Electric Charge: IN an atom the force of attraction between subatomic particles is

called charge.

The property of a Proton or an electron, which gives rise to electrostatic force between them, is
called electric charge. There are two types of electric charge: positive and negative. It is the
basic property of proton, electrons and other subatomic particles. Electrons are negatively
charged while protons are positively charged. Things that are negatively charged and things
that are positively charged pull on (attract) each other whereas the things that have the same
charge push each other away (they repel each other). This makes electrons and protons stick
together to form atoms. This is called the Law of Charges. It was discovered by Charles-Augustin
de Coulomb.

Things that have equal numbers of electrons and protons are neutral. Things that have more
electrons than protons are negatively charged, while things with fewer electrons than protons
are positively charged.

Positive charge is carried by the protons in material and negative charge by electrons. The
overall charge of an object is usually due to changes in the number of electrons. To make an
object:

 Positively charged: electrons are removed making the object electron deficient.

 Negatively charged: electrons are added giving the object an excess of electrons.

If possible, the one with too many electrons will give enough electrons to match the number of
protons in the one that has too many protons for its load of electrons. If there are just enough
electrons to match the extra protons, then the two things will not attract each other anymore.
When electrons move from a place where there are too many to a place where there are too
few, that is called an electrical current.

The SI unit of electric charge is coulomb (C), which is equivalent to the charge contained in
nearly 6 × 1018 electrons.

Electric Circuit:
A continuous and closed path of an electric current is called an electric circuit.

Electric Current:
Electric current is expressed by the amount of charge flowing through a particular area in unit
time. In other words, it is the rate of flow of electric charges.
Electric Potential:
The electrical potential is defined as the capability of the charged body to do work. When the body is charged,
either electric electrons are supplied to it, or they are removed from it. In both the cases, the work is done. This
work is stored in the body in the form of electric potential. Thus, the body can do the work by exerting a force of
attraction or repulsion on the other charged particles.

Electric Potential difference:

It is defined as the amount of work needed to move a unit charge from a reference point to a
specific point in any electric field. It is the defined in the terms of work.

Potential energy is directly proportional to acceleration due to gravity (g). At infinity, g=0.
Therefore potential at infinity is zero. Infinity is that point from a source where the presence of
field due to that charge can’t be felt.

Volt:
The one volt is the potential difference created in the circuit, when one joule of work done in
moving one coulomb of charges from one point to another point.
Difference between volt and amp:
Basis For
Volt Amp
Comparison

Definition It measure the force that causes the electron to Measures the rate of flow of
flow through the conductor. electrons through the conductor.

Formula Joule / coulomb Coulomb / second

Abbreviation V A

Measuring Quantity Voltage, electromotive force and potential Electric current.

difference.

Measuring Voltmeter Ammeter

Instrument

Difference Between Ammeter and Voltmeter:

Ammeter Voltmeter

It is used to measure current It is used to measure voltage across two points

Resistance is low Resistance is high

It is connected in series with the circuit It is connected in parallel with the circuit and its
and its accuracy is more accuracy is less

Changing of range is not possible Changing of range is possible

For ideal ammeter, the value of For ideal voltmeter, the value of resistance is
resistance is 0 approximately infinity

It is denoted by a symbol A It is denoted by a symbol V

Ohm’s Law:
The current flowing in conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference across to its
end; provided other physical conditions like temperature, pressure, length, area of cross section
remains etc. remain the constant.

Resistance:

The motion of electrons in an electric circuit constitutes an electric current. The electrons are
not completely free to move within a conductor. They are restrained by the attraction of the
atoms among which they move. The property of a conductor to resist the flow of charge is
called resistance.
A component of a given size that offers a low resistance is a good conductor. A conductor
having some appreciable resistance is called a resistor. A component of identical size that offers
a higher resistance is a poor conductor. An insulator of the same size offers even higher
resistance.

Resistivity:
The resistivity is also known as specific resistance. The resistivity represents the resistance of
the material which has specific dimensions, i.e., the material has 1-meter length and 1 square
meter area of cross section.

The resistance of conductor of unit length and unit area of cross section is call resistivity.
Symbol is ρ where r (rho) is a constant of proportionality and is called the electrical resistivity of
the material of the conductor. The SI unit of resistivity is Ω m. It is a characteristic property of
the material. The metals and alloys have very low resistivity in the range of 10–8 W m to 10–6
W m. They are good conductors of electricity. Insulators like rubber and glass have resistivity of
the order of 1012 to 1017 W m. Both the resistance and resistivity of a material vary with
temperature.
 Difference Between Resistance and Resistivity:

Sl. Differentiating
Resistance Resistivity
No. Property

Resistivity is the physical

1 Definition
Resistance is the physical property of a
property of a particular
substance because of which it opposes the
substance which is having
flow of current i.e. electrons.
particular dimensions.

Resistance is directly proportional to the

Resistivity is only proportional to
length and temperature while it is
2 Proportionality the nature and temperature of
inversely proportional to the cross-
the particular material.
sectional area of the material.

3 Symbol R ρ

R = V/I or, ρ = (R×A)/L

4 Formula R = ρ(L/A)
R = Resistance, L= Length, A =
V = Voltage, I = Current, ρ = Resistivity Cross-sectional area

The SI unit of resistivity is Ohms-

5 SI Units The SI unit of resistance is Ohms
meter.

The property of resistance is used in Electrical resistivity

6 Applications several places like heaters, fuses, sensors, measurement is used as a quality
etc. control test for calcareous soil.

Key Differences between Resistance and Resistivity

1. The resistance is the property of the material which obstructs the flow of current, whereas the resistivity gives
the resistance of the material which has fixed dimension.
2. The resistance is the ratio of the length and cross-section area of the conductor, whereas the resistivity of the
material is the ratio of the product of the resistance and area to the length of the conductor.
3. The resistance is represented by the symbol R whereas the resistivity is represented by the symbol ρ.
4. The SI unit of the resistance is ohm, and the SI unit of resistivity is ohm-meter.
5. The resistance of the material depends on the length, cross-section and area of conductor whereas the resistivity
depends on the nature and temperature of the material.
Manganin is a trademarked name for an alloy of typically 84% copper, 12% manganese, and 4% nickel.

Constantan: copper + nickel

Nichrome (NiCr, nickel-chrome, chrome-nickel, etc.) is any of various alloys of nickel, chromium, and
often iron (and possibly other elements).