CHAPTER 4: WEATHERING

INTRODUCTION
 Weathering is a general term describing all changes that result from the
exposure of rock materials to the atmosphere.

 It is one of the most important geologic processes that leads to the disintegration
or decomposition of geologic deposits.

 Weathering occurs because most rocks are in equilibrium with higher

temperatures and pressure deep within the Earth.

 Rocks which are deeply buried lies in a different environment physically and
chemically than those exposed on the earth's surface and therefore changes will
take place to accommodate these new conditions.

 If they are exposed to the much lower temperatures and pressures at the
surface, to the gases in the atmosphere, and to the elements in water, they
become unstable and undergo various chemical changes and mechanical
stresses.
 As a result, the solid bedrock breaks down into loose, decomposed products.
Rock fragments produced by weathering are removed by erosion and the
general term for both weathering and erosion is known as denudation.

Fragmentation of rock
Fragmentation of rock
 WEATHERING CLASSIFICATION
 There are two classification of weathering
processes which is

(1) Physical weathering

(2) Chemical weathering
PHYSICAL WEATHERING (MECHANICAL)
 Physical weathering is the mechanical breakdown of the rocks
into smaller fragments without undergoing a change in
chemical composition.

 No chemical elements are added to or subtracted from the

rock.
 Physical forces that contribute to this type
of weathering are:

(1) Frost action

(2) Unloading
(3) Saline crystal growth
(4) Alternate heating and cooling
(5) Organic activities
Frost Action
 Frost action works best in jointed rock or rocks
with fractures in mountainous area with cool
climates.

 Water that freezes in cracks and pores of rocks

at temperature which drops below 0°C will result
in an increment of 9% in volume that will create
pressure (compressive forces) against the wall
of the fracture eventually widened the cracks.

Frost Action
 Unloading
 This is a process of reduction of pressure on underlying rocks
by erosion that takes place on the overburden.

 The rocks expand as pressure is released and this process is

known as unloading.

 The response to unloading may cause large joints (sheeting)

to develop.

 The joints tend to be oriented parallel to the slope of the

terrain.
 Natural erosion of overlying rocks has already induced
unloading stresses in any exposed rocks.

 Further removal of material by man can create rapid strain.

Sheeting and Joint block separation

 Saline crystal growth
 Combination of moisture and salts (halite, gypsum, etc.)
has been found to cause scaling or decay of building
stones.

 Stresses due to growth of salt can cause the rock to

break apart physically.

 This process is particularly effective in porous rocks

subjected to alternate wetting and drying.
 Further disintegration of rock may occur due to
expansion of salt crystals which have grown in former
voids.

Alternate heating and cooling

 Happens in mountainous regions and
deserts where rocks are subjected to
drastic change of temperature.
 The rock will expand as they are heated
during daytime and contract due to
freezing temperature at night.

 This will lead to cracks and crevices.

Organic activities
 The activities of plants and animals also promote
rock disintegration.
 Burrowing animals such as worms, ants and
rodents mechanically mix the soil and loose rock
particle.

 Pressure from growing roots widens cracks and

contributes to the rock breakdown.
Organic activities – burrowing animal and pressure from growing root
Chemical Weathering
 Chemical weathering reactions produced minerals of
increased volume.

 Decomposition produces a chemical breakdown of

rocks, which may destroy the original minerals and
produce new ones while expansion will result in the
physical disintegration or break up of rock.

 Common processes of chemical weathering reactions

are:

(1) Oxidation
(2) Hydration
(3) Hydrolysis
(4) Dissolution
 Oxidation
 Occurs when oxygen in air assisted by
water combines with minerals to form
oxides.

 Oxidation normally occurs to rock or

minerals such as olivine pyroxene and
amphibole that contain high iron content
and therefore produce rusty, red, yellow
and brown rocks and soils.
 Hydration
 Hydration is the process whereby a mineral
combines with water to form a hydrated mineral
especially hydrated silicates and hydroxides.

 e.g. The hydration of anhydrite to gypsum.

 The most important of aspect of hydration is that

the hydrated mineral is larger in volume than the
parent mineral to exert pressure on its
 surrounding space and contribute to rock
disintegration.

Hydrolysis
 The chemical union of water and a mineral is known as hydrolysis.

 This is the reaction of mineral with water to produce a new mineral or minerals.

 An example is the weathering of feldspar by reacting with water to form clay.

 Feldspar is an abundant mineral in a great many igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic

rocks, so it is important to understand how feldspars weather and decompose into clay
minerals, which form the most abundant sedimentary rock, shale.

