CHEG 224 - Transfer Operations II

Evaporation

Evaporation: Vaporizing a portion of the solvent (usually water) to produce a

concentrated solution of thick liquor.
Feed = liquid
Separating agent = energy (usually heat in the form of condensing steam)
Products = concentrated liquid + vapor (usually pure water)
Principle of separation = difference in volatilities
Type of process = diffusional + equilibrium

Commonly used to concentrate sugar, sodium chloride, sodium hydroxide, glycerol, glue,
milk, OJ, Occasionally used to produce pure water (from sea water).

Several Different types of evaporators and modes of operation.

♦ Vertical tube - Sub categories are short tube, long tube, forced circulation,
natural circulation, falling film, agitated film, once-through, circulation, single
effect, multiple effect
♦ Circulation - pool of liquid is continuously fed (liquid does not flow in tubes)

Processing Factors:
♦ Increasing concentration of nonvolatile species in the liquid being
concentrated (increases µ which affects heat transfer and flow characteristics)

♦ Solubility factors of nonvolatile component (if solubility limit is reached,

solid mat'l will begin to precipitate in the evaporator)

♦ Temperature sensitivity of mat'l (biological materials are very heat sensitive)

♦ Foaming (entrained solute mat'l leaves evaporator in the vapor phase, rather
than in concentrated liquid)

♦ Scale formation (solid deposits formed on heating surface)

♦ Effects of pressure and concentration on boiling temp (as P ↑ Tb ↑ and as

conc ↑ Tb ↑ ). Duhring Plot (p. 481 MSH) Boiling point elevation is
particularly evident in solutions of NaNO3, NaOH, NaCl, H2SO4. Organic
and biological solutes have quite small boiling-point-rise values.

Evaporator Performance Criteria:

♦ Capacity = mass of water vaporized per hour
Capacity ∝ q and is a fn of feed temp, ∆T (overall temp drop), U and A
(i.e. q=UA ∆T)
∆T is fn of steam pressure, evaporator pressure, and properties of boiling
liquid. Boiling point elevation can significantly reduce capacity.
 U is fn of heat transfer resistances (steam side, film side, scale, tube wall) and
influenced primarily by tube geometry and liquid flowrates

♦ Economy = mass of water vaporized/mass of steam fed to the unit

Economy is fn of feed temp and the number of “effects” in the evaporator
In single effect evaporators Economy < 1
In multiple effect evaporators Economy >> 1
♦ Steam Consumption = mass of steam fed per hour

Single Effect Evaporator Design and Analysis

Vapor V (kg/hr), T1

Feed
F(kg/hr), xF, TF
P1, T1

Steam (sat’d) Condensate (sat’d)

Heating coil
S (kg/hr) S, Ps, Ts
Ps, Ts

Concentrate L (kg/hr), xL, T1

T1= Boiling Temp of concentrated liquid, P1= Pressure inside the evaporator

Typical Known Quantities =

Unknowns =
Design Calculations = Solve for S (steam consumption), Steam Economy, and evaporator
area A using balances, postulates and models

1) Assumptions (postulates)

2) Material Balance

Vapor, V

T1, Hv

Feed, F

Tf, xf, hf P1, T1

Condensate, S
Sat’d Steam T s , hs
S, Ts, Hs

Concentrated liquid, L
T1, xL, hL

3) Energy Balance
 The tricky part of solving the energy balance is calculating values for enthalpy
…the key is to know what simplifying assumptions can be made and to pick a
reference state that makes your life easier!

How to Calculate H’s and h’s ?

♦ Hs-hs = λ (latent heat of condensation) can be found in Steam Table (assume

sat’d vapor condensing to sat’d liq at constant T). Ref State for steam table is
liquid water at 0oC or 32oF

♦ hF, hL ….for solutions of organic solids & low concentration inorganic

substances such as sugar, juice, biological solids, drugs, glycerol, paper mill
liquors ∆Hmix ≅ 0 therefore cp (solution) ≅ cp(H2O)

♦ hF, hL ….for solutions where ∆Hmix is large (NaOH, H2SO4, CaCl2) use an
Enthalpy-concentration diagram to find hL and hF (example p. 488 MSH).
Ref State for these charts is liq water at 0oC (same ref state used for the steam
table)

♦ Hv….Use steam table if you choose Ref State = liq water at 32 F (0 C).
NOTE: if you have boiling point elevation in the evaporator, use Superheated
Steam Table, if not use Sat’d Steam Table. IF YOU DO NOT choose Ref
State = liq water at 0oC YOU must calculate Hv based on series of paths to
get from YOUR reference T & phase → T1 vap phase

4) Heat Transfer Rate Model

(MSH calls this the capacity equation) q = U A ∆T
Overall Heat Transfer in Evaporators U (Btu/hr ft2 F) (W/m2 C)

Long Lube Vertical Evaporators

Nat’l Convection 200-600 1000-3000
Forced Convection 400-1000 2000-5000

Agitated Film Evaporators

For µ = 1 cp 400 2000
For µ = 1 p 300 1500
For µ = 100 p 120 600

Example (16.3) Single effect evaporator design calculation:

Feed = 60,000 kg/hr at 40oC and 44% wt NaOH (density = 1,450 kg/m3)
Steam = S lb/hr saturated at 3 atm absolute
Concentrated liquid = L lb/hr at 65% wt NaOH
U= 2,000 W/m2 C
Feed temp and condensing temp (of vapor formed in evaporator)= 40oC
Find A (evap area), economy, list 3 ways to improve design (reduce A)
Multiple Effect Evaporators

Multiple effect evaporators use the H2O vaporized in the first effect as a heating medium
for the second effect (and on and on). In order for this to be effective, the boiling
temperature of the liquor in the second effect must be lower than the temperature of the
vapor leaving the first effect. This is accomplished by lowering the pressure in the
second effect (and hence the bp of the liquor) or by recompressing the H2O vaporized in
the first effect.

