UNIT – 1

Metal Working Process

 Metal forming processes, also known as mechanical working processes.

 The material may undergo “plastic deformation” during its processing.
 There are many different metal forming processes and some processes yield a better
geometry (i.e., shape and size) and surface-finish.

ADVANTAGES OF MECHANICAL WORKING PROCESSES

Re Crystallization Temperature

Temperature at which crystal structure change. It is Approximately equal to 0.3 to 0.5

times melting point Temperature.

Typical Hot Working Temperatures

Steels - 650–1050°C
opper and alloys - 600–950°C
Aluminium and alloys - 350–485°C
It is Classified in to Two Types
 Hot Working Temperature
 Cold Working Temperature

Hot Working Temperature

Temp >(Above) Recrystallization Temperature.

Hot working results in oxidation and decarburisation of the surface, formation of

scales and lack of size control due to contraction of the work piece while it cools to room
temperature.

Cold Working Temperature

Temp < (Below) Recrystallization Temperature

Cold working metal forming processes result in better shape, size and surface finish
as compared to hot working processes.

HOT Working COLD Working

 Less force  High
 No Strain Hardening  Strain Hardening
  Strength and Hardness Less  Strength and Hardness High
 Brittle Material also change Shape size  Failure occurs
 Oxidation occurs  No Oxidation
 Scale Formation  No Scale
 We get rough surface, so machining  Good Finish and Dimensional
should be done for obtain smooth Accuracy
surface.
 Thermal expansion occurs due to high  No thermal Expansion
temperature.

Rolling

In this process, metals and alloys are plastically deformed into semifinished or
finished products by being pressed between two rolls which are rotating. The metal is
initially pushed into the space between two rolls, thereafter once the roll takes a ‘‘bite’’ into
the edge of the material, the material gets pulled in by the friction between the surfaces of the
rolls and the material. The material is subjected to high compressive force as it is squeezed
(and pulled along) by the rolls. This is a process to deal with material in bulk in which the
cross-section of material is reduced and its length increased. The final cross-section is
determined by the impression cut in the roll surface through which the material passes and
into which it is compressed.

TYPES OF ROLLING MILLS

1. Two High Mills

It comprises of two heavy rolls placed one over the other. The rolls are supported in
bearings housed in sturdy upright frames (called stands) which are grouted to the rolling mill
floor. The vertical gap between the rolls is adjustable. The rolls rotate in opposite directions
and are driven by powerful electrical motors. Usually the direction of rotation of rolls cannot
be altered, thus the work has to be fed into rolls from one direction only. If rolling entails
more than one ‘pass’ in the same set of rolls, the material will have to be brought back to the
same side after the first pass is over.
 2. Three High mills

It consists of three rolls positioned directly over one another as shown. The direction
of rotation of the first and second rolls are opposite as in the case of two high mill. The
direction of rotation of second and third rolls are again opposite to each other. All three rolls
always rotate in their bearings in the same direction. The advantage of this mill is that the
work material can be fed in one direction between the first and second roll and the return
pass can be provided in between the second and third rolls.

3. Four High Mills

This mill consists of four horizontal rolls, two of smaller diameter and two much
larger ones. The larger rolls are called backup rolls. The smaller rolls are the working rolls,
but if the backup rolls were not there, due to deflection of rolls between stands, the rolled
material would be thicker in the centre and thinner at either end. Backup rolls keep the
working rolls pressed and restrict the deflection, when the material is being rolled. The usual
products of these mills are hot and cold rolled plates and sheets.
 4. Cluster mills

It consists of two working rolls of small diameter and four or more backing rolls. The
large number of backup rolls provided becomes necessary as the backup rolls cannot exceed
the diameter of working rolls by more than 2–3 times. To accommodate processes requiring
high rolling loads
Rolling Defects

There are two types of major defects on the rolled products.

SURFACE DEFECTS
INTERNAL SURFACE DETECTS
SURFACE DEFECTS
Major surface defects on rolled products are scales, rust, scratches, cracks, and pits.
These defects occur on the rolled products due to the impurities and inclusions present in the
original cast materials.

