SENSORS AND TRANSDUCERS

1. INTRODUCTION

Basic units of instrumentation system consist of sensors, transducers, signal conditioners, display units,
recorders, controllers and final control elements. These can be categorized as -
a) SENSOR or INPUT DEVICE
b) SIGNAL PROCESSOR
c) ACTUATOR or OUTPUT DEVICE

Recorder /
Data storage
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2 Display Unit
3

Signal conditioning 4
& Transmission

Controllers
Sensor & Transducers
(Data Acquisition)

1 5

6 Final control element

Process

Sensor is an object whose purpose is to detect events or changes in its environment, and then provide a
corresponding output. A sensor is a type of transducer; sensors may provide various types of output, but typically
use electrical or optical signals

Transducer is a device that converts one form of energy to another. Transducers are often employed at
automation, measurement, and control systems, where electrical signals are converted to and from other physical
quantities (energy, force, torque, light, motion, position, etc.).

Transducers can be classified as (depending on location at the position in control loop)

- Primary Transducers.
- Secondary Transducers

Transducers can also be classified as –

1) Active Transducers – These are self-generative device operating under energy conversion principle, the
output signal is provided entirely by the desired input, i.e. it is a self-regulating one.
(Ex- Photovoltaic Cells, thermoelectric, Piezocrystals, etc.)
2) Passive Transducers – It operates under energy controlling principle that depend upon the change in
electrical parameter whose operation or excitation require external energy sources modulated by the
parameter changes. (Ex- Resistive, Inductive, Capacitive, Hall Effect, etc.)
 SENSORS AND TRANSDUCERS

Actuator is a final control element that is responsible for moving or controlling a mechanism or system. It is
operated by a source of energy, typically electric current, hydraulic fluid pressure, or pneumatic pressure, and
converts that energy into motion. An actuator is the mechanism by which a control system acts upon an
environment. The control system can be simple (a fixed mechanical or electronic system), software-based (e.g. a
printer driver, robot control system), a human, or any other input.

Hydraulic Actuator - A hydraulic actuator consists of cylinder or fluid motor that uses hydraulic power to facilitate
mechanical operation. The mechanical motion gives an output in terms of linear, rotary or oscillatory motion.
The hydraulic cylinder consists of a hollow cylindrical tube along which a piston can slide. The term
single acting is used when the fluid pressure is applied to just one side of the piston. The piston can move in only
one direction, a spring being frequently used to give the piston a return stroke. The term double acting is used
when pressure is applied on each side of the piston; any difference in pressure between the two side of the piston
moves the piston to one side or the other.

Pneumatic Actuator - A pneumatic actuator converts energy formed by vacuum or compressed air at high pressure
into either linear or rotary motion. Pneumatic energy is desirable for main engine controls because it can quickly
respond in starting and stopping as the power source does not need to be stored in reserve for operation.
Pneumatic actuators enable large forces to be produced from relatively small pressure changes. These forces are
often used with valves to move diaphragms to affect the flow of liquid through the valve

Electric Actuator - An electric actuator is powered by a motor that converts electrical energy into mechanical
torque. The electrical energy is used to actuate equipment such as multi-turn valves.

The various physical parameters of a system in any Industrial process that we commonly measure are:

 Pressure
 Temperature
 Flow rate
 Level
 Weight
 Velocity and Acceleration
 Position, etc.

For measurement of these parameters we use different types of sensors and transducers, which have been
discussed in the next section.

