PCB DESIGN-SKILL DEVELOPMENT COURSE

1.Introduction to PCB Design:

Printed circuit boards (PCBs) are the boards that are used as the base in most electronics –
both as a physical support piece and as the wiring area for the surface-mounted and socketed
components. PCBs are most commonly made out of fiberglass, composite epoxy, or another
composite material.Most PCBs for simple electronics are simple and composed of only a
single layer. More sophisticated hardware such as computer graphics cards or motherboards
can have multiple layers, sometimes up to twelve.
Although PCBs are most often associated with computers, they can be found in many
other electronic devices, such as TVs, Radios, Digital cameras and Cell phones. In addition to
their use in consumer electronics and computers, different types of PCBs are used in a variety
of other fields, including:

• Medical devices. Electronics products are now denser and consume less power than
previous generations, making it possible to test new and exciting medical technology. Most
medical devices use a high-density PCB, which is used to create the smallest and densest
design possible. This helps to alleviate some of the unique constraints involved with
developing devices for the medical field due to the necessity of small size and light weight.
PCBs have found their way into everything from small devices, such as pacemakers, to much
larger devices like X-ray equipment or CAT scan machines.

• Industrial machinery. PCBs are commonly used in high-powered industrial machinery. In

places where current one-ounce copper PCBs do not fit the requirements, thick copper PCBs
can be utilized instead. Examples of situations where thicker copper PCBs would be
beneficial include motor controllers, high-current battery chargers and industrial load testers.

• Lighting. As LED-based lighting solutions catch on in popularity because of their low

power consumption and high levels of efficiency, so too do aluminum-backed PCBs which
are used to make them. These PCBs serve as heat sinks and allow for higher levels of heat
transfer than a standard PCB. These same aluminum-backed PCBs form the basis for both
high-lumen LED applications and basic lighting solutions.

• Automotive and aerospace industries. Both the automotive and aerospace industries make
use of flexible PCBs, which are designed to withstand the high-vibration environments that
are common in both fields. Depending on specifications and design, they can also be very
lightweight, which is a necessity when manufacturing parts for transportation industries.
They are also able to conform to the tight spaces that might be present in these applications,
such as inside instrument panels or behind the instrument gauge on a dashboard.
There are several overall types of PCB boards each with their own particular manufacturing
specifications, material types and usages: Single-layer PCBs, Double-layer PCBs, Multi-layer
PCBs, Rigid PCBs, Flexible PCBs, Rigid-Flex PCBs, High-frequency PCBs, Aluminum-
backed PCBs.
Single-layer PCBs
A single-layer or single-sided PCB is one that is made out of a single layer of base material or
substrate. One side of the base material is coated with a thin layer of metal. Copper is the
most common coating due to how well it functions as an electrical conductor. Once the
copper base plating is applied, a protective solder mask is usually applied, followed by the
last silk-screen to mark out all of the elements on the board.

Since single-layer/single-sided PCBs only have their various circuits and components
soldered onto one side, they are easy to design and manufacture. This popularity means that
they can be purchased at a low-cost, especially for high-volume orders. The low-cost, high
volume model means they are commonly used for a variety of applications, including
calculators, cameras, radio and stereo equipment, solid state drives, printers and power
supplies.

Double-layer PCBs
Double-layer or double-sided PCBs have a base material with a thin layer of conductive
metal, like copper, applied to both sides of the board. Holes drilled through the board allow
circuits on one side of the board to connect to circuits on the other.The circuits and
components of a double-layer PCB board are usually connected in one of two ways: either
utilizing a through-hole or with the use of a surface-mount. A through-hole connection means
that small wires, known as leads, are fed through the holes, with each end of the leads then
soldered to the right component.
Surface mount PCBs don't utilize wires as connectors. Instead, many small leads are
soldered directly to the board, meaning that the board itself is used as a wiring surface for the
different components. This allows circuits to be completed using less space, freeing up space
to allow the board to complete more functions, usually at higher speeds and a lighter weight
than a through-hole board would allow.
Double-sided PCBs are typically used in applications which require an intermediate
level of circuit complexity, such as Industrial controls, Power supplies, Instrumentation,
HVAC systems, LED lighting, Automotive dashboards, Amplifiers and Vending machines.
Multi-layer PCBs
Multi-layer PCBs consist of a series of three or more double-layered PCBs. These
boards are then secured together with a specialized glue and sandwiched between pieces of
insulation to ensure that excess heat doesn't melt any of the components. Multi-layer PCBs
come in a variety of sizes, going as small as four layers or as large as ten or twelve. The
largest multi-layer PCB ever built was 50 layers thick.
With many layers of printed circuit boards, designers can make very thick, complex designs
which are suitable for a broad range of complicated electrical tasks. Applications where
multi-layer PCBs would be beneficial include File servers, Data storage, GPS technology,
Satellite systems, Weather analysis and Medical equipment.

Rigid PCBs
Rigid PCBs are printed circuit boards that are made out of a solid substrate material that
prevents the board from twisting. Possibly the most common example of a rigid PCB is a
computer motherboard. The motherboard is a multilayer PCB designed to allocate electricity
from the power supply while simultaneously allowing communication between all of the
many parts of the computer, such as CPU, GPU and RAM.Rigid PCBs make up perhaps the
largest number of PCBs manufactured. These PCBs are used anywhere that there is a need for
the PCB itself to be set up in one shape and remain that way for the remainder of the device's
lifespan. Rigid PCBs can be anything from a simple single-layer PCB all the way up to an
eight or ten-layer multi-layer PCB.

All Rigid PCBs have single-layer, double-layer or multilayer constructions, so they all share
the same applications.

Flexible PCBs
Unlike rigid PCBs, which use unmoving materials such as fiberglass, flexible PCBs are made
of materials that can flex and move, such as plastic. Like rigid PCBs, flexible PCBs come in
single, double or multilayer formats. As they need to be printed on a flexible material, they
tend to cost more for fabrication.
Still, flexible PCBs offer many advantages over rigid PCBs. The most prominent of these
advantages is the fact that they are flexible. This means they can be folded over edges and
wrapped around corners. Their flexibility can lead to cost and weight savings since a single
flexible PCB can be used to cover areas that might take multiple rigid PCBs.

Flex-rigid PCBs combine the best of both worlds when it comes to the two most important
overarching types of PCB boards. Flex-rigid boards consist of multiple layers of flexible
PCBs attached to a number of rigid PCB layers.Flex-rigid PCBs have many advantages over
just using rigid or flexible PCBs for certain applications. For one, rigid-flex boards have a
lower parts count than traditional rigid or flexible boards because the wiring options for both
can be combined into a single board. The combination of rigid and flexible boards into a
single rigid-flex board also allows for a more streamlined design, reducing the overall board
size and package weight.
Flex-rigid PCBs are most often found in applications where space or weight are prime
concerns, including Cell phones, Digital cameras, Pacemakers and Automobiles.

Selection of Componets for circuit of PCB:

1. Think about component footprint decisions
Throughout the schematic drawing phase, consider footprint and landpattern decisions that
will need to be made in the layout phase. See the following suggestions for things to consider
when making component choices based on part footprints.

2. Use good grounding practices. Make sure the design has sufficient bypass capacitors and
ground planes. When using ICs, make sure appropriate decoupling capacitors are used near
the supply to a ground location (ground plane preferably). Appropriately sized capacitors
depend on the application, the capacitor technology and the frequencies involved. When
bypass capacitors are placed across the power and ground pins and located close to the
appropriate IC pins, a circuit’s electromagnetic compliance and susceptibility performance
will be optimized.

3. Assign virtual parts footprints:Run a bill of materials (BOM) to check for virtual
parts. Virtual parts do not have footprints associated with them and will not be transferred to
layout. Generate a BOM and review all the virtual components on the design. The only
entries should be power and ground signals as these are considered virtual parts and are
specially handled in the schematic environment and not the layout. Unless used solely for
simulation purposes, parts that are shown in the virtual section should be replaced with parts
having footprints.

4. Ensure you have complete BOM Data:Check for adequate data in the BOM report.
After running the BOM report, review it and work on populating any incomplete part, vendor
or manufacturer information for all of these parts.

