Bridge Design and Construction in Victoria

Mark Percival – BSc (Hons), M I Struct. E, C. Eng

Mark is a Senior Structural Engineer / Project Manager in the Melbourne

office of Sinclair Knight Merz. Mark has many years of professional
experience with the project management, design and documentation of bridge
structures and other major structures in the high pressure D&C environment.

Contacts Phone: (03) 9248 3387

Fax: (03) 9248 3460
Email: mpercival@skm.com.au

John Noonan – BE (Civil), MEngSc, FIEAust

John Noonan is the Principal Structural Engineer in SKM’s Melbourne office.

His career includes a range of experience with design of industrial, transport
and maritime infrastructure. His recent experience has been concerned
predominantly with the design of road and rail infrastructure and includes the
award-winning E J Whitten incrementally launched bridge over the
Maribyrnong River and Melbourne’s Docklands Trunk Infrastructure.

Contacts Phone: (03) 9248 3385

Fax: (03) 9248 3460
Email: jnoonan@skm.com.au
 Bridge Design and Construction
in Victoria
Mark Percival, Executive Engineer, Sinclair Knight Merz
John Noonan, Executive Engineer, Sinclair Knight Merz

SYNOPSIS

The Super ‘T’, including the T-Roff adaptation, has dominated the market for around
15 years, particularly in Victoria, for bridge spans of between 12m and 38m. This
dominance has been driven by simplicity of casting, availability of moulds, ease of
construction, and safety. In addition, it will usually fit well with the aesthetics
objectives required by specification writers. However, the Super ‘T’ is not always a
clear winner and depending on the particular site conditions, other forms of
construction are still commonly used for the range of spans found on typical grade
separations and other medium span road bridges.

This paper provides a summary of the current status with typical bridge design and
construction in Victoria and lessons learnt from a considerable number of recent
VicRoads bridge projects. It also provides a brief comment on trends in other states
and New Zealand within the context of recent Victorian trends.

1. THE SUPER T

Over the past 15 years, precast pretensioned Super ‘T’ concrete beams with a
composite concrete deck has been the preferred superstructure form for typical road
bridges throughout Australia, particularly in Victoria. They have all but displaced the
precast NAASRA I-girder and bulb T and to a large degree replaced the cast insitu
voided slab and box girder form of construction.

The Super ‘T’ beam was developed in Australia. It comprises a small precast voided
box girder with short cantilever outstands (Refer Fig 1), the void being formed using
expanded polystyrene. The webs and top flange are comparatively thin and the
bottom flange is tightly packed with 15.2mm diameter pretensioning strands generally
at 50mm centres each way. Their initial success arose from the fact that the same
moulds can be used for a range of structural depths and hence span lengths by
altering the level of the soffit form. In addition, pre-casters found that they were able
to manufacture these beams with a consistently high standard of finish. Increased
attention to health and safety obligations has increased the attractiveness of the
Super ‘T’ because, with temporary railings provided along each edge of the bridge,
there is an uninterrupted safe working platform provided by the top flanges of the
girders virtually from the time the girders are erected.

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The typical range of Super ‘T’ span lengths for SM1600 loading is as listed below.
However, span lengths outside these ranges can be achieved.

Depth of Super T / Range of Simply

T-Roff Supported Spans
1000mm 17m to 23m
1200mm 18m to 27m
1500mm 22m to 32m
1700mm 27m to 35m
1800mm 28m to 38m

The move from T44 to SM1600 loadings has resulted in a reduction in the span
length that can be achieved for each beam size. With narrower bridges (eg single
lane bridges) the span length that can be accommodated is reduced because of the
reduced tendency for sharing of the traffic loadings transversely between a number
of beams for the design load condition. For skew bridges, the span length that can be
accommodated is increased because the bridge tends to span square to the support
rather than only along the beam. A consequence of this effect is that the deck slab
transverse bending moments are increased.