The block diagram of a sensor is represented as : --

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 SENSORS AND TRANSDUCERS

2. Temperature Measurement
temperature by sensing some
Temperature can be measured via a diverse array of sensors. All of them infer temper
change in a physical characteristic. Six types with which the engineer is most likely to come into contact
are: Thermocouples, Resistive Temperature Devices
Devices (RTDs and thermistors), infrared radiators, bimetallic
devices, liquid expansion
ion devices, and change-of-state
change devices.
(A) Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD)
RTD works on the principle that the electrical
resistance of a metal varies with change in the
temperature. i.e., if metal wire is heated, its
change. Nickel, copper,
electrical resistance will chan
platinum, lead, tungsten may be the metal.
Platinum RTDs are most widely used because of its accuracy and reproducibility. They are commonly
available in 100, 200,1000
0 ohms of resistance at 0°C.
0
Example:- Pt100 - Pt means sensing element
elem made of platinum, 100 means 100 ohms at 0°C.
thin film RTD follows the following
The resistance versus temperature relationship for a platinum thin-film
equation over its operating temperature range: Rt = R0[ 1 + αt + βt2] where: Rt = resistance at temperature
t, R0 = base resistance at 0°C, α and β are constants of the material.
(For Platinum RTDs α= 3.9083 x 10-3 -
and β=-5.775 x 10-7 ).
C to 500
RTDs are commonly used for measurement in temperature ranges from -200C 500C.
Testing a RTD:-
- Check the continuity between the terminals.
- Check the resistance is above the model value. E.g. Pt100. should have more than 100 ohms at room
temperature.
(B) Thermocouple
A thermocouple is a system composed of two wire wires,
dissimilar in chemical composition that are soldered or
fused at one end, forming a closed circuit when the free
ends are connected to an instrument such as
millivoltmeter. The welded end (hot junction) is kept at
medium (point) of measurement and the oother end is
K-type thermocouple (chromel–alumel)
alumel) in the standard connected to instrument side (cold junction). An emf is
thermocouple measurement configuration. The measured produced which is directly proportional to the
voltage can be used to calculate temperature , temperature difference between two ends (called
provided that temperature is known.
SeeBeck effect.).
Different type of TC and their range are given in the table.

TC ELEMENT RANGE

B latinum 6% Rhodium ((-)

Platinum 30% Rhodium (+) Platinum 1370-1700 C
E Chromel (+) Constantan (-) 95-900 C
J Iron (+) Constantan (-) 95-760 C
K Chromel (+) Alumel (-) 95-1260 C
N Nicrosil (+) Nisil (-) 650-1260 C
R Platinum 13% Rhodium (+) Platinum (-) 870-1450 C
S Platinum 10% Rhodium (+) Platinum (-) 980-1450 C
T Copper (+) Constantan (-) -200-350 C
 SENSORS AND TRANSDUCERS

As temperature goes up, this output emf of the thermocouple rises. Most thermocouple metals produce a
relationship between the two temperatures and the e.m.f generated are constants for the type of thermocouple.
The relationship is nearly linear over the operating range. The actual characteristic and suitable operating
temperatures depends upon the metals used in the wires. The various types are designated in international and
national standards.
Thermocouples come in several forms. They may be wires insulated from each other with plastic or glass
fibre materials. For high temperature work, the wire pairs are put inside a tube with mineral insulation. For
industrial uses the sensor comes in a metal enclosure such as stainless steel
Testing a Thermocouple: -
- Internal fault giving no reading:- Open-circuit in one component, or short circuit across coil, input
circuit etc., may be the reason. Check by measuring resistance across input terminals.
- Internal fault giving incorrect reading:- Incorrectly set zero, incorrect internal resistance, short
circuit or leakage to earth or to other part of the circuit, incorrect polarity of leads may be the
reason.
(C) Bimetallic Thermometers
Bimetallic devices take advantage of the difference in rate of thermal expansion
between different metals. Strips of two metals are bonded together. When heated,
one side will expand more than the other, and the resulting bending is translated into
a temperature reading by mechanical linkage to a pointer. These devices are portable
and they do not require a power supply, but they are usually not as accurate as
thermocouples or RTDs and they do not readily lend themselves to temperature
recording.
(D) Infrared Thermometers
An infrared thermometer is a thermometer which infers temperature from a portion
of the thermal radiation sometimes called blackbody radiation emitted by the object
being measured. By knowing the amount of infrared energy emitted by the object
and its emissivity, the object's temperature can often be determined.
The design essentially consists of a lens to focus the infrared thermal radiation on
to a detector, which converts the radiant power to an electrical signal that can be
displayed in units of temperature after being compensated for ambient temperature.
Infrared sensors are non-contacting devices.