5. Sort reference designators: To assist in the sorting and reviewing of the BOM, ensure
reference designators are contiguously numbered.

6. Check spare gates:Typically, all of the spare gates should have the inputs connected to a
signal to prevent the inputs from floating. Make sure you review any spare or forgotten gates
so that unwired inputs can be adequately connected, if required. In some cases, if the inputs
are left to float, the whole system may not function properly. For example, consider a dual
opamp used in a design. If only a single opamp is used in a dual-section IC part, it is
suggested that either a single-section IC be designed-in or for the unused portions, a ground
be placed at the input and an appropriate unity gain (or otherwise) feedback network be
placed with the amplifier to ensure the correct functionality of the part.

Typical Example of Instrumentation amplifier Using IC741:

<dakinstamp video>

2.Design Process of PCB

Printed Circuit Boards (PCBs) form the backbone of all major electronics. These
miraculous inventions pop up in nearly all computational electronics, including simpler
devices like digital clocks, calculators etc. For the uninitiated, a PCB routes electrical signals
through electronics, which satisfies the device's electrical and mechanical circuit
requirements. In short, PCBs tell the electricity where to go, bringing your electronics to life.

PCBs direct current around their surface through a network of copper pathways. The
complex system of copper routes determines the unique role of each piece of printed circuit
board.

Before PCB design, circuit designers are recommended to get a tour of a PC board
shop and communicate with fabricators face to face over their PCB manufacturing demands.
It helps prevent designers making any unnecessary errors from getting transmitted during the
design stage. However, as more companies outsource their PCB manufacturing inquiries to
overseas suppliers, this becomes unpractical. On this account, we present this article in order
to provide a proper understanding of PCB manufacturing steps. Hopefully it gives circuit
designers and those new to PCB Industry a clear view on how printed circuit boards are
manufactured, and avoid making those unnecessary errors.

PCB Manufacturing Process Steps

Step 1: Design and Output
Circuit boards should be rigorously compatible with, a PCB layout created by the designer
using PCB design software. Commonly-used PCB design software includes Altium Designer,
OrCAD, Pads, KiCad, Eagle etc. NOTE: Before PCB fabrication, designers should inform
their contract manufacturer about the PCB design software version used to design the circuit
since it helps avoid issues caused by discrepancies.
Once the PCB design is approved for production, designers export the design into format
their manufacturers support. The most frequently used program is called extended Gerber.
The 1980's baby food ad campaign sought beautiful babies, and this software creates some
beautifully designed offspring. Gerber also goes by the name IX274X.

The PCB industry birthed extended Gerber as the perfect output format. Different PCB
design software possibly calls for different Gerber file generation steps, they all encode
comprehensive vital information including copper tracking layers, drill drawing, apertures,
component notations and other options. All aspects of the PCB design undergo checks at this
point. The software performs oversight algorithms on the design to ensure that no errors go
undetected. Designers also examine the plan with regard to elements relating to track width,
board edge spacing, trace and hole spacing and hole size.After a thorough examination,
designers forward PCB file to PC Board Houses for production. To ensure the design fulfills
requirements for the minimum tolerances during manufacturing process, almost all PCB Fab
Houses run Design for Manufacture (DFM) check before circuit boards fabrication.
Step 2: From File to Film
PCB printing begins after designers output the PCB schematic files and manufacturers
conduct a DFM check. Manufacturers use a special printer called a plotter, which makes
photo films of the PCBs, to print circuit boards. Manufacturers will use the films to image the
PCBs. Although it's a laser printer, it isn't a standard laser jet printer. Plotters use incredibly
precise printing technology to provide a highly detailed film of the PCB design.

The final product results in a plastic sheet with a photo negative of the PCB in black ink. For
the inner layers of PCB, black ink represents the conductive copper parts of the PCB. The
remaining clear portion of the image denotes the areas of non-conductive material. The outer
layers follow the opposite pattern: clear for copper, but black refers to the area that'll be
etched away. The plotter automatically develops the film, and the film is securely stored to
prevent any unwanted contact.
 Each layer of PCB and solder mask receives its own clear and black film sheet. In
total, a two-layer PCB needs four sheets: two for the layers and two for the solder mask.
Significantly, all the films have to correspond perfectly to each other. When used in harmony,
they map out the PCB alignment.
To achieve perfect alignment of all films, registration holes should be punched
through all films. The exactness of the hole occurs by adjusting the table on which the film
sits. When the tiny calibrations of the table lead to an optimal match, the hole is punched. The
holes will fit into the registration pins in the next step of the imaging process.
Step 3: Printing the Inner layers: Where Will the Copper Go?
The creation of films in previous step aims to map out a figure of copper path. Now it's time
to print the figure on the film onto a copper foil.

This step in PCB manufacturing prepares to make actual PCB. The basic form of PCB
comprises a laminate board whose core material is epoxy resin and glass fiber that are also
called substrate material. Laminate serves as an ideal body for receiving the copper that
structures the PCB. Substrate material provides a sturdy and dust-resistant starting point for
the PCB. Copper is pre-bonded on both sides. The process involves whittling away the
copper to reveal the design from the films.
In PCB construction, cleanliness does matter. The copper-sided laminate is cleaned
and passed into a decontaminated environment. During this stage, it's vital that no dust
particles settle on the laminate. An errant speck of dirt might otherwise cause a circuit to be
short or remain open.
Next, the clean panel receives a layer of photo-sensitive film called photo resist. The photo
resist comprises a layer of photo reactive chemicals that harden after exposure to ultra violet
light. This ensures an exact match from the photo films to the photo resist. The films fit onto
pins that hold them in place over the laminate panel.
The film and board line up and receive a blast of UV light. The light passes through
the clear parts of the film, hardening the photo resist on the copper underneath. The black ink
from the plotter prevents the light from reaching the areas not meant to harden, and they are
slated for removal.
After the board becomes prepared, it is washed with an alkaline solution that removes
any photo resist left unhardened. A final pressure wash removes anything else left on the
surface. The board is then dried.
The product emerges with resist properly covering the copper areas meant to remain
in the final form. A technician examines the boards to ensure that no errors occur during this
stage. All the resist present at this point denotes the copper that will emerge in the finished
PCB.
This step only applies to boards with more than two layers. Simple two-layer boards
skip ahead to drilling. Multiple-layer boards require more steps.

Step 4: Removing the Unwanted Copper

With the photo resist removed and the hardened resist covering the copper we wish to
keep, the board proceeds to the next stage: unwanted copper removal. Just as the alkaline
solution removed the resist, a more powerful chemical preparation eats away the excess
copper. The copper solvent solution bath removes all of the exposed copper. Meanwhile, the
desired copper remains fully protected beneath the hardened layer of photo resist.
Not all copper boards are created equal. Some heavier boards require larger amounts
of copper solvent and varying lengths of exposure. As a side note, heavier copper boards
require additional attention for track spacing. Most standard PCBs rely on similar
specification.
Now that the solvent removed the unwanted copper, the hardened resist protecting the
preferred copper needs washing off. Another solvent accomplishes this task. The board now
glistens with only the copper substrate necessary for the PCB.
Step 5: Layer Alignment and Optical Inspection
With all the layers clean and ready, the layers require alignment punches to ensure
they all line up. The registration holes align the inner layers to the outer ones. The technician
places the layers into a machine called the optical punch, which permits an exact
correspondence so the registration holes are accurately punched.
Once the layers are placed together, it's impossible to correct any errors occurring on
the inner layers. Another machine performs an automatic optical inspection of the panels to
confirm a total absence of defects. The original design from Gerber, which the manufacturer
received, serves as the model. The machine scans the layers using a laser sensor and proceeds
to electronically compare the digital image with the original Gerber file.
If the machine finds inconsistency, the comparison is displayed on a monitor for the
technician to assess. Once the layer passes inspection, it moves to the final stages of PCB
production.
Step 6: Layer-up and Bond
In this stage, the circuit board takes shape. All the separate layers await their union.
With the layers ready and confirmed, they simply need to fuse together. Outer layers must
join with the substrate. The process happens in two steps: layer-up and bonding.