Where there are limiting constraints on structural depth, an option that has been
commonly canvassed, but rarely taken up, is to reduce the width of the top flange so
that more beams can be accommodated within the width of the bridge deck. This
approach has also been used for rail bridges, to accommodate the heavier loadings.

2. THE T-ROFF ADAPTATION

For some years, the T-Roff (Refer Fig 2) had been used from time to time as a
replacement for the original Super ‘T’. It is essentially the same as the original Super
‘T’ but without the top flange over the void. Many considered that it was cheaper to
manufacture. In some instances the reduced weight was seen as presenting an
advantage. The replacement of the original Super ‘T’ with the T-Roff adaptation was
accelerated by a number of costly incidents in which the internal polystyrene void
former moved during casting. For the original Super ‘T’, the void was formed using
styrene, whereas the inside of the T-Roff is formed using reusable metal formwork.
Although it is still preferred by some contractors, the original voided box has now
been largely replaced by the T-Roff.

Although it is relatively simple to satisfactorily anchor the styrene void former, there is
no simple way of checking whether it has moved during casting. Possible
consequences of movement of the void former are:

„ Sub-standard cover to the internal reinforcement

„ Reduced web thickness to one side of the beam or reduced deck thickness
„ Doubts about the standard of compaction of the concrete below the void former

Other factors that have influenced the demise of the original Super ‘T’ include:

„ The cost of styrene.

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„ Beam weight. The replacement of the T44 loading with the SM1600 has
generally resulted in an increase in the depth of the beams, with a consequent
increase in the weight. Whilst this trend has not presented particular problems
for smaller spans, for beam depths above 1200mm the craneage requirement in
the casting yard and on site is an issue.
„ Compaction of the bottom flange. Compaction of the bottom flange of the Super
‘T’ is difficult given the congestion. The T-Roff is no easier, but it is possible to
inspect the result after the forms are stripped.

3. VARIATIONS ON THE THEME

3.1 Integral Bridges

Integral bridges have not been as common in Australia as in areas where de-icing
salts are used on the roads. However, they can be very economical provided the
skew of the bridge is relatively small. They permit savings in deck joints and
bearings. They are becoming more common in Victoria and are being widely used
on the Eastlink Project and other current VicRoads projects.

3.2 Continuous Bridges

Except where there are specific site constraints that dictate otherwise, the continuous
Super ‘T’ bridge will be less economical than the simply supported option. Factors
that will influence this balance are:

„ Towards the upper end of the range of the Super ‘T’, continuity will enable
achievement of longer spans. However the maximum weight that can be lifted in
either the casting yard or on site or alternatively the length of available casting
beds may be the limiting factor.
„ For a given arrangement, continuity may permit the use of a shallower beam
thereby enabling a reduction in earthworks and improved appearance.
„ For the construction of an insitu diaphragm the Super ‘T’ beam is commonly
supported on falsework. The new construction guidelines recommend against
this practice if at all possible,(Refer reference 1).

For some applications, the pier crosshead has to be within the depth of the
superstructure to satisfy aesthetic requirements. This requirement commonly leads to
the adoption of a continuous superstructure with the beams and crosshead
monolithic and possibly monolithic with the piers.

4. THE ALTERNATIVES

4.1 Steel Beams and Composite Concrete Deck

Steel beams with a composite concrete deck is an economic alternative for spans in
excess of 35m, however, the economic balance is very dependent on site access
conditions for erection of the girders. Where access is good and the heavier
concrete T beams can be managed, they can still be used for continuous spans up to

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45m. This form of construction lends itself well to incremental launching, even for
relatively short bridges. The launching nose is typically very simple.

Typically, the steel girders are continuous with bolted splices. It has been popular to
use the Transfloor system for the deck. (Ref Fig 3) The stud shear connectors are
fixed following erection of the precast deck panels. Some of the earlier attempts at
using precast deck panels met with mixed success. However more recently decks
with relatively complex shapes have been very successfully constructed using
Transfloor (eg Bridges constructed as part of Docklands Trunk Infrastructure Project).