(E) Thermistors
A thermistor is a type of resistor whose resistance is dependent on temperature.
Thermistors differ from resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) in that the material used
in a thermistor is generally a ceramic or polymer, while RTDs use pure metals. The
temperature response is also different; RTDs are useful over larger temperature ranges,
while thermistors typically achieve a greater precision within a limited temperature
range, typically −90 °C to 130 °C.
Thermistors are of two types: PTC Thermistors and NTC Thermistors. Thermistors have high sensitivity
but limited operating range. Most commonly used in Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration systems.
(F) Fluid-Expansion Temperature Measurement Devices

Fluid-expansion devices, typified by the household thermometer, generally come in two

main classifications: the mercury type and the organic-liquid type. Versions employing
gas instead of liquid are also available. Mercury is considered an environmental hazard,
so there are regulations governing the shipment of devices that contain it. Fluid-expansion
sensors do not require electric power, do not pose explosion hazards, and are stable even
after repeated cycling. On the other hand, they do not generate data that is easily recorded
or transmitted, and they cannot make spot or point measurements.
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 SENSORS AND TRANSDUCERS

3. Pressure Measurement

Measurement of pressure is very important in processing and manufacturing industries. Pressure sensors
either convert the pressure into mechanical movement or into an electrical output.

Types of Pressure Measurements

Pressure measurement can either be relative to a reference value or on an absolute scale.

a) Absolute Pressure Measurement: Pressure measured relative to perfect vacuum is termed as absolute
pressure. Absolute pressure sensors have limited usage because it is impossible to attain a state of perfect
vacuum. Sensors based on this type of measurement are used in barometric or altitude related pressure
measurements.
b) Differential Pressure Measurement: In differential pressure measurement, pressures of two distinct
positions are compared. Differential pressure measurements find an important application in monitoring
filters in various types of purification systems.
c) Gauge Pressure Measurement: It can be defined as a subtype of differential pressure measurement
where we compare pressure at any point to the current atmospheric pressure. There is no consistency in
gauge pressure measurements because atmospheric pressure does vary with altitude and hence its
applications are limited to non-critical measurements.

Pressure is sensed by mechanical elements such as Bourdon Tube, Bellows, Capsules & Diaphragm that are
designed and constructed to deflect when pressure is applied, and converting pressure to physical
movement. Next, this movement using transducer is converted to obtain an electrical or other output.
Finally, signal conditioning may be needed, depending on the type of sensor and the application.

Diaphragm Bourdon tube Bellows

Mechanical Pressure Gauges. In mechanical gauges, the motion created by the

sensing element is read directly by a dial or pointer. These devices are typically
seen in low-performance applications, including blood pressure measurement
and automotive pressure gauges. The mechanical approach used to couple the
sensing element to the readout can introduce repeatability errors, which will be
discussed later. The mechanical mass of the gauges also limits the frequency
response and makes these sensors suitable only for slowly changing
measurements.

Electromechanical Pressure Sensors. Electromechanical pressure sensors convert the applied pressure
to an electrical signal. A wide variety of materials and
technologies has been used in these devices, resulting in
performance vs. cost tradeoffs and suitability for applications.
The electrical output signal also provides a variety of choices
for various applications. Some of the most commonly used
sensor technologies have been mentioned below.
 SENSORS AND TRANSDUCERS

Transducer use a Bourdon tube, capsule,

Potentiometric Pressure Transducer:
or bellows
lows to drive a wiper arm on a resistive element. For reliable
operation the wiper must bear on the element with some force, which
leads to repeatability and hysteresis errors. These devices are very
low
low cost, however, and are used in low-performance applications
such as dashboard oil pressure gauges.

Strain Gauge Pressure Transducers: Strain gauge sensors originally used a metal
diaphragm with strain gauges bonded to it. A strain gauge measures the strain in a
material subjected to applied stress.

Capacitive Pressure Transducers - Uses a diaphragm and pressure

cavity to create a variable capacitor to detect strain due to applied
pressure. Common technologies use metal, ceramic, and silicon
diaphragms. Generally, these technologies
hnologies are most applied to low
pressures (Absolute, Differential and Gauge)

Electromagnetic Pressure Transducers - Measures the displacement of a diaphragm by means of changes

in inductance (reluctance), LVDT, Hall Effect, or by eddy current principle.

ses the piezoelectric effect in certain

Piezoelectric Pressure Transducers- Uses
materials such as quartz to measure the strain upon the sensing mechanism
due to pressure. This technology is commonly employed for the
measurement of highly dynamic pressures.