The outer layer material consists of sheets of fiber glass, pre-impregnated with epoxy resin.
The shorthand for this is called prepreg. A thin copper foil also covers the top and bottom of
the original substrate, which contains the copper trace etchings. Now, it's time to sandwich
them together.

The bonding occurs on a heavy steel table with metal clamps. The layers securely fit into pins
attached to the table. Everything must fit snugly to prevent shifting during the alignment.
A technician begins by placing a prepreg layer over alignment basin. The substrate
layer fits over the prepreg before the copper sheet is placed. Further sheets of prepreg sit on
top of the copper layer. Finally, an aluminum foil and copper press plate complete the stack.
Now it's prepped for pressing.
 The entire operation undergoes an automatic routine run by the bonding press
computer. The computer orchestrates the process of heating up the stack, the point in which
to apply pressure, and when to allow the stack to cool at a controlled rate.
Next, a certain amount of unpacking occurs. With all the layers molded together in a
super sandwich of PCB glory, the technician simply unpacks the multi-layer PCB product.
It's a simple matter of removing the restraining pins and discarding the top pressure plate.
The PCB goodness emerges victorious from within its shell of aluminum press plates. The
copper foil, included in the process, remains to comprise the outer layers of the PCB.
Step 7: Drill
Finally, holes are bored into the stack board. All components slated to come later, such as
copper-linking via holes and leaded aspects, rely on the exactness of precision drill holes. The
holes are drilled to a hairs-width - the drill achieves 100 microns in diameter, while hair
averages at 150 microns.

To find the location of the drill targets, an x-ray locator identifies the proper drill
target spots. Then, proper registration holes are bored to secure the stack for the series of
more specific holes.
Before drilling, the technician places a board of buffer material beneath the drill target
to ensure a clean bore is enacted. The exit-material prevents any unnecessary tearing upon the
drill's exits.
A computer controls every micro-movement of the drill - it's only natural that a
product that determines the behavior of machines would rely on computers. The computer-
driven machine uses the drilling file from the original design to identify the proper spots to
bore.
The drills use air-driven spindles that turn at 150,000 rpm. At this speed, you might
think that drilling happens in a flash, but there are many holes to bore. An average PCB
contains well over one hundred bore intact points. During drilling, each needs its own special
moment with the drill, so it takes time. The holes later house the vias and mechanical
mounting holes for the PCB. The final affixation of these parts occurs later, after
plating.After the drilling completes itself, the additional copper that lines the edges of the
production panel undergoes removal by a profiling tool.
Step 8: Plating and Copper Deposition
After drilling, the panel moves onto plating. The process fuses the different layers
together using chemical deposition. After a thorough cleaning, the panel undergoes a series of
chemical baths. During the baths, a chemical deposition process deposits a thin layer - about
one micron thick - of copper over the surface of the panel. The copper goes into the recently
drilled holes.
Prior to this step, the interior surface of the holes simply exposes the fiber glass
material that comprises the interior of the panel. The copper baths completely cover, or plate,
the walls of the holes. Incidentally, the entire panel receives a new layer of copper. Most
importantly, the new holes are covered. Computers control the entire process of dipping,
removal and procession.
Step 9: Outer Layer Imaging
In Step 3, we applied photo resist to the panel. In this step, we do it again - except this
time, we image the outer layers of the panel with PCB design. We begin with the layers in a
sterile room to prevent any contaminants from sticking to the layer surface, then apply a layer
of photo resist to the panel. The prepped panel passes into the yellow room. UV lights affect
photo resist. Yellow light wavelengths don't carry UV levels sufficient to affect the photo
resist.
Black ink transparencies are secured by pins to prevent misalignment with the panel.
With panel and stencil in contact, a generator blasts them with high UV light, which hardens
the photo resist. The panel then passes into a machine that removes the unhardened resist,
protected by the black ink opacity.
The process stands as an inversion to that of the inner layers. Finally, the outer plates
undergo inspection to ensure all of the undesired photo resist was removed during the
previous stage.
Step 10: Plating
We return to the plating room. As we did in Step 8, we electroplate the panel with a
thin layer of copper. The exposed sections of the panel from the outer layer photo resist stage
receive the copper electro-plating. Following the initial copper plating baths, the panel
usually receives tin plating, which permits the removal of all the copper left on the board
slated for removal. The tin guards the section of the panel meant to remain covered with
copper during the next etching stage. Etching removes the unwanted copper foil from the
panel.
Step 11: Final Etching
The tin protects the desired copper during this stage. The unwanted exposed copper
and copper beneath the remaining resist layer undergo removal. Again, chemical solutions are
applied to remove the excess copper. Meanwhile, the tin protects the valued copper during
this stage.The conducting areas and connections are now properly established.
Step 12: Solder Mask Application
Before the solder mask is applied to both sides of the board, the panels are cleaned
and covered with an epoxy solder mask ink. The boards receive a blast of UV light, which
passes through a solder mask photo film. The covered portions remain unhardened and will
undergo removal.Finally, the board passes into an oven to cure the solder mask.
Step 13: Surface Finish
To add extra solder-ability to the PCB, we chemically plate them with gold or silver.
Some PCBs also receive hot air-leveled pads during this stage. The hot air leveling results in
uniform pads. That process leads to the generation of surface finish. PCBCart can process
multiple types of surface finish according to customers' specific demands.
Step 14: Silkscreen
 The nearly completed board receives ink-jet writing on its surface, used to indicate all
vital information pertaining to the PCB. The PCB finally passes onto the last coating and
curing stage.
Step 15: Electrical Test
As a final precaution, a technician performs electrical tests on the PCB. The
automated procedure confirms the functionality of the PCB and its conformity to the original
design. At PCBCart, we offer an advanced version of electrical testing called Flying Probe
Testing, which depends on moving probes to test electrical performance of each net on a bare
circuit board.

Step 16: Profiling and V-Scoring

Now we've come to the last step: cutting. Different boards are cut from the original
panel. The method employed either centers on using a router or a v-groove. A router leaves
small tabs along the board edges while the v-groove cuts diagonal channels along both sides
of the board. Both ways permit the boards to easily pop out from the panel.

<Also See video dakpcbsteps>

3.Introduction to PROTEUS Software

Proteus* is a software technology that allows creating clinical executable decision support
guidelines with little effort.

Indeed, it should be fun creating your own guidelines.

Once a guideline for a condition has been created, it can be executed to provide stepwise
advice for any patient having that condition.

A software tool that allows creating and executing clinical decision support guidelines using
the Proteus approach is available. The tool called Protean may be downloaded from here.
Protean allows creating new guidelines or editing existing ones very easily. Much of the
editing is done by dragging and dropping.
 Why Proteus is Special - A Quick Overview

The Proteus guidelines are created with modular entities called Knowledge
Components (KCs). Each KC represents a clinical activity and is available to the clinician
as a module of executable knowledge with its own intelligence.
 The KCs may be easily modified. Simple drag and drop operations constitute
significant part of editing.
 The KCs may be reused. For example, a KC created for diagnosis of diabetes can be
used in guidelines as disparate as “investigation of coma”, “routine preoperative
checkup for major elective surgery”, “investigation of unexplained weight loss” and
“evaluation for risk of infection”. One can simply drop a KC in a guideline and begin
using it. The KCs are also shareable, therefore anyone who authors guidelines can
have a library of pre-built KCs at their disposal to drag and drop in their guideline.
 Experts at remote locations may manage individual KCs, keeping them in sync with
the current medical concepts, while the clinicians automatically get the state-of-the-art
executable knowledge. This is akin to opening a web page using a hyperlink; the user
gets the fresh content by clicking on the same URL when the author of the web page
updates it. Unlike a web page however, the Proteus KCs are executable knowledge
and not passive information. Each guideline may have many KCs, each being updated
by a different expert or a group of experts.
 The intelligent decision-making in the KC comes from the Inference Tools in the
Proteus approach. Any thing that can make the inferences that a KC needs can be
declared its inference tool. Simple software algorithms, sophisticated artificial
intelligence tools or even remote human experts can be specified as inference tools for
KCs. The inference tool can be as easily swapped as they can be declared. Therefore,
if a tool with better inferencing capabilities becomes available, it can be used to
replace the previous one in a few simple steps.
 The KCs offer a template for capturing data pertaining to the clinical activity that they
represent and serve as components of an Electronic Medical Record.
 Since the KCs represent discretely identifiable clinical activities they also allow
attaching related elements from the non-clinical processes of healthcare. Each such
non-clinical process can be assigned a separate layer, with components within it
communicating with a logically related KC in the clinical process. For example,
execution of a KC representing Colonoscopy in the clinical process may be linked
with an event that increments the list of billable items for the patient. The latter event
exists in a parallel process layer called “billing” which gets its hints from the core
clinical process as it progresses. This allows conceiving of an integrated healthcare
information system with logically related parts and unlimited extensibility.