Types of flow configurations:

♦ Forward Feed- (co-current)
Simplest operation requiring feed pump and product pump only (no
intermediate pumps because liquor flows from high to low pressure)
♦ Backward Feed- (counter-current)
Requires a pump between each effect
Often results in higher capacity when thick liquor is viscous but may give
lower economy when feed is cold
Provides best heat transfer (highest Tb for highest viscosity liquid)

Evaporator Capacity & Economy

♦ Economy = mass H2O evaporated/mass of steam used
Increases with multiple effects…the enthalpy of condensation of the steam in
the 1st effect can be used one or more times
♦ Capacity = mass H2O vaporized/hr
↑ number of effects has zero or negative impact on capacity
(see p. 494 MSH for explanation). Capacity is more severely affected by
boiling point elevation in multiple effect evap

Optimum number of effects

Can be found from an economic balance between the savings in steam and the
added investment required for equipment. Cost of evaporator system is a function
of total area i.e. Cost of N effect evaporator = N x cost of a single effect of the
same capacity.

Multiple Effect Evaporator Design Calculations

Involve more unknowns than equations….therefore the solution of algebraic equations

becomes iterative and is best performed using excel or other computer program
 V1, T1 V2, T2
V3, T3

Tf, F, xf A1 A2 A3
U1 U3,
U2
P1, T1 P3, T3
P2, T2
S, Ts

T3, L3, x3
T1, L1, x1 T2, L2, x2

Typical Known Quantities = F, xf, Tf, P1, P3, x3, U1, U2, U3, T or P of Steam S

Typical Unknown Quantities = S, T1, T2, T3, L1, x1, L2, x2, L3, V1, V2, V3, A1, A2,
A3, P2

Design Calculations = required Area A1+A2+A3 and Steam input S

1) Assumptions

• Area of each effect is equal (A1=A2=A3)

• Q's of each effect are very nearly equal
• V1 ≈ V2 ≈ V3
• ∆T's in each effect are dependent on concentration of boiling liquid and on
temperature at which the heating vapor condenses. These quantities must be
“guestimated” to start the iterative calculation sequence.
∆Ti = temp driving force in an individual evaporator
∆Ti = T of the condensing vapor being used as the “heat source” (fn of
P in previous evaporator) - Ti boiling liquid (fn of concentration and
nature of solute)

where i = individual effect number

initial estimate ∆Ti ≅ Σ∆Toverall * 1/Ui (1)
Σ 1/Ui

where Σ∆Toverall = (Ts - T3 sat) - Σi BPE

Trial and error solution strategy

1. Solve for as many flow rates as possible and T in the final effect using info given
2. Assume V1 = V2 = V3 i.e. the amt of vapor formed in each effect is equal and
solve for L1, L2, x1, and x2 using mat'l balance eqn's

3. If BPE (boiling point elevation) is significant, estimate BPE's in each effect using
data given (crude estimate of pressure in each unit & Duhring plot)

Calc. Approx Boiling Temp's in each effect using ∆Ti formula (1) above and
the following
T1 = Ts - ∆T1 T2 = T1-BPE1 - ∆T2 T3 = T2- BPE2 - ∆T3
Remember, any effect that has an extra heating load, such as a cold feed,
requires a proportionally larger ∆T

4. Use Energy and Mass Balances on each effect to calculate amount evaporated
(V1, V2, V3) and intermediate flows (L1, L2) in each effect

Compare L's and V's calculated in STEP 4 to L's and V's from step 2. If
values are not equal then repeat steps 2 (solids balance only), 3, 4, starting
with V's calculated in step 4.

5. Calc q's in each effect using latent heats of vaporization from steam table q = λS

Calc A in each effect using heat transfer rate eqn. q=UA∆T.

Calc. Am = (A1+A2+A3)/3. If A's are close (with in 10% of Am) you are done!

6. If A's are not close, use L's and V's calculated in step 4 to calculate new values for
x1 and x2 via solids material balances.

7. Re-estimate ∆T in each effect from approximation:

∆T'1 = ∆T1A1
Am

Remember that Σ ∆T' = Σ ∆T....and adjust them as necessary to meet this criteria.
Also if BPE is present, use new x1 and x2 values from step 6) to estimate BPE
and a new Σ∆T.

Recalculate T1, T2 and T3 in each effect.

8. With new ∆T’ values, repeat calculations starting with step 4. Two trials are
usually sufficient to reach a converged solution (A's ~ equal i.e. less than 10%
difference from Am)