INTERNAL SURFACE DEFECTS

i. WAVINESS OR WAVY EDGES.
It occurs due to the bending of rolls. The rolls acts as a straight beam. If the material
flow is continuous and to maintain this continuity, strains with in the material should adjust
with itself. There are compressive strain on the edges and tensile strain at the centre. The
edges are restrained from expanding freely in the longitudinal direction because of which
wavy edges on the sheet will be produced.
ii. Zipper Cracks
It occurs due to poor material ductility, at the rolling temperature Camber is provided
to avoid this defect., Camber is providing slightly large diameter at the center of rolls than
that at the edges.
iii. FOLDS
Folds occur if the reduction per pass is very less.
iv. Alligatoring.
It is the splitting of work piece along the horizontal plane on exit, with top and bottom
part following the rotation of their respective rolls.
v. Lamination.
 These are small cracks which may develop when reduction in thickness is excessive.

Forging
In forging, metal and alloys are deformed to the specified shapes by application of
repeated blows from a hammer. It is usually done hot; although sometimes cold forging is
also done. The raw material is usually a piece of a round or square cross-section slightly
larger in volume than the volume of the finished component.

Upsetting - It is the process of increasing the cross-section at expense of the length of the
work piece.

Drawing Down - It is the reverse of upsetting process. In this process length in increased
and the cross-sectional area is reduced.

Equipments used for Forging.

CLASSIFICATION OF FORGING

Hand forging or Smith Forging

Under the action of the compressive forces due to hammer blows, the material
 spreads laterally i.e., in a direction at right angles to the direction of hammer blows.
Obviously brittle material like cast iron cannot be forged as it will develop cracks under the
blows from hammer. An ordinary blacksmith uses an open-hearth using coke (or sometimes
steam coal) as fuel for heating the metal and when it has become red-hot, blacksmith’s
assistant (called striker on hammerman) uses a hand held hammer to deliver blows on the
metal piece while the blacksmith holds it on an anvil and manipulates the metal piece with a
pair of tongs. This type of forging is called “hand forging” and is suitable only for small
forgings and small quantity production.
Drop forging

Press Forging

Machine Forging

Extrusion

Advantage and Disadvantage of extrusion

 Complex Shape cannot

 Uniform cross section

Types of Extrusion

 Hot Extrusion
Forward Extrusion
 Backward Extrusion

 Cold Extrusion
  Hydrostatic Extrusion
 Impact Extrusion

Wire Drawing

Tube Drawing
Deep Drawing

Coining and Embossing

Metal casting processes

Casting is one of the oldest manufacturing process. It is the first step in making most of the products.
Steps in casting process

 Making mould cavity

 Material is first liquefied by properly heating it in a suitable furnace.
 Liquid is poured into a prepared mould cavity.
 Allowed to solidify.
 Product is taken out of the mould cavity, trimmed and made to shape
Important casting terms

1. Flask:

A metal or wood frame, without fixed top or bottom, in which the mould is formed. Depending upon
the position of the flask in the moulding structure, it is referred to by various names such as

Drag – lower moulding flask,

Cope – upper moulding flask,

Cheek – intermediate moulding flask used in three piece moulding.

2. Pattern

It is the replica of the final object to be made. The mould cavity is made with the help of pattern.

3. Parting line:

This is the dividing line between the two moulding flasks that makes up the mould.

4. Moulding sand:

Sand, which binds strongly without losing its permeability to air or gases. It is a mixture of silica
sand, clay, and moisture in appropriate proportions.

5. Facing sand:

The small amount of carbonaceous material sprinkled on the inner surface of the mould cavity to
give a better surface finish to the castings.

6. Core:

A separate part of the mould, made of sand and generally baked, which is used to create openings
and various shaped cavities in the castings.

7. Pouring basin: A small funnel shaped cavity at the top of the mould into which the molten metal is
poured.

8. Sprue: The passage through which the molten metal, from the pouring basin, reaches the mould cavity.
In many cases it controls the flow of metal into the mould.

9. Runner: The channel through which the molten metal is carried from the sprue to the gate.

10. Gate: A channel through which the molten metal enters the mould cavity.
11. Chaplets: Chaplets are used to support the cores inside the mould cavity to take care of its own weight
and overcome the metallostatic force.

12. Riser: A column of molten metal placed in the mould to feed the castings as it shrinks and solidifies.
Also known as “feed head”.

11. Vent: Small opening in the mould to facilitate escape of air and gases.

Advantages

 Molten material can flow into very small sections so that complex shapes can be made by this
process. As a result, many other operations, such as machining, forging, and welding, can be
minimized.

 Possible to cast practically any material: ferrous or non-ferrous.

 The necessary tools required for casting moulds are very simple and inexpensive. As a result, for
production of a small lot, it is the ideal process.