Proteus is an ambitious approach with a potential to touch many aspects of healthcare.

Several prototype software tools developed have validated the core features of the Proteus
approach. The experience of development carried out to date suggests that a more exhaustive
implementation be created and tested with healthcare professionals.

Introduction
Proteus (PROcesses and Transactions Editable by USers) is a model that describes
creation of clinical guidelines with Knowledge Components (KCs).

Each KC represents a clinically identifiable activity and is available to the clinician as

executable knowledge. Experts at disparate locations may manage the individual knowledge
components, while the clinicians benefit from the state-of-the-art knowledge. Additionally,
the KCs offer a template for capturing data pertaining to the clinical activity that they
represent, to provide a basis for the EMR. Since the KCs represent discretely identifiable
clinical activities they also allow attaching related elements from non-clinical processes.
Each such non-clinical process can be assigned a separate layer, with components within it
communicating with a logically related KC in the clinical guideline. This allows conceiving
of an integrated healthcare information system with logically related parts and unlimited
extensibility.

Proteus is an ambitious approach touching many aspects of healthcare. Prototype software

tools have been developed as proof of concept.

Incidentally, Proteus in Greek mythology is the powerful sea god who possessed the
knowledge about everything and had the ability to change shape at will. Surely the one to
emulate for medical knowledge representation too.

Background and significance

Motivation for guideline-based clinical decision systems

Medical Informatics researchers have devoted significant efforts in creating electronic

versions of guidelines. The motivation underlying the development of models for guideline-
based care has come from several factors, some of which are as follows:

 Limited success of guidelines in text form

 Gaining of ground by Evidence Based Medicine
 Realization that information and knowledge required for decision-making have to be
available at the point-of-care and at the time of decision-making for maximum benefit
 Increasing pressure on providers to reduce the cost of care without compromising
quality
 Standardization of care and reduction in variations in its implementation
 Realization that guidelines can help improved allocation of resources.

Besides the drivers listed above a well designed executable guidelines can also:

 Provide effective decision-support to span the entire course of a medical condition as

a series of decisions alternating with events or actions, in contrast to the systems that
offer isolated one time decision-making
 Allow tracing the audit trail for peer review and performance evaluation, for both
medical and legal reasons, since decision dependencies become more apparent than in
a conventional non-guideline application.
  Provide continuity of management of conditions, particularly in multi-physician,
multi-location settings

Factors that hinder acceptance of existing systems

Despite several guideline-based systems having been proposed, none have found any
acceptance. An extensive search of literature shows no reports of use by the clinicians or
rigorous evaluations of guideline-based systems in clinical settings. The main reasons for
non-acceptance seem to be the following:

 Lack of customizability for different providers. To be useful in the clinical setting

the guidelines need more than medical knowledge; they also need to be pragmatic in
the location of the use. The knowledge of medical capabilities, population
characteristics, disease patterns and socio-economic factors for the location is also
essential.
 Complexity. For knowledge-based systems the underlying knowledge representation
has to be reasonably well understood by the end-users to allow its management.
However, most proposed models are too complex for general users. To create a new
guideline or edit an existing one with such systems is difficult. Some of the models
have even proposed a language of their own, with no tools having been developed to
effectively link the model or the language with the user-interface.
 Lack of tolerance to ad hoc data or ability to use it. Most proposed guideline-based
systems are not tolerant of ad hoc data (when data that has not been provided for
crops up or expected data comes in at unexpected times). Example: While doing an
elective cesarean section the surgeon unexpectedly encounters adhesions and
performs adhesiolysis too. If the original guideline does not provide for adhesiolysis
and if there is no way of including it at the runtime the system is rendered unusable. It
is impossible to achieve the orderliness in clinical arena that the other guideline
systems demand. With any unexpected event the physician is compelled to discard the
automated guideline approach and switch over to the conventional means of
managing the patient, undermining the entire exercise of unified computer-based
patient care and data recording.
 No linkage with patient record system. The proposed systems do not provide for
linking the guidelines with the medical record systems. Lack of two-way linkage
between the guidelines and the patient record forces repetitive data entry and the need
to enter the entire data each time the guideline is restarted to assist in deciding the
next step.
 No provision for incomplete or unavailable medical knowledge. In the clinical
setting the clinician often has to take decisions despite the lack of complete medical
knowledge or data. Since medical knowledge is rarely refined to such high granularity
for each and every task, the need for human interpolation or extrapolation is obvious.
Rigid knowledge based guidelines expect the entire rationale for each step to be
available to model it into an implementable action.
 Changes in medical knowledge. Medical knowledge is an inherent and key part of
the guidelines; therefore with even a minor change in any of the underlying concepts,
the guideline has to be modified to reflect the current state of knowledge. Guidelines
can thus become outdated rapidly. Even if the systems were to provide for making the
 changes, it would be an arduous task to keep pace with exponentially expanding
knowledge if keeping the guidelines in sync with changing concepts was solely the
providers' responsibility.
 No linkage with non-medical tasks and processes of providers. Essential non-
medical processes like managerial and administrative activities are examples. There is
no provision for linking medical processes with these parallel processes in most
guideline-based systems. It is ironic that despite a major motivation for creation of
guidelines and guidelines coming from healthcare managers, no existing guideline-
based system provides adequate mechanism to deal with their needs.
 Lack of an intuitive representation of the knowledge and data. The systems have
internal representation for guidelines but how the users are going to see them or
interact with them is not specified, or the representation of the guidelines is not
intuitive for the users.
 Requirements imposed for uniform representation of medical knowledge. There
is an assumption by some approaches that development of guideline-based systems
can only progress if uniform interpretation of medical knowledge is ensured.
However, such a goal is far from achievable. Medical knowledge has always been
interpreted in diverse ways in clinical settings. A guideline-based system should only
aim to provide expressiveness for all possible interpretations rather than be concerned
with how the knowledge is interpreted.
 Efforts to develop dedicated inferencing technology. The guideline system
developers have not only been defining the architecture of their systems, but have also
been trying to create inferencing technology for use in their models as an innate part
of the system. This has increased the complexity of the models while limiting each
approach to a specific technology. More recently, some approaches have made
provisions for more than one inferencing technologies. However, these technologies
are incorporated within the models; the inferencing technologies that are not a part of
the model are excluded from use. For instance, a system may not be able to use
technologies like Artificial Neural Networks or image segmentation based inferencing
if these are not explicitly included in the underlying model.
 Dependence on machine inferencing for all tasks. Implicit in several guideline-
based approaches is that all decisions will be made only by machine. Since guidelines
span different kinds of inference making situations, trying to adapt a single
inferencing technology or even several of them to meet these needs is likely to face
problems. The most versatile inferencing tool known, the human intelligence, is thus
ignored. An ideal framework would allow use of any inferencing technology,
including human intelligence, depending on the task.
 Lack of psychological ownership of the system. “The technically best system may
be woefully inadequate if its implementation is resisted by people who have low
psychological ownership in that system”. A higher sense of ownership may be
achieved for a system in healthcare setting if there is an active involvement of
healthcare professionals in its creation.

The design of the Proteus model aims at avoiding these pitfalls.