NOTE:-
1. Pressure switches are used to detect/control pressure (or differential pressure.) at one value.
2. Pressure transmitters are used for continuous measurement and transmitting to remote indicator or
PLC.
 SENSORS AND TRANSDUCERS
4. Flow Measurement
A flow meter is an instrument used to measure linear, nonlinear, mass or volumetric flow rate of a liquid or
a gas. The basis of good flow meter selection is a clear understanding of the requirements of the particular
application. Therefore, time should be invested in fully evaluating the nature of the process fluid and of the
overall installation. It is also recommended that the cost of the installation be computed only after taking
these steps.

Key Questions to Ask when choosing a Flow Meter

 What is the fluid being measured?
 Do you require rate measurement and/or totalization?
 If the liquid is not water, what viscosity is the liquid?
 Do you require a local display on the flow meter or do you need an electronic signal output?
 What is the minimum and maximum flow rate?
 What is the minimum and maximum process pressure?
 What is the minimum and maximum process temperature?
 Is the fluid chemically compatible with the flow meter wetted parts?
 If this is a process application, what is the size of the pipe?

The most common working principles for fluid flow metering can be classified as:

A. Differential Pressure Flowmeters (Orifice meter, Venturi Meter, Flow Nozzles, Rotameters)
B. Velocity Flowmeters (Pitot Tubes, Turbine Flowmeters, Ultrasonic Flowmeters)
C. Positive Displacement Flowmeters (Rotary vane, Nutating Disc Flowmeter)
D. Corriolis Flowmeter
E. Electromagnetic Type Flowmeters

Orifice Plate
With an orifice plate, the fluid flow is measured through the
difference in pressure from the upstream side to the
downstream side of a partially obstructed pipe. The plate
obstructing the flow offers a precisely measured obstruction
that narrows the pipe and forces the flowing fluid to constrict.

Variable Area Flowmeter or Rotameter

The rotameter consists of a vertically oriented glass (or plastic) tube with a larger
end at the top, and a metering float which is free to move within the tube. Fluid
flow causes the float to rise in the tube as the upward pressure differential and
buoyancy of the fluid overcome the effect of gravity.
The float rises until the annular area between the float and tube increases
sufficiently to allow a state of dynamic equilibrium between the upward differential
pressure and buoyancy factors, and downward gravity factors. The height of the
float is an indication of the flow rate. The tube can be calibrated and graduated in
appropriate flow units.
Magnetic floats can be used for alarm and signal transmission functions.

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 SENSORS AND TRANSDUCERS
Electromagnetic Flowmeter
An electromagnetic flowmeter operate on Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction that states that a
voltage will be induced when a conductor moves through a magnetic field. The liquid serves as the
conductor and the magnetic field is created by energized coils outside the flow tube.

The voltage produced is directly proportional to the flow rate. Two electrodes mounted in the pipe wall
detect the voltage which is measured by a secondary element.
Electromagnetic flowmeters can measure difficult and corrosive liquids and slurries, and they can measure
flow in both directions with equal accuracy. Electromagnetic flowmeters have relatively high power
consumption and can only be used for electrical conductive fluids as water.

Ultrasonic Doppler Flowmeter

The effect of motion of a sound source and its effect on the
frequency of the sound was observed and described by
Christian Johann Doppler.

The frequency of the reflected signal is modified by the

velocity and direction of the fluid flow

If a fluid is moving towards a transducer, the frequency of the

returning signal will increase. As fluid moves away from a
transducer, the frequency of the returning signal decrease.

The frequency difference is equal to the reflected frequency

minus the originating frequency and can be use to calculate the
fluid flow speed.

 The Ultrasonic Doppler and Time of Flight Flowmeter

Coriolis Flowmeter
Direct mass measurement sets Coriolis flowmeters apart from other technologies. Mass measurement is not
sensitive to changes in pressure, temperature, viscosity and density. With the ability to measure liquids,
slurries and gases, Coriolis flowmeters are universal meters. Coriolis Mass Flowmeter uses the Coriolis
effect to measure the amount of mass moving through the element. The fluid to be measured runs through a
U-shaped tube that is caused to vibrate in an angular harmonic oscillation. Due to the Coriolis forces, the
tubes will deform and an additional vibration component will be added to the oscillation. This additional
component causes a phase shift on some places of the tubes which can be measured with sensors.
The Coriolis flow meters are in general very accurate, better than +/-0,1% with an turndown rate more than
100:1. The Coriolis meter can also be used to measure the fluids density.

