
concrete has hardened, as external reinforcement. Unlike the case of
steel reinforcing bars, which are cast in the concrete, the deck does
not benefit from being totally embedded in the concrete and the
composite response depends on the interface behaviour between the
profiled steel sheeting and the concrete. This behaviour is characterised
by the chemical bond and the mechanical resistance between the
concrete and steel components. The former one is dependent on the
surface conditions of the steel deck and develops when the concrete
hardens. The chemical bond is likely to break at either high level of
load or after numerous load cycles. The mechanical resistance is depen-
dent on the actual shape of the steel deck and depicts the resistance
provided by the slab–deck system in moving the two components
relative to each other in the longitudinal direction. The magnitude of
this resistance can be modified by manufacturers varying the indenta-
tions or protrusions specified on the steel deck.
Most research carried out to date on composite slabs has focussed
on their ultimate behaviour, while only very limited work has inves-
tigated their long-term response.
Concrete slab
Steel reinforcement
Steel deck or
profiled sheeting
Fig. 8. Typical composite slab.
 G. Ranzi et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 80 (2013) 252–263 257

(a) re-entrant profile (b) L-shaped profile (c) trapezoidal profile

Fig. 9. Examples of steel deck profiles.

4.1. Time-dependent properties of the concrete the non-uniform shrinkage in the calculations. Work by Gilbert et al.
[48] confirmed the development of the non-uniform shrinkage in com-
Only recent experimental work has highlighted the need to posite slabs.
account for a non-uniform shrinkage distribution in the service de-
sign of composite slabs, where the shrinkage gradient is produced
4.2. Modelling creep and shrinkage effects
by the presence of the steel deck which prevents moisture egress
from occurring from the underside of the slab. Engineers have usually
Analytical models based on full shear interaction theory, i.e. with
adopted the uniform shrinkage distribution relying on reinforced
perfect bond between concrete and profiled sheeting, were proposed
concrete guidelines. They assumed, in this way, to be conservative
in the 1990s to predict the long-term response of composite slabs,
based on the consideration that the smaller exposed area of the com-
e.g. [29,30,49]. These were later adopted by other researchers to
posite slab involved less drying and a consequent lower magnitude of
describe the time-dependent behaviour of composite slab systems,
shrinkage, when compared to the reference concrete slab exposed on
e.g. [50,51], while assuming a constant uniform shrinkage profile
both faces. In reality, the sealing condition provided by the sheeting
through the slab thickness.
induces a shrinkage gradient through the thickness of composite
Only recently, analytical formulations were presented in [52,53] to
slabs and this behaviour was observed experimentally in [46,47].
account for the occurrence of non-uniform shrinkage, which also
The qualitative representations of the total deformations induced
included the possible partial shear interaction between the concrete
by shrinkage through the slab cross-section are illustrated in Figs. 10a
and steel components. A simplified approach for routine design
and 11a for different instances in time. They reflect the actual free
was proposed in [47]. In the same year Gilbert et al. [48] presented
shrinkage profiles under the assumption that the latter are described
a numerical approach extending a long-term formulation described
by a linear distribution. Obviously, higher order polynomials, or other
in [12].
functions, could be considered for a refined analysis even if a linear
shrinkage distribution is sufficient for design purposes, as usually con-
veniently assumed for reinforced concrete design, despite the possible 5. Composite beams
occurrence of self-equilibrating stresses [12]. Fig. 10a depicts the con-
stant shrinkage case usually adopted for conventional concrete slabs Composite beams represent a popular form of construction used
exposed on both faces (Fig. 10b), therefore confirming the adequacy for building and bridge applications and typically consist of solid or
of using a uniform distribution for their service design. The shrinkage composite slabs cast on steel members (Fig. 12). This solution is
profile for a slab exposed on one side only is outlined in Fig. 11b, extremely efficient in positive moment regions because it takes
which shows the significant gradient which develops through the advantage of the concrete in compression and steel in tension, there-
cross-section over time (Fig. 11a). For an accurate representation of fore leading to enhanced stiffness and strength performances when
the long-term response of composite slabs it is essential to specify compared to the contributions of the two components considered in