The one note of caution is the tendency for water leakage to occur through the full
thickness of the deck. There may be only a thickness of 120mm of in-situ deck over
the precast panel, and the shrinkage cracking may be such that the quantity of
stormwater leaking through the deck is more that can be countered by the
autogenous healing of concrete.

5. THE CONCRETE BOX GIRDER / VOIDED SLAB

For medium span bridges above 35m and up to about 60m, the economic balance
between steel beams with a composite concrete deck and the post-tensioned box
girder is a constantly changing one depending on the current cost and availability of
steel and the site constraints. For sites where there is good access for construction
of formwork, the concrete box girder or the voided slab can still be competitive. For
example, where it is possible to erect formwork and cast the superstructure for an
overbridge prior to the excavation of the freeway beneath for the cast in-situ
superstructure provides a solution that is relatively competitive, even with the Super
‘T’. Where there is some obstacle such as a wide stream or several operating rail
lines, incremental launching is preferred. However, it helps considerably if those
undertaking the construction have considerable previous experience with this form of
construction.

For the M7 in NSW, precast segmental box girders have been widely used. It was
found that, because of the economies of scale arising from the number of similar
bridges, what might commonly be seen as a complex form of construction was found
to be cheaper than the Super ‘T’. There was a sufficient number of bridges and
length in the bridges to justify establishing a box girder precast yard for the project.
At the time, there would also have been some doubt about the capacity of the
precasting industry to cope with the number of beams required for the project and the
time constraints. This outcome seems to be at odds with that arrived at when
planning the construction of the Melbourne City Link and Eastlink which also required
a very large number of beams.

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6. SOME DETAILING ISSUES WITH THE SUPER ‘T’

6.1 Road Geometry and Drainage

The usual rules apply with the design of road geometry over the bridge structure.
Constructing the bridge using beams that are effectively straight in plan and elevation
limits what can be achieved with the road geometry. It is poor practice to have the
bottom of a sag curve on a bridge, particularly within a span. A crest curve can be
accommodated to some degree by the normal hog of the beams. The other feature to
be avoided is superelevation transition on the structure. In particular, having the
transition commencing within a span creates considerable difficulty and results in a
kink in the line of the bridge parapets. In general, horizontal radii in the road can be
accommodated by varying the outstand of the cantilever on the outer flange along
the length of the outer beam.

6.2 Drainage From Side Entry Pits

Where there is a sag curve on a bridge or where the length of the bridge is over
about 150m it becomes necessary to introduce side entry pits or scuppers that
discharge into a piped network. It is reasonably straightforward to run the side entry
pit or scupper to a drainage pipe along the outer face of the bridge. However a
drainage pipe along the outer edge of a bridge can be unsightly.

6.3 Casting Yard Issues for Super “T” Beams

6.3.1 Skew Bridges

The acute corner of the beam end on skew bridges requires special care to avoid
damage when the tendons are released as, the beam tends to hog and sit on the
acute corners at the extreme end causing damage. Generally the skews at the ends
of T beams should be limited to approximately 35 degrees to minimise this risk.

6.3.2 Halving Joints

Halving joints should be avoided with Super ‘T’ beams, because of the difficulty of
inspection and replacement of bearings, however, they are still used from time to
time. Furthermore, for reasons that are not fully understood, it is common for a crack
to appear at the back of the halving joint. The crack commences in the corner and
follows a line at an angle of about 45 degrees to the horizontal. (Ref Fig 4)

6.3.3 Recesses for Bearings

Until recently it was common practice in Victoria to cast the beams with a flat soffit
and use tapered steel plates between the beam and the bearing to ensure the
bearings are horizontal. More recently the beams have been cast with tapered
recesses, similar to the practice that has been adopted in NSW for some time. This
practice has resulted in the need to raise the tendons for the typical beam section to
ensure that the cover to the lowest row of tendons is maintained over the bearing
recess

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6.4 CONSTRUCTION ISSUES

6.4.1 Beam Hog

Even with beams that are apparently identical, the actual hog can vary significantly
and in some instances it has been known for beams to actually sag. It is therefore
important for both the design and construction that consideration be given to how
these variations are to be handled to ensure that both the required road pavement
level and the design deck thickness are achieved. Factors that influence hog are
listed below. Small changes in some of these factors can significantly influence the
hog, making achievement of a consistent product difficult.