The Proteus Model

Proteus – (PROcesses and Transactions Editable by Users), is a model for creating

executable clinical decision-support guidelines. The name and the abbreviation signify
flexibility and maneuverability of guidelines in the hands of physicians. The guidelines in
Proteus approach are built from small bits of knowledge in the form of software entities,
called knowledge components (KCs). The KCs are discrete, editable, reusable and
executable, distributed knowledge entities that represent clinical activity. The design of the
KC has been achieved by applying principles of distributed component software architecture
to knowledge forms. The KCs can be created and maintained by experts while healthcare
professionals access them from remote locations. Because of the independent nature of each
of the KCs, a change in one KC does not affect others. Additionally, the KCs capture the
data entered, thereby also serving as components of the Electronic Medical Record (EMR).
This kind of medical record is far richer than conventional records since it also records the
decisions made and the basis of the decisions, in addition to the raw data.

Since the guidelines represent clinical processes, representations of other processes in

healthcare that are dependent on the clinical processes may be linked to the guidelines.
Examples of such processes are billing, supplies, administration, nursing, etc. Each such
process can be represented as a layer parallel to the core clinical process and its components
have representation similar to KCs in the clinical process with which they are linked. Proteus
thus provides a mechanism to construct complete healthcare information systems in which
each part is logically related to another. Moreover, since any number of layers can be added,
the system based on Proteus has unlimited extensibility.

Another essential feature of Proteus-based guidelines is that they are not tied to a particular
technology for inference making. Indeed, each KC can have its own inference tool based on
the technology most suitable for its purpose. Diverse technologies can be used to achieve
inferencing. Human experts may also be declared as inference tools providing an approach to
bringing collaborative decision-making to the point of care. The inference tools may be
changed to one using a different technology, even while a guideline is being executed.

For the clinician, these features translate into accessing executable knowledge that is updated
automatically, always reflecting the state of the art. The clinician can also get the support of
collaborative decision-making from a team, which may be geographically distributed. The
clinicians at any stage may override the inferences offered by the automated tools or the
remote experts, by declaring themselves as the ‘inference tool’ for the task at hand.
Additionally, Proteus provides means to visually represent the executable KCs and
guidelines constructed with them. A notation system that is human-readable as well as
machine-readable, allows the users to interact with the knowledge and modify it. The KCs
and the notation system are designed for organizing and displaying information in a way that
reduces complexity and facilitates decision making by the clinician.

These features give an incentive to the clinician for entering the data at the point of care as
entering the data leads to decision support that is based upon the state-of-the-art with the best
inference approach, and helps in avoiding medical errors.

4.Component Libraries
4.Connection Troubleshooting
Referrences: Lab Center Manual on PROTEUS
5.Circuit Simulation Using Proteus
Steps :

1. Open Proteus ISIS Schematic Capture

2. Select the Component Mode from the left Toolbar
3. Click On P (Pick From Libraries)
4. Add all the required components
5. Place the components on the workspace
6. Wire up the circuit
7. Click on Play Button on the bottom left to start simulation

<refer dakproteussimulation video >

6.Troubleshooting
7.PCB PRINTING AND ETCHING

A.LAYOUT PREPARATION
 B.PRINTING AND ETCHING
STEP 1: Take a printout of circuit board layout
Take a print out of your PCB layout using a laser printer and the A4 photo paper/glossy
paper. Keep in mind the following points:
 You should take the mirror print out.
 Select the output in black both from the PCB design software and the printer driver settings.
 Make sure that the printout is made on the glossy side of the paper.

STEP 2: Cut the Copper Plate for the Circuit Board

Cut the copper board according to the size of the layout using a hacksaw or a cutter.

Copper clad plate

Cutting the plate
Next, rub the copper side of the PCB using steel wool or abrasive sponge scrubs. This
removes the top oxide layer of copper as well as the photoresist layer. Sanded surfaces also
allow the image from the paper to stick better.

Rubbing away the top oxide layer

STEP 3: Transfer the PCB Print onto the Copper Plate
Method 1: Iron on Glossy Paper Method (For Complex Circuits)
Transfer the printed image (taken from a laser printer) from the photo paper to the board.
Make sure to flip top layer horizontally. Put the copper surface of the board on the printed
layout. Ensure that the board is aligned correctly along the borders of the printed layout and
use tape to hold the board and the printed paper in the correct position.
 Place the printed side of the paper on the plate
Method 2: Circuit by Hand on PCB (For Simple and Small Circuits)
Using the circuit as a reference, draw a basic sketch on the copper plate with a pencil. Once
your sketch looks good, trace over it with a permanent black marker.

Using the permanent marker to sketch the PCB

STEP 4: Iron the Circuit from the Paper onto the PCB Plate
 After printing on glossy paper, we iron it image side down to the copper side, then heat up the
electric iron to the maximum temperature.
 Put the board and photo paper arrangement on a clean wooden table (covered with a table
cloth) with the back of the photo paper facing you.
 Using pliers or a spatula, hold one end and keep it steady. Then put the hot iron on the other
end for about 10 seconds. Now, iron the photo paper all along using the tip while applying a
little pressure for about 5 to 15 mins.
 Pay attention to the edges of the board – you need to apply pressure and do the ironing
slowly.
 Doing a long hard press seems to work better than moving the iron around.
 The heat from the iron transfers the ink printed on the glossy paper to the copper plate.
Iron the paper onto the plate
CAUTION: Do not directly touch copper plate, IT WILL BE VERY HOT FROM THE
IRON.
After ironing, place the printed plate lukewarm water for about 10 minutes. The paper will
dissolve, then you can remove the paper gently. Remove the paper by peeling it from a low
angle.

Peeling the paper

In some cases, when removing the paper, some of the tracks get fainted. In the figure below,
you can see that the track is light in color, hence we can use a black marker to darken it as
shown.

Light trace
 Darkening the trace
STEP 5: Etch the Plate
You need to be really careful while performing this step.
 First, put on rubber or plastic gloves.
 Place some newspaper on the bottom so the etching solution does not spoil your floor.
 Take a plastic box and fill it up with some water.
 Dissolve 2-3 teaspoons of ferric chloride power in the water.
 Dip the PCB into the etching solution (Ferric chloride solution, FeCl3) for approximately 30
mins.
 The FeCl3 reacts with the unmasked copper and removes the unwanted copper from the PCB.
 This process is called Etching. Use pliers to take out the PCB and check if the entire
unmasked area has been etched or not. In case it is not etched, leave it in the solution for
some more time.

Etching the plate

Etched copper plate
STEP 6: Cleaning, Disposal, and the Final Touches for the Circuit Board
Be careful while disposing of the etching solution, it’s toxic to fish and other water-based
organisms! Don’t even think about pouring it in the sink when you are done, it
is ILLEGAL and might damage your pipes Instead, dilute the etching solution and then
throw it away somewhere safe.
A few drops of thinner (nail polish remover works well) on a pinch of cotton wool will
remove completely the toner/ink on the plate, exposing the copper surface. Rinse carefully
and dry with a clean cloth or kitchen paper. Trim to final size and smoothen edges with
sandpaper.

Removing the ink

Now, drill holes using a PCB driller like this PCB driller and solder all your cool components
to the board. If you want that traditional green PCB look, apply solder resistant paint on
top PCB lacquer. And finally, your super cool circuit board will be ready!
 8.DRILLING AND SOLDERING
X-ray drill of reference holes
Now we drill the holes for leaded components and the via holes that link the copper layers
together. First we use an X-ray drill to locate targets in the copper of the inner layers. The
machine drills registration holes to ensure that we will drill precisely through the centre of the
inner layer pads.

Prepare the stacks for drilling

To set up the drill the operator first puts a panel of exit material on the drill bed. This stops
the drill tearing the copper foil as it comes through the PCB. Then he loads one or more PCB
panels, and a sheet of aluminium entry foil.

Drilling the holes

The drilling machine is computer-controlled. The operator selects the right drill program.
This tells the machine which drill to use and the X Y co-ordinates of the holes. Our drills
use air-driven spindles which can rotate up to 150,000 revolutions per minute. High speed
drilling ensures clean hole walls to provide a secure base for good plating on the hole
walls.Drilling is a slow process as each hole must be drilled individually. So depending on
the drill size we drill a stack of one to three PCB panels together. We can drill holes down to
100 microns in diameter. To give you an idea of the size, the diameter of a human hair is
about 150 microns. Drill change is fully automatic. The machine selects the drill to use from
the drill rack, checks that it is the correct size, and then loads it into the drill head.Once all the
holes are drilled the operator unloads the panels from the drilling machine and discards the
entry and exit material.