(a) qualitative shrinkage distribution (b) drying conditions

(plotted assuming a linear shrinkage profile)
Slab
height

Moisture egress

Time

Shrinkage Moisture egress

Fig. 10. Drying conditions and qualitative shrinkage distributions for slab exposed on both sides.
258 G. Ranzi et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 80 (2013) 252–263
(a) qualitative shrinkage distribution
(plotted assuming a linear shrinkage profile)
Slab
height
Time
Shrinkage
Fig. 11. Drying conditions and qualitative shrinkage distribution for slab exposed on one side only.
isolation. The composite action is provided by means of mechanical de-
vices, usually in the form of shear connectors, welded or bolted to the
top flange of the steel and embedded in the concrete during casting.
Examples of such devices are illustrated in Fig. 13.
The composite response at service condition is highly dependent on
the deformability of the shear connectors, which enables relative
movements to occur between the slab and the steel beam. This kine-
matic behaviour, in which slip can occur between the two components,
is usually referred to as partial shear interaction. Limit cases in which
perfect and no ‘bond’ exist between the two are denoted as full and
no shear interaction, respectively. Typical slip displacements taking
place at end supports of composite beams are shown in Fig. 14 before
and after the application of loading to better highlight the differences
between these kinematic behaviours.
5.1. Time-dependent behaviour of the concrete
The time-dependent material properties of the concrete to be used
when describing the long-term behaviour of a slab in a composite
beam are those normally specified for reinforced concrete structures.
This is the case when the concrete component consists of a solid slab
as recent research pointed out that, in the presence of composite
slabs, the concrete properties are affected by the different drying
conditions provided by the presence of profiled sheeting. These have
already been outlined in the previous section on composite slabs and
are not repeated here.
5.2. Time-dependent modelling of composite beams
Extensive work has been carried out to date on the modelling of
composite beams accounting for time effects. The first papers pub-
lished in this area reported serviceability problems observed in real
case studies, e.g. [54,55], while initial models dealing with the
time-dependent composite response relied on full shear interaction
theory, e.g. [29,30,41,56]. These formulations were extended in the
following years to account for material nonlinearities and different
(a) beam with solid slab (b) beam with composite slab
Concrete Shear connector
Steel deck
Steel beam
Fig. 12. Typical composite beams with solid and composite slabs.
(b) drying conditions
Moisture egress
No moisture egress
concrete time-dependent models, e.g. [57–64], as well as curved
beams [65].
The effects of the deformability of the shear connectors on the
time-dependent composite response were first investigated numeri-
cally in the early 1990s, e.g. [66–73]. In the same period, the first
long-term tests were carried out and highlighted the importance of
accounting for partial shear interaction for their accurate predictions
[57,74–78].
More refined methods of analyses were proposed in the following
years aimed at developing more rigorous formulations or more
user-friendly methods of analysis, in some cases with considerations
for concrete cracking and other material nonlinearities. These were
based on numerical solutions, mostly implemented with the finite
element method, e.g. [79–90], on analytical solutions, e.g. [91], and
on the stiffness method, e.g. [92–96].
The accuracy of the algebraic methods [12,13,97] to describe the
time-dependent behaviour of the concrete for possible use in design
calculations was considered in [98–100]. They observed that, while
the AEMM produced good results when dealing with static and geo-
metric actions, shrinkage effects were better predicted with the mean
stress method [98,99]. Considerations on European guidelines are
provided in [101,102].
Recent experimental and modelling work focussed at the long-term
composite behaviour in negative moment regions and in the presence
of connections, e.g. [47,103–106]. A time-dependent model for the
shear connection was proposed in [47,105] to capture the creep
response in composite floor beams due to sustained external loads,
while the first long-term push-out tests with solid and composite
slabs were reported in [47,105,107]. In the case of shrinkage effects,
Al-Deen et al. [105] observed experimentally the development of
non-uniform shrinkage and highlighted the need to account for it for
the accurate prediction of the long-term deflections. This aspect
becomes particularly important in modern floor systems which tend
to span long distances, with free-column floors, and with relatively
low levels of sustained load. A simplified approach to account for the
occurrence of shrinkage gradients was proposed for routine design in