• The differential temperature state of the beam

• Density of concrete materials, governed by concrete mix and compaction;
• Method and duration of curing;
• Span of beam;
• Level of prestress;
• Relative proportion of prestressed and non prestressed reinforcement;
• Age at transfer;
• Age of beam;

Hogs can commonly be as large as 100mm and are sometimes even larger. In an
attempt to reduce hogs and improve consistency and predictability, the practice in
NSW has been to introduce additional bottom reinforcement into the beams thereby
lowering the neutral axis. Between 4 and 6 longitudinal 24mm - 36mm diameter
reinforcing bars are placed in the soffit along each outer face of the beam.

The hog and its variability can create particular problems with skew bridges.
• They create problems with placement of deck reinforcement over the step joint
along the line where the flange edges of adjacent beams abut one another;
• They create difficulties with the sealing of the joint between adjacent flanges
against loss of concrete during casting of the deck;
• They result in varying deck slab thickness;
• They make achievement of concrete cover to the deck reinforcement more
difficult;
• They cause problems with the setting of the bearings;
• They create the potential longitudinal cracking of insitu concrete decking.

7. BRIDGE BARRIERS

7.1 On-Structure Barriers

With on-structure barriers there has not been a lot of innovation apparent in the last
year or so. The High Containment Level barrier has presented a particular challenge
with the Super ‘T’ form of construction as it is difficult to accommodate the vehicle
impact loads with the deck thickness commonly used. A common solution is to place
the outermost beam at a lower level and increase the thickness of the outer portion of
the deck to handle the higher loads.

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7.2 Off-Structure Barriers

There have also been few recent innovations with off-structure barriers. Typically,
they are supported on short bored piles with the size and spacing of the piles
determined by the specified level of containment. In some cases the off-structure
barriers have been supported on spread footings, but this detail is less common.

In certain circumstances there is a limited reservation available for the roadway and
there is no battered slope on the embankment approaches at each end of the bridge.
As a result, the barrier may be sitting at the top of a retaining wall or simply the top of
the facing of a reinforced soil wall. This circumstance presents a problem with the
lateral restraint of the supports for the barrier. In this situation the lateral restraint of
the barrier can be provided by ties into the embankment or even across the full width
of the embankment, tying the barrier support on one side to the barrier support on the
other side.

8. TRENDS IN OTHER STATES & NZ

8.1 INTRODUCTION

The following provides a very brief comparison with practice in other states and NZ,
viewed from the Victorian perspective.

8.2 Queensland

Precast planks (deck units) with cast insitu concrete deck overlays are more
commonly adopted for longer spans than in other states. They have been used for
spans of up to 34m to achieve minimum structural depths, although the shift from
T44 to SM1600 loadings is reducing the span length to which the planks can be
applied.

The Super ‘T’ and deck units with insitu structural topping slabs are common
although transversely stressed precast planks with or without an overlay are
preferred where they are suitable. Jacking diaphragms are provided for Super ‘T’
bridges to allow for easy removal and replacement of bearings.

Bridge barriers are monoslope of 1100mm height and are designed for regular
impact design loading.

8.3 New South Wales

The trends in NSW have been similar to those described above for Victoria. The
industry was a bit slower in taking up the Super ‘T’, but it is now being used widely.
Cast in-situ superstructures such as voided slabs or arches are still more commonly
used in NSW for cuttings on green field sites where the road authority is looking for a
higher standard of bridge appearance.

The road authority typically imposes the following criteria on the design of Super ‘T’
girders.