AN EXAMPLE
I've chosen to concentrate on one of the problems with PCBs and that is drilling the holes.
I've also chosen to show from start to finish a project I call Toothbrushing Timer. The timer
consists of an ATTiny85 programmed to flash a red ready light, and then a green light 20x in
30 seconds for four cycles.
Step 2: Tools and Materials
Tools

 Dremel or Wen or generic moto-tool

 Drill bit with diameter equal to that of the perf board. 0.042" ?
 Vise
 Containers for etching copper clad boards
 Arduino UNO programming set up for ATTiny85 programming
Materials

 Copper clad board for the PCB itself

 Perf board for making the drill pattern
 FeCl3 anhydrous powder or ready-mixed liquid
 Electronic components for the project. For this one:
o ATTiny85 PU20
o 2 x 220 ohm resistors
o 1 ea red LED and green LED (ultra bright)
o on-off switch
o Medicine bottle for finished product
o 2 x CR2032 coin cells with holder
CAUTION! FeCl3 water solution is very corrosive and must be handled very carefully. Do
not get any in your eyes or on your skin. Dispose of waste properly.
Step 3: What's the Problem?
The first hurdle I faced with making my own PCB for an ATTiny85 chip is to drill the holes
to fit the 8 pins of the chip.
The first problem is to figure out how to make the 8-pin pattern on the PCB. The second is to
drill the holes once they have been laid out.

After trying to draw the pin locations free-hand, I discovered my cache of perf boards. Those
holes happen to have exactly the right spacing for the chip pins. Problem solved. I just had to
put one of these boards over the copper-clad board and drill the holes wherever I needed the
chip.
Step 4: Why Not Use This Method for the Whole Project?
It occurred to me that I could lay out the whole project on a perf board, mark the holes where
I need them and drill everything at one time.
The result is shown in the accompanying picture. This one has the holes needed for mounting
an ATTiny85 and using one of the ports (#0 or Pin 5). It also has the holes needed for the
battery terminals on Pin 4 and Pin 8.
Step 5: Two in One. Single Port and Dual Port Boards.
Being a miserly type, I found that I could lay out the hole drilling template for two projects--a
single port and a dual port.
The dual port is labeled Pins #5 and #7 in the picture. It is on the right-hand side of the drill
pattern template perf board. To help clarify where this project is going, I enhanced my picture
with some descriptions and with pathways and symbols for the components.
Black shows the connection to the batteries and where the on-off switch should go. The bold
red lines show where there is copper continuity on the board itself. In other words, the part
that is not etched off of the board. The right-hand side shows one resistor on pin 5 and one on
pin 7. Those in turn lead to a red LED (pin 5) and a green LED (pin 7). The negative end of
the LEDs go to a common ground connected to pin 4.
The second photo shows the "raw" drill pattern. The third photo shows the drill pattern perf
board with a candidate copper clad board that will become the PCB for the project. The
fourth photo shows a vise holding the drill pattern over the copper clad board. And, finally,
the fifth photo shows the drill itself. The drill itself is an inexpensive one I bought at Harbor
Freight for about $7. The drill bit is the same diameter as the holes in the perf board.

Step 6: The Holes Are There. Draw the Pattern

I found that I could lay out the hole drilling template for two projects--a single port and a dual
port.
The dual port is labeled Pins #5 and #7 in the picture. It is on the right-hand side of the drill
pattern template perf board. To help clarify where this project is going, I enhanced my picture
with some descriptions and with pathways and symbols for the components.
Black shows the connection to the batteries and where the on-off switch should go. The bold
red lines show where there is copper continuity on the board itself. In other words, the part
that is not etched off of the board. The right-hand side shows one resistor on pin 5 and one on
pin 7. Those in turn lead to a red LED (pin 5) and a green LED (pin 7). The negative end of
the LEDs go to a common ground connected to pin 4.
The second photo shows the "raw" drill pattern. The third photo shows the drill pattern perf
board with a candidate copper clad board that will become the PCB for the project. The
fourth photo shows a vise holding the drill pattern over the copper clad board. And, finally,
the fifth photo shows the drill itself. The drill itself is an inexpensive one I bought at Harbor
Freight for about $7. The drill bit is the same diameter as the holes in the perf board.

Step 6: The Holes Are There. Draw the Pattern

The first photo shows the copper clad with the holes. The filmy material on top is scotch tape
that I used for manipulating the board in the etching solution.
After a failure or two, I discovered that my sharpie pen was not adequate to prevent etching,
and I used nail polish instead. The first time I tried it, I covered the sharpie pen drawing with
nail polish. That worked very well.
Now, I only use nail polish. Clear nail polish would be better, but my wife only had red. So it
goes.
You will notice that the patterns of photos are not consistent in this step. They show patterns
for both the single port and dual port projects.
 Step 7: Making the PCB Itself.
There are many articles on how to make PCBs. I won't burden you with pictures about my
efforts. I'll briefly state the steps I use, though.

 Use plastic or rubber gloves!!! Goggles are a good idea as well. A shop apron is handy.
 Mix one part FeCl3 anydrous powder with one part water. Yes, it's strong, but it works fast.
Also, I use very little for a board. The board is less than 2" square. (I use less than 3
milliliters--less than a teaspoon--of solution.)
 Very handy tip that I found in another article on making PCBs. Fold a piece of duct tape to
make a slight ridge that you can grab with forceps or with your gloved fingers and tape it to
the back side of the PCB board. See photos.
 Drop the board into the solution.
 Wait 2-5 minutes and check to see that the exposed copper is gone.
 When the copper is gone, rinse the PCB in plain water. Use paper towels to dry it.
The finished board looks something like the photo. OK. I'm not an artist. It's crude, but it
works. Yes, it works!
All of the exposed copper is gone, and only the conducting parts are there.
Next is to solder the components. The second photo shows the soldered side. It's easy for my
elderly fingers to do this job. Very easy.

Step 8: Put It All Together.

Soldering is simple.
I use one 220 ohm resistor on pin #5 and one on pin #7. The positive side of the red LED is
connected to the resistor on pin #5 and the positive side of the green LED is connected to the
resistor on pin #7.
The negative sides of both LEDs are connected to one pole of the switch and the other pole is
connected to the negative terminal of the battery.
In the photo, you can see that I used yellow wires for the switch, a red wire for the positive
terminal, and a black wire for the ground terminal of the battery.
The schematic is provided with this step.

9.SOLDERING PROCESS
Soldering on PCBs results in populating the board with components. The tip of the iron is
used to heat the solder and allow it to flow around Your components.The solder sticks at the
tip to help transfer the heat and raise the temperature of the metallic part of the components to
the solder's melting point. This allows the component to stick to the PCB.So firstly you need
to assure the quality of your PCB is ready for the following processes.
Soldering is widely used in electronics. It is used to join components in circuits and to make
electrical contacts. Typically, soldering entails the use of alloys with a melting point that that
is lower than 450°C.When it is used to join components, it allows them to perform a specific
task as envisaged by the engineer. The components come with terminals that must be
connected to circuits using solder through the soldering process.
Types of Soldering Process
1.Reflow Soldering

It is where a mixture of flux and powdered solder is used to attach several electrical
components to contact pads. The assembly is then subjected to heat which then melts the
solder and connects the joint permanently.The assembly is then passed through a reflow
oven. Reflow soldering is commonly used to attach components to circuit boards.It may also
be used to fill holes with the solder or to insert component leads in through-hole boards. It
reduces the cost of assembly to a great extent.Typically, the main objective reflow is to melt
the solder and the adjoining surfaces without damaging the electrical components.
A conventional reflow soldering process has several stages. Each of the stages has a distinct
thermal profile. Surface Mounted Technology is the most used technology because it allows
the components to be placed directly on the board using solder paste which serves as a glue.

The board is then baked by raising it to temperatures that are over 2000C so that the solder is
properly melted. During this process, care must be taken because too much or too little heat
may ruin the project.
The board is then sent through a series of chambers (zones) where it is treated.