[105]. Analytical models capable of accounting for these shrinkage gra-
dients were proposed in [52,53].
5.3. Shear-lag effects and concrete slab effective width
When a composite beam is subjected to external loads or deforma-
tions, the slab cross-section loses its planarity due to the concentrated
forces induced by the shear connectors. This behaviour tends to pro-
duce higher longitudinal deformations within the slab in the vicinity
of the connectors' line which decrease when moving away from the
steel beam. This warping effect is usually referred to as shear-lag and
its magnitude is dependent upon the type of applied action and
 G. Ranzi et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 80 (2013) 252–263
(a) shear (stud) connector (b) bolts
Fig. 13. Typical mechanical devices used to provide composite action.
support conditions. A possible distribution of the longitudinal stresses
induced in the concrete is illustrated in Fig. 15a.
Rigorous methods of analyses are available to account for
cross-sectional warping induced by shear-lag. Extensive research
has been carried out in this area to develop analytical and numerical
models to capture these effects and to combine them with the partial
interaction behaviour typical of this form of construction [108–115].
From a design viewpoint, it is usually more convenient to remain
within the Bernoulli beam theory simplifying the analysis with the
effective width method, in which plane sections remain plane after
deformation and a constant stress is assumed over a modified effective
slab width (Fig. 15b). With this approach it is possible to obtain ‘equiv-
alent’ results to those calculated with rigorous analyses reducing the
width of the slab to an effective one. Work carried out to date on the
influence of the time dependent response of concrete on the effective
width values highlighted how the latter do not vary with time when
considering static actions and geometric settlements. Because of this,
the effective width expressions adopted for the instantaneous cases
can be applied also when accounting for time effects. In the case of
prestressing, it was observed that there is a time-dependent decrease
of the effective width and that areas in the vicinity of the prestressing
anchorages are heavily affected by shear-lag, e.g. [110].
International guidelines provide expressions for the calculation of
the effective widths to be used in the analysis stage, to specify the
width of the concrete components for the numerical calculations of
the design actions, and in the design phase, to define the concrete
width of the composite section required to resist the applied loads,
e.g. [116,117]. Considering the dependency of the effective widths on
the loading conditions, a recent approach has suggested the use of
the entire slab width for the analysis calculations, therefore relying
on the effective width method only for the design and sizing of the
composite section [118].
As specified in international codes, e.g. [116,117], engineers are also
allowed to use the more rigorous methods of analysis for design purposes,
instead of the effective width method, to account for shear lag effects.
(a) full shear interaction (b) partial shear interaction
Fig. 14. Typical end slip displacements before and after loading for a composite beam with full, partial and no shear interaction.
259
(c) channel
5.4. Shear deformability of the steel beam
The shear deformability of the steel beam significantly influences
the magnitude of deformations and displacements exhibited by com-
posite members, especially when using plate element slenderness
commonly specified for bridge applications. The influence of this
behaviour at service conditions was pointed out in [119] based on
an extensive parametric study carried out on 200 realistic bridges.
They observed that ignoring the shear deformability of the steel
beam can lead to underestimates of calculated deflections in the
order of 5–10% and 10–20% for simply-supported and continuous
configurations, respectively. In particular, these differences increase
over time in the presence of low levels of shear connection rigidities,
while they decrease with stiff connections.
5.5. Influence of time effects on the ultimate response
It is well accepted that the ultimate response of composite beams
is not affected by previous loading histories. This consideration relies
on the assumption that the composite response is not compromised
by the limited ductility of one of the brittle components forming the
cross-section, as this might be affected by previous stress histories.
This was confirmed experimentally in [47,105] for the material and
geometric properties considered in their tests, which included
simply-supported beams with low degrees of shear connection, in
which case the limited ductility of the shear connectors governs the
composite resistance, and with solid and composite slabs. Both
propped construction and unpropped construction were used in
these experiments. When dealing with particular loading history