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1) Skew angles are typically restricted to 35 degrees, though exceptions to this rule
are not uncommon.
2) One significant difference between practice in NSW and that elsewhere is the
requirement for a diaphragm at each end of each span. This requirement arises
from concern about relative rotation or torsion of beams in adjoining spans. The
diaphragm also serves to support wheel loads on the ends of the bridge and
provide jacking points for the replacement of the bearings. The debate continues
as to whether these diaphragms are necessary.
3) The road authority requires the top of the bearing to be below the concrete soffit
level for ease of the bearing replacement. A detail has been developed where
the slope of the girder is resolved with the use of epoxy mortar pad cast between
the girder soffit and a horizontal steel bearing plate that is bolted to the girder
soffit.
4) The RTA has recently standardised the Super ‘T’ sizes and there are some minor
differences between them and the shapes used in Victoria.

Although the bridge girders are simply supported, the deck is still continuous across
the pier. To provide ductility and strength, the practice has been to include N16-75
top and bottom longitudinal reinforcement in the deck over this link slab.

As mentioned above, many of the bridges on the M7 were constructed using precast
segmental box girders. This project is seen as an exception due to features of this
project and circumstances at the time.

8.4 Western Australia

The trends in WA, predominantly Perth, are similar to those described above,
although there was an initial reluctance to adopt Super ‘T’ beams. The one
difference has been that the availability of heavy lift cranes has meant that the ‘T’
Beams have been used for very large spans. The beams are up to 5m wide and
1.9m deep wide and can weigh up to 200t. Initially, these beams were cast adjacent
to the site, but they have also been cast remote from the site and transported.

Because of their familiarity with the construction method, incrementally launched

bridges have been more widely used for some relatively modest spans and bridge
lengths.

8.5 South Australia

The trends in SA have been similar to those described above for Victoria. Bridges
comprising steel beams with composite concrete deck appear to be more common
than elsewhere.

8.6 New Zealand

The Super ‘T’ is gaining popularity in NZ. The significance of earthquakes for
designs in NZ results in some major differences, particularly for the foundations.
With the superstructure, there is a substantially greater provision for lateral restraint
of the superstructure at the tops of the piers.

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9. ISSUES WITH AS5100-2004

9.1 Earthquake Provisions

Clause 10.7.3.3 of AS5100.5 could be read as requiring additional restraint, by lateral

reinforcement, of reinforcement in compression members for bridges structures in
BEDC-2, BEDC-3 and BEDC-4, which would include freeway bridges. The current
interpretation being applied to this clause is that the reinforcement details specified in
Clause 10.7.3.3 (a) to (d) are intended to apply only when additional shear capacity
is required at potential plastic hinge regions in order to prevent premature failure due
to earthquakes. Hence, the additional reinforcement details are only required if the
earthquake load combination is the governing load combination.

9.2 Bearing Setting Tolerances

Clause 12.4.2 of AS5100.4 requires that the rotations for which elastomeric bearings
are designed be increased by an amount of 0.005 radians to accommodate
construction tolerance. The ‘1996’ Australian Bridge Design Code specified 0.003
radians. Whilst accommodation of this requirement is not likely to be an issue for the
maximum load condition, it can give cause for concern with the minimum load
condition (ie dead load only). Whether this issue is really a problem for the long term
performance is arguable.

9.3 Anchorage Of Shear Reinforcement

Clause 8.2.12.4 (a) requires that bends in bars used as fitments enclose a
longitudinal bar with a diameter larger than the diameter of the fitment. In a
pretensioned beam, the longitudinal reinforcement would typically only be 12mm
diameter bars. It would have been common for the corner longitudinal bar to be the
same size or smaller than the ligature.

10. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

The Super ‘T’ has been the dominant bridge form for some years and there are no
signs that this is going to change in the short term. Perhaps the one significant
change over the past year or two has been an increase in the number of integral
bridges. The Super ‘T’ has its problems and the practice in the different states has
varied slightly. We are seeing a move towards uniformity with the practice
throughout, but there are still a number of policy differences between the states. The
transition to AS5100 has not had a major influence over these trends.

REFERENCES:

Reference 1 – “Construction and Erection of Bridge Beams”, WorkSafe Victoria,

Industry Standard, April 2004

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