 Two substances are essential in the weathering of feldspars; carbon dioxide and water.
 The atmosphere and the soil contain carbon dioxide, which unites with rainwater to form
carbonic acid.

 If K-feldspar comes in contact with carbonic acid, the following chemical reaction occurs.

 The rock increases in volume due to the reaction of the feldsphatic minerals by hydrolysis
process.

 The decay of igneous rocks such as granite is largely attributed to the hydrolysis of the
granitic minerals such as feldspars and biotite.

Dissolution
 Process whereby rocks and minerals are dissolved in solution, like
salt in water.

 Quantitatively, the most important minerals involved in dissolution

are the carbonate minerals, calcite and dolomite.
 Some rock types can be completely dissolved. Rock salt is perhaps
the best known example.

 Gypsum is less soluble than rock salt but also easily dissolved by
surface water.

 Limestone dissolves due to its reaction with percolating water which

contains dissolved carbon dioxide.
Cont’d

 Carbon dioxide present in air, water and soils when unite chemically
with certain rock minerals will alter the rock composition.

 Carbonic Acid an effective agent in altering minerals such as calcite

and dolomite.

 Once granite is exposed, its mineral components start to react with

the atmospheric components namely air and water.

 The first sign of chemical reaction is the indication of rusty color

covering the rock surface.

 The disintegration of ferromagnesian minerals of granite is due to its

instability under atmosphere conditions.
 When masses of granite have been exposed for long period of time
the accumulated weathered product can be seen as clayey granular
residue known as grus.
Spheroidal Weathering
 In this type of weathering, a rounded shape is produced.

 This shape is caused by weathering that attacks an

exposed rock from all sides at once.

 Therefore, decomposition is more rapid along the

corners and edges of the rock (Figure 4.10).

 As the decomposed material falls off, the corners

become rounded and the block eventually is reduced to
an ellipsoid or a sphere.
 Exfoliation is a special type of spheroidal weathering,
where the rocks break apart by separation along a series
of layers.
Spheroidal Weathering
Rates of Weathering

 There are few factors which determine

the rate at which the exposed bedrock
being weathered by various agents of
weathering such as:

(1) Composition of rocks

(2) Physical Condition of rock
(3) Topography
(4) Climatic Condition
 Composition of rocks
 Mineral and chemical composition is one of
the most important factors cementing
materials
(substance holding rock together)

 Igneous rocks are resistant to mechanical

weathering but more susceptible to chemical
weathering
 Sedimentary rocks, e.g. dolomites and
limestones are decomposed by carbonation
and solution

Physical Condition of rock

 Crevices, cracks, holes will allow

weathering agents to penetrate and
eventually destruct the rock.
 Topography
 Weathering is rapid where land slopes
steeply.

 Increases in altitude (elevation) have

high rainfall and temperature will be low.
 This will eventually increase in the rate
of weathering.
 Climatic Condition
 Climates which have abundance rainfall
and moist will accelerate the weathering
process especially chemical weathering.

 Dry or cold weather are usually apt to

physical weathering.
Type and extent of weathering vary with climate
 Classification of Soils (Product
of Weathering)
 Most of the soils that cover the earth are formed by the
weathering of various rocks.

 Soil is defined as weathered material that will support the

growth of rooted plants (defined by geologist).

 It consist of minerals and weathered rock fragments (regolith),

organic matter (humus), gases, water and living organisms.

 To a civil engineer, soil is simply unconsolidated material

which typically disintegrates in water.
 Soil and surficial deposits can either be:

(1) Residual soil

(2) Transported soil

Residual Soil
 Residual soils develop in situ, and their
characteristics depend on the kind of
bedrock from which they are derived.
 Residual soil deposits are common in
humid tropical countries.
Residual soil formed by on a consolidated
parent material of volcanic lava
Transported Soil
 Transported soils are surficial deposits which accumulate due to the erosion,
transportation, and deposition of weathered residual soil or bedrock.

 Three common surficial processes and their resulting deposits are:

(1) Colluvium: results from process of creep, whereby soil and weathered bedrock
slowly move downslope due to gravity.

(2) Alluvium: includes all sediment deposited by streams. The deposits are stratified
into layers of silt, sand, gravel and clay.

(3) Glacial drift: includes all deposits formed by glaciers.

 The weathering grades of in-situ material can be determined by using the

weathering classification system.

 The weathering classification system is convenient in subdividing each unit to

six distinct groups.