or construction sequences, which might compromise the avail-
able ductility of one of the brittle components of the member, it
is recommended to use advanced numerical models capable of ac-
counting for previous load histories and their time-dependent effects,
e.g. [81,89].
(c) no shear interaction
260 G. Ranzi et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 80 (2013) 252–263
(a) shear-lag effect
σc
Fig. 15. Shear-lag effect (exaggerated for clarity) and effective width for the concrete slab.
5.6. Influence of shrinkage on the composite flexural stiffness
Recent work highlighted how the initial cracking state of a compos-
ite beam, whose occurrence was attributed to shrinkage, could influ-
ence its stiffness response at low to medium levels of loading, typical
of service conditions. These observations were based on the shape of
the initial part of load–deflection curves recorded during ultimate
tests carried out on simply-supported samples. In particular, a stiffen-
ing effect was noted at a relatively low to medium level of load by
the presence of a slight kink in the curve [120,121]. This change in
slope occurred along the initial loading branch which is commonly
observed, at least for samples not subjected to previous long shrinkage
history, to remain linear without the kinks reported in [120,121]. These
kinks have been attributed to the cracking of the concrete slab and to
the fact that the deformations of the shear connectors subjected to
shrinkage might lead to opposite slips to those induced by external
loads (at least this consideration is valid for beams in simply-
supported configurations subjected to positive moments). The stiffen-
ing effect observed during the loading of the beams was produced by
the closure of the cracks in the concrete slab and by the reverse loading
of the shear connectors (first unloading and then reloading in the
opposite direction) when subjected to the longitudinal shear forces
induced by the external loads which were opposite in sign to those
caused by shrinkage. Both studies that reported this behaviour
recommended further tests to be carried out to clarify the possible de-
crease in flexural stiffness taking place with time due to shrinkage.
5.7. Internal and external prestressing
Prestressing is commonly specified in composite construction to
limit tensile stresses in the concrete and fully, or partially, prevent
the occurrence of cracking. This is achieved by means of the clamping
force induced by the tendons to the concrete which are installed
either in the slab, in the case of internal prestressing, or to the bottom
steel section, for external prestressing. The latter is particularly suit-
able for retrofitting operations [122–126].
There are some significant differences in the effects produced by
prestressing in composite solutions when compared to those observed
in conventional concrete structures. While the loss of prestress calcu-
lated in composite members is much smaller than the one expected
in prestressed (non composite) concrete elements, decreases in con-
crete stresses due to creep remain significant and are usually greater
in composite members [122,123].
When specifying internal prestressing in indeterminate continuous
beams, significant variations due to creep can occur over time in the
magnitude of the redundant reaction/s developed by the prestressing.
These time-dependent changes of the support reaction/s can be miti-
gated, even if not completely eliminated, by post-connecting the slab
to the composite system or adopting external prestressing, in which
case care is required for an adequate arrangement of the cable profiles.
(b) effective width method
beff beff
σc.max
σc
Attention is required in the detailing of the connectors in the
vicinity of prestressing anchorage zones. At these locations the shear
forces resisted by the studs tend to increase over time when using
internal prestressing, while an opposite trend occurs when specifying
external cables anchored to the steel beam [122,123].
5.8. Time-dependent buckling
Extensive research has been carried out to date to study the occur-
rence of distortional buckling in regions of negative moment in contin-
uous composite beams while only very limited work has considered
the influence of time effects. Bradford and Vrcelj [127] and Vrcelj et
al. [128] presented numerical results which highlighted how time
effects, especially those induced by shrinkage, can lead to significant
reductions in the load factor against buckling. This implies that both
short- and long-term stress distributions need to be considered when
carrying out design checks against buckling.
5.9. Sequential casting of concrete slabs
The casting procedure adopted for a floor system or a bridge deck
depends, among others, on the geometry of the structure and
concrete specifications. When dealing with large volumes of concrete,
such as those for composite bridge decks, sequential casting tech-
niques are an attractive construction methodology and consist in
fractioning the concreting process over a number of segments, com-
