Mechanics of Solids

LECTURE 12
Design Basics
&
Inelastic/Plastic
Deformation

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Mechanics of Solids

Lecture Objectives

 Design a beam to resist both bending and shear loads

 “Fully Stressed” beams
 Inelastic behaviour of structures

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Mechanics of Solids

Beam Design
Basis of beam design:

Strength concern (i.e. provide safety margin to

normal/shear stress limit)

Serviceability concern (i.e. deflection limit)

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Mechanics of Solids

Beam Design
Shear and Moment Diagram

Determine the maximum shear and moment in the beam based on the
beam’s shear and moment diagrams.
For built-up beams, shear and moment diagrams are useful for identifying
regions where additional structural reinforcement or fasteners are required.

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Mechanics of Solids

Beam Design
For bending:
M max
Find the size of the section: S req'd 
 allow

If rolled-steel sections are to be used, several possible values of section

modulus, S, may be selected from the tables (usually available from the
relevant handbooks, standards, etc.). Choose the one having the smallest
cross-sectional area (least weight and therefore the most economical).
Make sure that the selected “S” is slightly greater than “Sreq’d” so that the
additional moment created by the beam’s weight is considered.

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Mechanics of Solids

Beam Design
Shear and Moment Diagram
For shear:
Normally beams that are short and carry large loads, especially those made
of wood, are first designed to resist shear and then checked against the
allowable-bending-stress requirements.

Using the shear formula, check to see that the allowable shear stress is not
exceeded; that is, use τall ≥ Vmax Q/Ib. If the beam has a solid rectangular
cross section, τall ≥ 1.5(Vmax/A).
If the cross section is a wide flange, it is generally appropriate to assume
that the shear stress is constant over the cross-sectional area of the beam’s
web so that τall ≥ Vmax/Aweb, where Aweb is determined from the product of
the beam’s depth and the web’s thickness.

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Mechanics of Solids

Beam Design
Shear and Moment Diagram
For fasteners:
The adequacy of fasteners used on built-up beams depends upon the
shear stress the fasteners can resist. Specifically, the required spacing of
nails or bolts of a particular size is determined from the allowable shear
flow, fall = VQ/I, calculated at points on the cross section where the
fasteners are located. Note that f is sometimes denoted by q.

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EXAMPLE 1
The wooden T-beam shown below is made from two 200mm x 30mm boards. If the
allowable bending stress is 12 MPa and the allowable shear stress is 0.8 MPa,
determine if the beam can safely support the loading shown. Also, specify the
maximum spacing of nails needed to hold the two boards together if each nail can
safely resist 1.50 kN in shear.

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EXAMPLE 1
Solutions
• Find the reactions and draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams:

• Find the location of the neutral axis (centroid) with respect to the bottom of
the beam:
yA   yA

y
 y A  0.10.030.2  (0.215)0.030.2
A 0.030.2  0.030.2
 0.1575 m

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EXAMPLE 1
Solutions
• Thus
1 2
I   0.030.2  0.030.20.1575  0.1 
3

12 
1 2
  0.20.03  0.030.20.215  0.1575 
3

12 
 60.125106  m 4

• Since c = 0.1575 m,

M m axc
 allow 
I

   
12 10 
6 2 103 0.1575 
60.125 10 6
 
 5.24 106 Pa (OK)


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EXAMPLE 1
Solutions
• Maximum shear stress in the beam depends upon the magnitude of Q and b.

• We will use the rectangular area below the neutral axis to calculate Q, rather
than a two-part composite area above this axis:
 0.1575 
Q  y A'   0.15750.03  0.372 10 m
3 3
 
 2 

• So:
Vmax Q
 allow 
Ib

 
800 10 
3   
1.5 103 0.372 103

 3
 
 
60.125 10 0.03
6
309 10 Pa (OK)

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EXAMPLE 1
Solutions
• Since the nails join the flange to the web we have:
Q  y A'  0.0725  0.0150.20.03  0.345 10-3 m 3  
• The shear flow for each region is therefore:

 

VBC Q 1.5103  0.34510 3  
 8.61 kN/m
60.125106 
f BC
I

 

VCD Q 1103  0.345103  5.74 kN/m
60.125106 
f CD
I

• One nail can resist 1.50 kN in shear, so the maximum spacing becomes:
1.5
sBC   0.174 m
8.61
1.5
sCD   0.261 m
5.74
• For ease of measuring, use: sBC  150 mm (Ans)
sCD  250 mm (Ans)
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Mechanics of Solids

Beam Design
Basis of beam design:
Since the strength requirements are not the same at every cross
section (bending moment and shear stress varies along the beam), we
can optimise the design so as to reduce the beam’s weight ie non-
prismatic beam. This is sometimes called “fully stressed” beam.

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Mechanics of Solids

Inelastic behaviour
Stress Strain Diagrams (Tension)
So far we assumed that the
stresses are within the elastic
range of behaviour; what if they
exceed that limit?!

Sometimes, eg under extreme loadings, the material

yields and therefore deforms permanently.
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Mechanics of Solids

Inelastic behaviour
Idealised stress strain diagrams
Elastoplastic or elastic-perfectly-plastic behaviour is a
common simplified model to replicate the inelastic behaviour
of some of the ductile materials.

Simplify for
modelling purposes

Design will be safe because there is strain hardening

which will stop any further deformation, should the load
stay at a lower level than the strength of material.

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Mechanics of Solids

Inelastic behaviour
Inelastic axial deformation

Pp: plastic load= σY A> P’>P

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EXAMPLE 2
The bar shown below is made of steel and is assumed to behave in an elastic
perfectly plastic manner, with σY = 250 MPa. Determine (a) the maximum value
of the applied load P that can be applied without causing the steel to yield and
(b) the maximum value of P that the bar can support. Sketch the stress
distribution at the critical section for each case.

