Chapter One

Introduction and history of

Artificial Intelligence

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 Introduction

Artificial Intelligence
Artificial intelligence is the study of programmed systems
that can simulate, to some extent, human activities such
as perceiving, thinking, learning and acting.

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 AI Introduction
 Thinking vs Acting (acting = behaviour)
 Human vs Rational (rationality = doing the right thing)

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 Thinking humanly: cognitive modeling
 1960s "cognitive revolution": information-processing
psychology
 Requires scientific theories of internal activities of the
brain
 An Existing new effort to make computers think; the
machine with minds
 Goal is not just to produce human-like behavior but to
produce a sequence of steps of the reasoning
process, similar to steps followed by humans
 Aims to develop theories of how the mind works
through the use of computational model.

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 Thinking rationally: "laws of thought"
 The study of the computations that make it possible to
perceive, reason and act.
 Focuses on inference mechanisms that are provably
correct and guarantee an optimal solutions
 Direct line through mathematics and philosophy to
modern AI
 Goal is to formalize the reasoning process as a
system of logical rules and procedures for inference
 E.g., “Socrates is a man, all men are mortal; therefore
Socrates is mortal”

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 Acting humanly: Turing Test
 In 1950, Alan Turing proposed the Turing test, which
provides a definition of intelligence in a machine. The test
simply compares the intelligent behavior of a human being
with that of a computer. An interrogator asks a set of
questions that are forwarded to both a computer and a
human being. The interrogator receives two sets of
responses, but does not know which set comes from the
human and which set from the computer. After careful
examination of the two sets, if the interrogator cannot
definitely tell which set has come from the computer and
which from the human, the computer has passed the Turing
test for intelligent behavior

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 Acting rationally: rational agent
 Tries to explain and emulate intelligent
behavior
 Rational behavior: doing the right thing
 The right thing: that which is expected to
maximize goal achievement, given the
available information
 Goal is to develop systems that are rational
and sufficient.
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 Applications of AI
 Gaming
 Natural Language Processing
 Expert Systems
 Vision Systems
 Speech Recognition
 Handwriting Recognition
 Intelligent Robots

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 What is Intelligence Composed of?
 The intelligence is intangible. It is composed of:
 1. Reasoning
 2. Learning
 3. Problem Solving
 4. Perception
 5. Linguistic Intelligence

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 Programming languages
 Although some all-purpose languages such as C, C++ and Java are
used to create intelligent software, two languages are specifically
designed for AI: LISP and PROLOG.

LISP
 LISP (LISt Programming) was invented by John McCarthy in
1958. As the name implies, LISP is a programming language that
manipulates lists.
PROLOG
 (PROgramming in LOGic) is a language that can build a database
of facts and a knowledge base of rules. A program in PROLOG
can use logical reasoning to answer questions that can be inferred
from the knowledge base.

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 A brief history of artificial intelligence
 1943: McCulloch & Pitts Boolean Circuit Model of the
Brain: Although not implemented on a computer, McCulloch &
Pitts came up with a simplified computational model of how
neurons in the brain function. This work was the basis for much
subsequent research into the field of “neural networks” (trying to
simulate the operation of the brain on a computer).

 1949: Hebbian Learning: Donald Hebb extended McCulloch

& Pitts work to demonstrate how a simple rule could be used to
enable neural networks to learn new behaviour

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 History cont..
 1950: Turing’s “Computing Machinery and Intelligence”: The
English mathematician and early computer scientist published this
famous paper in which he predicted the components of present days
AI systems, and anticipated many potential objections to the AI
project. This paper was also where the Turing Test was first
introduced

 1956: The Term “Artificial Intelligence” Was First Adopted: In the

summer of 1956 a number of AI researchers met for 2 months to discuss their
work. The participants agreed on the name “artificial intelligence” for their new
field.
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 History cont.…
 1958: LISP Invented: John McCarthy developed the LISP
programming language to help him in his AI research. It quickly
became the most common AI programming language. LISP stands
for List Processing
 1960’s: AI Discovers Computational Complexity: During
this period AI researchers started to realise that the problems
they had had such success with in the 1950’s were actually
relatively easy problems to solve. When they started to attempt
harder problems they realised that computational complexity
was a barrier to further progress.

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 History cont.….
 1970’s: Early Work in Expert Systems: Expert Systems,
or Knowledge-Based Systems, are a bit like databases that have
the power to reason with the data they store, and infer new
knowledge. Early work on expert systems seemed very promising,
and research funding increased as a result.

 1980’s: AI Becomes an Industry: By 1982 the first

commercial expert system was introduced. This was known as R1,
and its job was to help configure orders for Digital Equipment
Laboratory. By 1986 it was saving the company US$10
million/year.
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 History cont.…
 1997: IBM’s Deep Blue Beats Garry Kasparov at
Chess: The Deep Blue AI system became the first
computer to defeat the world chess champion.

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