monly supported on unpropped steel girders. Research work carried
out to date on this technique has pointed out that the concrete stress
state exhibited in concrete decks is heavily affected by the casting
sequence and that the magnitude of the slab tensile stresses could
be mitigated by alternating the casting sequence between spans and
support segments [129–133]. This is important considering that the
occurrence of early concrete cracking was observed to take place on a
large number of bridges during construction, as a result of the
significant tensile stresses developed in the concrete [134,135]. A
particular role in the stress conditions of the concrete slab in its first
days after casting has been attributed to the development of thermal
shrinkage and, neglecting these effects, might significantly underesti-
mate the magnitudes of these stresses. Tensile creep significantly influ-
ences the stress relaxation in the first few days from casting. In this
context, it is necessary to develop more detailed predictions for the
occurrence of thermal shrinkage and for the development of tensile
creep at early concrete ages [12].
6. Conclusions
This paper described the state of the art to date of research of the
long-term response of composite steel–concrete structures. Its influ-
ences on both service and ultimate conditions are considered. After a
brief introduction on the main aspects related to the time-dependent
behaviour of concrete, description of the work published on composite
 G. Ranzi et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 80 (2013) 252–263
columns, slabs and beams was provided separately. For composite col-
umns, particular attention was devoted to the influence of time effects
on the ultimate response, role of confinement at service conditions and
creep buckling. In the case of composite slabs, the modest number of
papers published to date on time effects was considered, and the recent
developments dealing with the occurrence of non-uniform shrinkage
through the composite slab thickness are specifically dealt with. The
work presented on the long-term response of composite beams ranged
over a number of issues relevant for practicing engineers including,
among others, shear-lag effects, the shear deformability of the steel
beam, prestressing, time-dependent buckling, and sequential casting
of the slab.
The appraisal of the work carried out to date enables identification
of several issues which require further research of the long-term be-
haviour of composite structures. Among others, the following issues
seem significant:
• Evaluate how the use of sustainable, self-compacting and high-
performance concretes affect the long-term composite behaviour;
• Identify the time-dependent properties of the interface between con-
crete and steel, and how these influence the overall response at both
service and ultimate conditions. The composite action at the interface
can be provided by adhesive bond, or by mechanical resistance when
embossments and protrusions are present on the steel (e.g. profiled
sheeting or slim floors) or when shear connectors are installed;
• Clarify the influence of time effects on the ultimate composite behav-
iour. Particular attention should be placed on the response of col-
umns, for which diverging results are currently available, and on
the behaviour of joints, in which case the long-term deformations
might compromise the ductility available by the less ductile connec-
tion components;
• Determine the possible occurrence of time-dependent instabilities.
These include overall and local buckling for columns, local instabilities
for profiled sheeting when the steel deck is subjected to compressive
stresses, and distortional or other buckling modes for beams;
• Determine the influence of shrinkage on the long-term deformations
and stiffness of the different composite elements, especially when
considering early shrinkage due to its role in inducing concrete crack-
ing. For columns filled with high concrete strengths particular focus
should be placed on autogenous shrinkage while, in the case of
floor systems, attention should be directed to the quantification of
the development of non-uniform shrinkage exhibited in the presence
of the steel deck;
• Evaluate the influence of time effects of the whole structural system.
This is important to determine the influence of the different compo-
nents and of joints on the time-dependent response, and to provide
an insight in relevant problems like, for example, the degree of
restraint offered by the system's stiffness which affects the tensile
stresses developed in the concrete due to shrinkage.
It is envisaged that the above research will lead to outcomes that will
be incorporated into new design guidelines and that will contribute to a
wider use of composite construction.
Acknowledgments
The work of the first author in this article was supported under
Australian Research Council's Discovery Projects funding scheme
(project number DP110103028).
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