Reflow zones
1. Preheating – it is a lengthy stage and allows for pre-heating of the circuit by raising the
temperature slowly so that the heat is distributed uniformly. This stage could last for several
minutes because the temperature must be raised by 3-50 F/ second.

2. Thermal Soak – it is the second stage where the board is passed in the second chamber for
the thermal soak. It ensures that heat is evenly distributed and activates the chemicals in the
paste which stops it from turning or forming microbeads.

3. Reflow SMT-oven – it is where the reflow soldering process happens by having the circuit
board heated to a maximum temperature so that the solder is melted and bonded to the circuit
board.

Convection method is preferred and is the most commonly used method. Timing is important
since the solder must melt but it should not vaporize.

4. Cooling – the chamber allows the board to cool down to a temperature of about 860 F. It is
a rapid process that makes the solder to form a superior bond by degenerating into a
crystalline structure.

5. Washing – It is the last stage of the process which is often ignored by manufacturers but it
is essential since it removes the grit and chemical residue that remains on the board.

Wave Soldering

It is a process that happens through a giant oven with designated components. It allows the
components to be attached to the board fast. The process is efficient compared to soldering
the components manually. Also, the machine can handle both surface mount and through hole
processes.
Manual Soldering

It is one of the oldest technology that was used to fit components onto PCBs. The process
required that the surface is heated to melt the solder.

It used to be a useful technique, but advancement in technology has unveiled more efficient
methods such as selective soldering which has made this old technique to fall by the wayside.

However, the soldering process is still being used by start-ups as long as they have relevant
skills and a good soldering iron.

However, manual soldering is essential for particularly meticulous or very small components
which can not be used in mass production or in areas where high-quality standards are
required, it entails using Your hands to solder the individual components on the PCB.

Precautions and Tips Need To Pay Attention To

We have said that soldering is a process that entails fusing together metals through melting.
In the process, a filler metal with a low melting point is used to join the metals being fused.

Soldering can suitably be used in electronics to make a connection which is an essential part
in PCB Assembly.

However, the process could be dangerous and necessitates that precautionary measures be
taken before any solder work is done. Here are the basic tips You should consider when
soldering to ensure that You remain safe.
• Don't touch the soldering iron tip- this appears like common sense but the truth of the
matter is that most inexperienced technicians injure themselves by touching the tip of the
soldering iron heated to about 400 degrees.

Don't touch the mains flex with the tip of soldering iron- heatproof flex provides an
additional protection so it should not be touched with a soldering tip.
• Don't put the soldering iron on the table- ensures that the soldering iron is returned to its
stand during and after use.

• Solder Your PCBs in areas that are adequately ventilated. The reason is that the fumes
released when the solder melts can make You uncomfortable and so it is recommended that
You move Your head away from the project to avoid the fumes.

Ensure that there is plenty of air circulating in the area You have designated as Your working
place.

• Cleaning Your hands- It is important to remember that a solder is loaded with lead which
is poisonous so it is necessary that You thoroughly wash Your hands after handling the
solder.

10.Testing and Trouble Shooting

Printed circuit boards, or PCBs, are a mass of insulators and copper traces that connect
densely packed components together to create a modern circuit. Troubleshooting a multi-
layer PCB is often quite a challenge, with factors such as size, number of layers, signal
analysis, and types of components playing a large role in the ease of troubleshooting. Some
more complicated boards will require specialized equipment to properly troubleshoot, but
most troubleshooting can be done with basic electronic equipment to follow traces, currents,
and signals through the circuit.

Tools for PCB Troubleshooting

Most basic PCB troubleshooting can be done with just a few tools. The most versatile tool is
a multimeter, but depending on the complexity of the PCBs and the problem, an LCR meter,
oscilloscope, power supply and logic analyzer may also be needed to dig deep into the
operational behavior of the circuit.

Visual Inspection

A visual inspection of PCBs can find several potential issues. Overlapped traces, burnt out
components, signs of overheating, and missing components can be found easily through a
thorough visual inspection. Some burnt components, damaged through excessive current,
cannot be seen easily, but a magnified visual inspection or the smell can indicate the presence
of a damaged component. Bulging components is another good indicator of a source of a
problem, especially for electrolytic capacitors.

Physical Inspection

One step beyond a visual inspection is a powered physical inspect with power applied to the
circuit. By touching the surface of the PCB and the components on the board, hot spots can
be detected without the use of an expensive thermographic camera. When a hot component is
detected, it can be cooled with compressed canned air to test the circuit operation with the
component at lower temperatures. This technique is potentially dangerous and should only be
used on low voltage circuits with the proper safety precautions.
When physically touching a powered circuit, several precautions should be taken. Make sure
that only one hand makes contact with the circuit at any time. This prevents an electrical
shock from traveling across the heart, a potentially fatal shock. Keeping one hand in your
pocket is a good technique when working on live circuits to prevent such shocks. Ensuring all
potential current paths to ground, such as your feet or a non-resistive grounding strap, are
disconnected is also essential to reduce the danger of shocks.

Touching various parts of the circuit will also change the impedance of the circuit which can
change the behavior of the system and can be used to identify locations in the circuit that
need additional capacitance to work correctly.

Discrete Component Testing

Often the most effective techniques for PCB troubleshooting is to test each individual
component. Testing each resistor, capacitor, diode, transistor, inductor, MOSFET, LED, and
discrete active components can be done with a multimeter or LCR meter. Components that
have less than or equal to the stated component value, the component is typically good, but if
the component value is higher it is an indication that either the component is bad or that the
solder joint is bad. Diodes and transistors can be checked using the diode testing mode on a
multimeter. The base-emitter (BE) and base-collector (BC) junctions of a transistor should
behave like discrete diodes and conduct in one direction only with the same voltage drop.
Nodal analysis is another option that allows unpowered testing of components by applying
power just to a single component and measuring its voltage vs current (V/I) response.

ICs Testing

The most challenging components to check are ICs. Most ICs can be easily identified by their
markings and many can be operationally tested using oscilloscopes and logic analyzers, but
the number of specialty ICs in various configurations and PCB designs can make testing ICs
very challenging. Often a useful technique is to compare the behavior of a circuit to a known
good circuit, which should help anomalous behavior to stand out.

11.PCB For Instrumentation amplifier

Instrumentation amplifier is a kind of differential amplifier with additional input buffer

stages. The addition of input buffer stages makes it easy to match (impedance matching) the
amplifier with the preceding stage. Instrumentation are commonly used in industrial test and
measurement application. The instrumentation amplifier also has some useful features like
low offset voltage, high CMRR (Common mode rejection ratio), high input resistance, high
gain etc. The circuit diagram of a typical instrumentation amplifier using opamp is shown
below.
A circuit providing an output based on the difference between two inputs (times a scale
factor) is given in the above figure. In the circuit diagram, opamps labelled A1 and A2 are the
input buffers. Anyway the gain of these buffer stages are not unity because of the presence of
R1 and Rg. Op amp labelled A3 is wired as a standard differential amplifier. R3 connected
from the output of A3 to its non inverting input is the feedback resistor. R2 is the input
resistor. The voltage gain of the instrumentation amplifier can be expressed by using the
equation below.

Voltage gain (Av) = Vo/(V2-V1) = (1 + 2R1/Rg ) x R3/R2

If need a setup for varying the gain, replace Rg with a suitable potentiometer. Instrumentation
amplifiers are generally used in situations where high sensitivity, accuracy and stability are
required. Instrumentation amplifiers can be also made using two opamps, but they are rarely
used and the common practice is to make it using three opamps like what is shown here. The
only advantages of making an instrumentation amplifier using 2 opamps are low cost and
improved CMRR.

A high gain accuracy can be achieved by using precision metal film resistors for all the
resistances. Because of large negative feedback employed, the amplifier has good linearity,
typically about 0.01% for a gain less than 10. The output impedance is also low, being in the
range of milli-ohms. The input bias current of the instrumentation amplifier is determined by
the op-amps A1 and A2.

A simplified instrumentation amplifier design is shown below. Here the resistances labelled
R1 are shorted and Rg is removed. This results in a full series negative feedback path and the
gain of A1 and A2 will be unity. The removal of R1 and Rg simplifies the equation to Av =
R3/R2.
Practical instrumentation amplifier using opamp.