 There are certain parts (like turbine blades) made from metals and alloys that can only be processed
this way. Turbine blades: Fully casting + last machining.

 Size and weight of the product is not a limitation for the casting process.

Limitations

 Dimensional accuracy and surface finish of the castings made by sand casting processes are a
limitation to this technique.
Different types of Casting Processes

Sand Moulding

` Sand is used as the mould material. Sand is compacted round a pattern, into a two part mould, to
form a cavity in the shape of the component to be cast.

Die casting
Centrifugal casting

Shell Mould Casting

Different types of Casting Processes

Process Advantages Disadvantages Examples

Sand many metals, sizes, shapes, cheap poor finish & tolerance engine blocks, cylinder heads

Shell mold better accuracy, finish, higher production rate limited part size connecting rods, gear housings

Expendable Wide range of metals, sizes, shapes patterns have low strength cylinder heads, brake
pattern components

Plaster mold complex shapes, good surface finish non-ferrous metals, low production prototypes of mechanical parts
rate

Ceramic mold complex shapes, high accuracy, good finish small sizes impellers, injection mold tooling

Investment complex shapes, excellent finish small parts, expensive jewellery

Permanent mold good finish, low porosity, high production rate Costly mold, simpler shapes only gears, gear housings

Die Excellent dimensional accuracy, high production rate costly dies, small parts, gears, camera bodies, car wheels
non-ferrous metals

Centrifugal Large cylindrical parts, good quality Expensive, few shapes pipes, boilers, flywheels
Defects in casting

Blow

Blow is relatively large cavity produced by gases which displace molten metal form.

Scar:

Due to improper permeability or venting. A scare is a shallow blow. It generally occurs on flat surf;
whereas a blow occurs on a convex casting surface. A blister is a shallow blow like a scar with thin layer of
metal covering it.

Scab:

This defect occurs when a portion of the face of a mould lifts or breaks down and the recess thus
made is filled by metal. When the metal is poured into the cavity, gas may be disengaged with such violence
as to break up the sand which is then washed away and the resulting cavity filled with metal. The reasons
can be: - to fine sand, low permeability of sand, high moisture content of sand and uneven moulds ramming.

Drop:

Drop or crush in a mould is an irregularly shaped projection on the cope surface of a casting. This
defect is caused by the break-away of a part of mould sand as a result of weak packing of the mould, low
strength of the molding sand, malfunctioning of molding equipment, strong jolts and strikes at the flask
when assembling the mould.
The loose sand that falls into the cavity will also cause a dirty casting surface, either on the top or bottom
surface of the casting, depending upon the relative densities of the sand and the liquid.

Penetration:

It is a strong crust of fused sand on the surface of a casting which results from insufficient
refractoriness of molding materials, a large content of impurities, inadequate mould packing and poor
quality of mould washes.

When the molten metal is poured into the mould cavity, at those places when the sand packing is
inadequate, some metal will flow between the sand particles for a distance into the mould wall and get
solidified. When the casting is removed, this lump of metal remains attached to the casting. Of course, it can
be removed afterwards by chipping or grinding.

Buckle:

A buckle is a long, fairly shallow, broad, vee depression that occurs in the surface of flat castings. It
extends in a fairly straight line across the entire flat surface.

It results due to the sand expansion caused by the heat of the metal, when the sand has insufficient
hot deformation. It also results from poor casting design providing too large a flat surface in the mold cavity.

Internal defects

1. Blow holes

2. Pin holes

Visible Defects

Wash:
 A cut or wash is a low; projection on the drag face of a casting that extends along the surface,
decreasing in height as it extends from one side of the casting to the other end.

It usually occurs with bottom gating castings in which the molding sand has insufficient hot strength, and
when too much metal is made to flow through one gate into the mold cavity,

Rat tail

A rat tail is a long, shallow, angular depression in the surface of a flat rating and resembles a buckle,
except that, it is not shaped like a broad vee. The reasons for this defect are the same for buckle.

Hot tear:

Hot tears are hot cracks which appear in the form of irregular crevices with a dark oxidized fracture
surface. They arise when the solidifying met does not have sufficient strength to resist tensile forces
produced during solidification.

Shrinkage:

A shrinkage cavity is a depression or an internal void in a casting that results from the volume
contraction that occurs during solidification.
Swell:

A swell is a slight, smooth bulge usually found on vertical faces of castings, resulting from liquid
metal pressure. It may be due to low strength of mould because of too high a water content or when the
mould is not rammed sufficiently.