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 SENSORS AND TRANSDUCERS

5. Process Switches
The measurement in many points of the process need not be continuous; in those points Process
switches are used to detect any change in process at a pre-set value. Process switches are of many types,
pressure switches, temperature switches, flow switches and level detectors.
Level Detectors: -The tuning fork is brought to its resonant frequency by a
piezoelectric element and vibrates in air at 80-85 Hz. When the tines are covered
with material, the vibration is damped and the relay switches.
Flow switches:- Micro switch inside the instrument
is operated by the deflection of the paddle assembly
due to velocity of flowing fluid against the Level
restraining force of the range spring through a Detector
bellows sealed lever at a predetermined flow rate.
Temperature switches: - Temperature switches may have stem sensor
Paddle (capillary with stem in case of remote sensing) which are vapour pressure
operated devices. Working in the same principle as
that of the pressure switches.
Flow Switches Pressure Switches:- A diaphragm senses the
applied pressure. There is a switch mechanism and
the set point adjustment knob. They are isolated from the process medium, which
allows the opening / checking of the pressure switches on-line with the process.
Testing a process switch: - Temperature and
Pointer pressure switches need the input to be simulated
for testing, using temperature or pressure Temperature
simulators. Level detectors (tuning fork type), Switches
Pr. scale Flow switches and Proximity switches need no special simulators.
1. Arresting the vibration of tuning fork can simulate the level detectors
input; accordingly there should be change in relay contact. As shown in the
figure, contact change from NO to NC. (Normally open to Normally close).
Pressure Switch

2. Gently press the paddle in case of Flow switch,

observe the change in contact. Ensure that the
paddle is returning back. If flow switch is to be set
for some fixed or particular flow rate, then
calibrate it with known flow rate.
NO COM NC NO COM NC
3. Bringing any iron plate near to the sensor end in
case of inductive type sensor and any reflective Before activation After activation
surface in case of infrared sensor can simulate
input for proximity switches.
4. Using the pressure simulator station, simulate the pressure input, check for change in relay contact. If
not tune the set point knob till the relay get activated.
5. The temperature switches can be checked using temperature simulators, in which the temperature is
raised to a required value. There should be a change in contact in the temperature switch when process
value crosses the set value.

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 SENSORS AND TRANSDUCERS
6. Measurement of Displacement
Displacement is a change in position of a body or a point with respect to a reference. LVDT (Linear
Variable Differential Transformer) are most commonly used sensor.

LVDT:- It consists of a primary coil, two identical secondary coil and

a magnetic core. Two secondary coils are connected in phase Primary Secondary
+ + E1
opposition. When primary coil is energized, voltages are induced in
secondary coil depending on position of the magnetic core. The core is _
connected to point whose displacement is to be measured. The position Ei Eo
_
at which the voltage across secondary is zero is called “null position”.
LVDTs are also used for flow measurement, by connecting its
core to an impact plate. The material whose flow is to be measured is
allowed to fall on the plate, whose deflection is in turn measured in Core + E2
terms of displacement by the core of the LVDT.
Null position drift: - Level the
sensor using the adjustment Impact plate
bolts and nuts, considering the
bubble position. Material flow
Erratic reading: - Connect
voltmeter in output side of
Link connected to LVDT
sensor measurement card.
Check for free movement of senor, by moving it gently, if voltmeter reading returns to original position then
no restriction in sensor. If not rectify the restrictions. (Bubbles present in damper oil may restrict the
movement)

7. Measurement of Force/Load
Loading
The load cell is an electromechanical sensor used to
Diaphragm Point
measure load or force. Load cell consists of elastic column and
strain gauges (4). The load cell assembly is hermetically sealed. sealed Connector

The stress developed due to the force on loading is measured with

electrical strain gauges attached to elastic column.
A complete measuring system is required in order to take Strain
Load
measurements using the load cell. It includes load cell, Connecting Gauges (4)
bearing
cables and weight indicator/controller. column

WEIGHT INDICATOR/CONTROLLER
Power supply in Volts

Signal in mV/V
Strain gauges
If Erratic reading is observed: -
1. Check that load is applied to center of the load cell, i.e., load cell located centrally (This is to avoid
bending forces on load cell).
2. Cross check the calibration, if the controller is changed the system has to be recalibrated.
3. Check input supply to load cell.
4. Check for side loads.
5. Check load cell is positioned properly.
6. Clean if any accumulations of dust, dirt or other particles around load cell housing.

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