A practical instrumentation amplifier circuit designed based on uA 741 op amp is shown

below. The amplifier operates from +/-12V DC and has a gain 10.If you need a variable gain,
then replace Rg with a 5K POT. Instead of using uA741 you can use any opamp but the
power supply voltage must be changed according to the op amp. A single LM324 op amp Ic
is a good choice. Out of the four opamps inside the LM324, three can be used for IC1, IC2,
IC3 and the remaining one can be left alone. This reduces the PCB size a lot and makes the
circuit compact. Supply voltage for LM324 can be up to +/-16V DC.

An instrumentation amplifier is a differential amplifier optimized for high input impedance

and high CMRR. An instrumentation amplifier is typically used in applications in which a
small differential voltage and a large common mode voltage are the inputs.

<Video dakinstamp>

13.Clapp Switch
We find a cheap diy clap switch circuit for lights,in the electronic projects for beginners
series that can turn a light 4-40w incandescent bulbs on /off by clapping your hands.
This diy electronic kit containes:
1 X PCB Board (color will be shipped out by randomly )
4 X IN4007
1 X MCR100-6
1 X 3mm Diffused red
1 X 9014 transistor
1 X 470UF 25V Electronic Capacitor
1 X 47UF 25V Electronic Capacitor
1 X 5528 Photoresistor
1 X 0.25w 100KR Metal Film Resistor
2 X 4.7KR 1/4w metal film resistor
1 X 1MR 1/4 watt metal film resistor
1 X 1KR 0.25 watt metal film resistor
1 X MIC
This sound activated switch is nearly done after we have assembled all the components it is
easy to build,but also is very dangerous because is connected to the mains voltage 120v/220v
so be very careful DO NOT TOUCH ANY OF THE WIRES OR COMPONENTS WHILE
IN USE.This is not verysafe .
PRODUCT DESCRIPTION:
The lamp with the DIY KIT works at night and need Voice trigger it
This is an Electronic DIY KIT , some soldering experience is required
The PCB (Printed Circuit Board) is provided with the DIY KIT and it needs to be soldered
All required electronic parts are provided
The bulb lights only in the dark and with sounds , after a while without voice ,it will light off
.
Use a Multimeter or check color to distinguish the Resistor
Specifcations:
Working voltage : 220V
Lamps : 5-60W ( LED Energy -saving Lamps can't be used )
PCB Board Size : 3.2x2.4cm/1.26x0.94inch
Sound activated circuit diagram from this kit but there are lots of faults in this design,i found
out that if the mic is bad wich it might happen due to the poor quality of manufacturing the
circuit stays on,andif you flash a light in the sensor it goes off so can be used as a night light
sensor.
Basically, it is a sound activated switch circuit that has a condenser mic that picks up the
sound converted in electronic signal and then is passed to the transistor that switches on the
led light,in this case the 220v light for a period of max 1 minut.This is a clap on circuit
already designed so we have to just assemble it.A more advanced clap on switch will follow
in the next episodes because this one is dangerous and not well made
 <Video dakclap>

14.CLAP SWITCH
Step 1: Components Required

1. General Purpose PCB Board

2. 7805 Voltage Regulator
3. 100 uF capacitor
4. 10uF capacitor
5. Female USB Port
6. 9v Battery
7. A Battery connector clip

1. Refer to the circuit diagram of the project.

2. Insert the clip on PCB board and paste it using hot glue.
3. Solder the connector to the base.
4. Solder a 100uF capacitor parallel to the connector clip.
5. Refer to the pin configuration of 7805. Solder the IC on the base such that, input pin is near
the capacitor and connect input pin to +ve terminal of capacitor.
6. Take a 10uF capacitor and solder the +ve terminal to the output of 7805 I.C.
 7. Refer to the pin configuration of female USB port. We have 4 pins

 pin 1 - Vcc
 Pin 2 - Data (-)
 Pin 3 - Data (+)
 Pin 4 - Ground
8. Solder the port to the base and connect pin 1 to the +ve terminal of 10uF capacitor.
9. Make all the ground connections.

15.Water Level Indicator

Step 1: The Working Principle

Basically the unit is made up of various sensors acting as a switch. Let me explain in a
simple way. What happens is when you turn on you water pump, the water starts to get
pumped from your underground reservoir or from your underground water supply from the
pipes to your water tank. In the tank there is a set of sensors( to be precise there are 7
sensors), in the water tank. Just think them as a switch, as the work of the sensor will be to
connect a circuit. I will explain in details in my instructables. So the water starts to get filled
in the tank and when the water level in the tank starts to rise up, what happens is that the
sensors that is installed in the tank starts to get activated one by one indicating the water level
in the tank. And finally when it reaches to its top most sensor, there will be a visual display as
well as a sound from the unit indicating that the water has filled in the tank and one can be
alerted that the tank has been filled up and the water pump has to be switched off saving
the electricity bill as well as over flow of water from the tank.

There are Four parts in this project:-

(i) The Sensor Part

It is generally a fixed support inside the tank having some nuts and bolt with wires coming

out.

(ii) The Circuit Part

It comprises the brain of the module, where in all the various inputs from the sensors are fed.

It is the unit from where you will get all the information of how much of water is in the tank.

(iii) The Power Supply

It is the part where in you will be converting the A/C voltage to a regulated voltage of 5V to

the Circuit.

(IV) The Buzzer Part

It is responsible for bringing up the sound when the water level fills up in the tank. It will also

be having a speaker or a buzzer to alert.

It has numerous transistors acting as a switch and the switch gets activated when the sensors
tell them to.

The heart of the circuit is the transistors BC 547. There are total7 transistors in the
circuit and each one will be sensing the level of water present in the overhead water tank.
There is one extra power LED without a transistor and that is because this Red LED will be
telling us two things. Firstly when you power the unit it will be monitoring the power present
in the unit and secondly it is also the indicator telling you that there is no water at all present
in the tank. As because the water level is below the No. 1 (as shown in the circuit) sensor, no
LED's will be lighting up, but only for the one Red LED. Therefore when you switch on your
unit if you see only one Red LED lighting up then you know that the is no water present in
the tank and therefore you should make you water pump on.
 Then as shown in the figure i have given all the LED's in various color. Starting from
the beginning is

1. Red LED (Indicating no water in the tank as none of the sensors are getting contact with the

water)

2. Red LED ( Level 1, indication very low water in the tank )

3. Yellow LED (Level 2, indication of low water)

4. Yellow LED (Level 3, indication of 1/4 of water in the tank)

5. Green LED (Level 4, indication of half of water in the tank)

6. Green LED (Level 5, indication of more than half of water)

7. Green LED (Level 6, indication of nearing filling up the tank)

8. Blue LED(Level 7, Full indication of tank and buzzer comes on)

Now as the water starts to rise up the sensors starts to get in contact with the water and the
transistors are activated and there is a flow of current in the transistors making the LED's
light up. Here in between the transistor and the LED there is a current limiting resistor 470
ohms, the job of the resistor is to checks that the LED does not get over voltage and destroy
the LED. The transistor is biased by a 470K resistor with the ground and the sensing part is
taken from the collector with a 33 ohms resistor going directly to the tank. As i have shown
in the diagram the signals are drawn in the Green color. There by you can follow the LED's
as they light up from Red to Yellow and then Green and finally to Bluemakingasound.

TheBuzzerPart
Here you can add any of the normal buzzers that are readily available in the market and if it
is not then you can make yourself with a simple 555 IC. I am giving a small circuit diagram,
it is really simple to make and there are minimum parts. It is a simple audio oscillator. I have
also provide a circuit diagram here but if you are able to manage a buzzer then no need to
assemble this circuit.

ThePowerSupply
This section contains a transformer converting the mains voltage 220V bring down to 9V.
There is a bridge rectifier containing 4 diodes and making the Alternating current to Direct
Current. After the filtering the voltage is then directly fed to the voltage regulator (7805) with
a filtering capacitor. From the regulator IC the output voltage is then again filtered with a
capacitor and is fed to the circuit. This comprises the power supply of the device.