 The specified classification system adopted for residual soil is based upon
material decomposition grades for weathered granite and volcanic rocks by
Hencher and Martin (1982) and weathering classification for mudrocks by Anon
(1977).

SOIL PROFILE
 Soil Profiles Description
Layer / Horizon Description

O (Decaying vegetation) This is the layer of humus on the ground surface.

Top soil.
A Rich in organic matter. Typically has dark color.
Also called zone of leaching.

Subsoil.
B Also called zone of accumulation.
May contain soluble minerals such as calcite in arid climates (caliche).
 C Weathered bedrock or saprolite (rotten rock).

Bedrock Lies below the soil profile.

Major Types of Soil

Major Types of Soil
 Type Description

These soils are rich in Al and Fe.

Pedalfer
They form in humid climates, such as the southeastern U.S.

These soils are rich in Ca.

They form in arid climates, such as the southwestern U.S.
These soils commonly contain caliche (or hardpan), a calcium carbonate deposit which accumulates in the soil.
Pedocal

These soils have been depleted of nearly all elements except iron and aluminum oxides.
Laterites are derived from the weathering of basalt (mafic parent rock).
They form in tropical climates with very high rainfall.
The high rainfall has caused leaching of most of the elements and nutrients from the soil.
This is the soil typical of a tropical rainforest. When used for agriculture, the small amount of nutrients is
Laterite quickly depleted, and the soil dries to become as hard as a brick.

Weathering classification system for granite and volcanic rocks

(Hencher and Martin, 1982)
GRADE DESCRIPTION TYPICAL CHARACTERISTICS

VI Residual soil A soil formed by weathering in place but with original texture of rock completely destroyed.

Rock wholly weathered but rock texture preserved.

V No rebound from N Schmidt hammers.
Completely weathered Slake readily in water.
rock Geological pick easily indents surface when pushed.
IV Highly weathered rock Rock weakened so that large pieces can be broken by hand.
Positive N Schmidt rebound value of up to 25.
Does not slake readily in water.
Geological pick cannot be pushed into surface.
Hand penetrometer strength index greater than 250 kPa.
Individual grain may be plucked from surface.

III Completely discolored.

Considerably weathered but possessing strength such that pieces 55mm diameter cannot be broken by hand.
Moderately weathered
N Schmidt rebound value of 25 to 45.
rock
Rock material not friable.

II Slightly weathered rock Discolored along discontinuities.

Strength approaches that of fresh rock.
N Schmidt rebound value greater than 45.
More than one blow of geological hammer to break specimen.
I Fresh rock No visible signs of weathering, discolored.
 Grade II

Grade III

Grade IV

WEATHERING PROCESS FROM GRADE II - IV

 Weathered slope

Zone 6

Zone 5
The weathered mass of Zone 5 & 6 may come
from weathered material from gred 3 or 4

Zone 6

Zone 5
The weathered mass of Zone 4 may come from
weathered material from gred 1 to 3

Zone 6

Zone 4
 Weathering classification system for sedimentary rocks
(Anon, 1977)

Grade Zone Description Remarks

Residual soil All rock material in degraded condition and original rock
VI structure destroyed No rock texture completely destroyed

Completely All rock material in a degraded condition but original Slakes readily in water. Geological pick easily indents surface when pushed.
V
Weathered mass structure still discernible. Coring not possible by ordinary methods.

Highly More than half of the rock material in a degraded NX size core can be broken and crushed by hand. Rock material plastics does not
IV
Weathered condition readily slake in water

Moderately Less than half of the rock material in a degraded Hammer blow makes drumming sound possessing strength such that NX
III
weathered condition core (55mm) cannot be broken by hand. Rock material not plastic.

Slightly
weathered
Discoloration of discontinuity weathered surfaces and Hammer blows give a dull note. Needs more than one blow of the geological hammer
II
some degradation material on discontinuity surface. to break specimen.
 Faintly
IB Discoloration of major discontinuity surfaces.
weathered

Fresh IA No visible evidence of weathering

Weathering profile (Source: Martin and Hencher, 1986)
The strength, permeability and deformability of rock to soil (Source: Dearman, 1974)
Table 8.4 Description of zone and weathering grade of rock (Attwell, 1993)
 Landscape shape / topography
produced from weathering of limestone
Topography produced from
weathering of limestone
Landscape shape / topography
produced from weathering of granite
The different topography occurred because of the
different material produced from the limestone and
granite weathering process
End of the Chapter 4…

Q&A
Colluvium
Alluvium
Glacial Drift