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EXAMPLE 2
Solutions
• (a) Finding the stress
concentration factor:
R 4
  0.125
c 40  8
b 40
  1.25
c 40  8
So: K = 1.88

 max  K avg
 PY 
Y  K 
 
A
 
 
250 106  1.88

PY
  
 0.002 0.032 
PY  8.51 kN (Ans)
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EXAMPLE 2
Solutions
• b) As P is increased to the plastic load it gradually changes the stress
distribution from the elastic state to the plastic state.

Pp
Y 
A

  0.002P0.032
250 106 
p

Pp  16.0 kN (Ans)

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Mechanics of Solids

Inelastic behaviour
Loading and Unloading:
If the material is unloaded after being loaded beyond its yielding stress, it
will respond elastically. This means that the stress-strain curve will
follow a line (CD in the figure below) parallel to its original elastic branch
(OA in the figure below) until it yields again, ie reaches -σY (this is not
shown below). Therefore, when the stress is zero, the strain will not be
zero anymore (ε0’ in the figure below).

 Path OA: Member is loaded to reach yield

stress σY;
 Path AC: Member deforms plastically;
 Path CD: Member is unloaded but some
permanent strain (ε0’) remains.
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Mechanics of Solids

Inelastic behaviour
Residual Stress
If a determinate structure is loaded beyond its yielding stress and then
unloaded, it recovers to its zero stress, ie point O’ in the figure below.
However, there will be a permanent deformation related to ε0’.

After an indeterminate structure is stressed beyond the yield stress (in

any part of it), there will be residual stresses in member(s) after
removing the loads. In this case, the effect of loading and unloading
can be considered separately and then superposed (using the principle
of superposition). See the following example!
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EXAMPLE 3
The rod shown below has a radius of 5 mm and is made of an
elastic perfectly plastic material for which σY = 420 MPa and E = 70
GPa. If a force of P = 60 kN is applied to the rod and then removed,
determine the residual stress in the rod.

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EXAMPLE 3
Solutions
• An elastic analysis (see Lecture 3 on indeterminate axially loaded structures)
will produce FA = 45kN and FB = 15kN. This results in a stress of

 573 MPa compressio n    Y  420 MPa

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 AC 
 0.005 2

 191 MPa tension 

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 CB 
 0.0052

• The maximum possible force developed in AC is

FA Y   Y A  420103  0.0052   33.0 kN

• From the equilibrium of the rod,

FB  60  33  27.0 kN

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EXAMPLE 3
Solutions
• The stress in each segment of the rod is therefore

 AC   Y  420 MPa compressio n 

 344 MPa tension   420 MPa (OK)

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 CB 
 0.0052

• Since CB responds elastically:

C 
FB LCB

27 0.3  0.001474 m
AE 2
  
 0.005 70 10 6

 0.001474
 CB  C   0.004913
LCB 0.3
C 0.001474
 AC    0.01474
LAC 0.1

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EXAMPLE 3
Solutions
• Here the yield strain is
Y 
Y

420 106  
 0.006
E 70 109  
• For unloading, we apply an equivalent load in the opposite direction and
perform an elastic analysis. Therefore, we can use the results of our primary
elastic analysis as follows to find the residual stress in each member:

 AC r  420  573  153 MPa (Ans)

 CB r  344  191  153 MPa (Ans)

• This residual stress is the same for

both segments, which is expected
from equilibrium.

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Mechanics of Solids

Inelastic behaviour
Inelastic Bending
 Normal strains vary linearly from zero at the neutral
axis (surface) to a maximum at the farthest point from the
neutral axis;
 The resultant of the internal normal stress developed
over the cross section must be zero;   dA  0
A

 The moment caused by the normal stress distribution

about the neutral axis must be equal to the resultant
bending moment at that section;
M   y ( dA)  0
A

Now, consider an elastic-perfectly plastic stress strain

relationship.

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Mechanics of Solids

Inelastic behaviour
Inelastic Bending
Consider an elastic-perfectly plastic stress strain relationship.
 Maximum elastic moment (consider a rectangle shape):
M y (h / 2)
y 
(bh 3 / 12)
1
M y  bh 2 y
6
  y (h / 2  y y )[( h / 2  y y ) / 2  y y ) 
M  2b 
   y ( y y / 2)( 2 y y / 3) 
 
 For M>My:
1 2  4 y y 
2
M  bh  y 1 
4  3 h2 
 
3  4 yy2 
M  M y 1  
2  3 h  2
 

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Mechanics of Solids

Inelastic behaviour
Inelastic Bending Mp
Shape factor: k 
Plastic Moment: My
This factor shows the
1 2  4 y y 
2
M  bh  y 1  extra moment capacity
4  3 h 2 
  that a beam can support
beyond its maximum
if y y  0
elastic moment.
1 2 3
Mp  bh  y ; Mp  My
4 2
Bending residual stress:

+ =

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EXAMPLE 5
The steel wide-flange beam is subjected to a fully plastic moment of Mp.
Determine the shape factor of the section. The material is elastic perfectly
plastic and has a yield stress of σY = 250 MPa. Note that the height of web is 225
mm not 22.5 mm!

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EXAMPLE 5
Solutions
• From calculations, we have: I  82.44 106 mm 4

M yc M y 125
y  ; 250 
I 82.44 106
M y  164.88kN.m

C1  T1  250 N / mm2 * ( 12.5mm )( 112.5mm )  351.56 kN

C2  T2  250 N / mm2 * ( 12.5mm )( 200mm )  625kN
M p  2 * T1 * ( 112.5 / 2 )  2 * T2 * ( 112.5  6.25 )  188kN .m

Mp
k  1.14
My

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Mechanics of Solids

THANK YOU!

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