Load characteristics

• Advantages of electrical energy

– It can be generated in large amount at comparable cost with
other types of energy.
– Can be conveniently transmitted
– Can be utilized efficiently in a number of process requiring
energy.
– Maximum flexibility
– It is silent.
– It can be used produce magnetic fields, which can be used to
propel motors.
– It is very transformable.
– It is very fast, virtually the speed of light.
– It can be used through out the world
 Definition

• Load
• Connected load
• Demand
• Demand interval
• Maximum demand
• Demand factor
• Average load or average demand
• Load factor
• Diversity factor
• Load diversity
• Utilization factor
• Plant factor or capacity factor
• Loss factor
• Load curve
• Load duration curve
 Load
• Devices which uses electrical energy is said to
impose load on the system. The term load is
used in a number of ways:
– To indicate a device or collection of devices which
consume electrical energy
– To indicate power required from a given supply
circuit
– To indicate the current and power passing through
a line or machine.
– Load may be resistive, inductive & capacitive
 Cont..
• Classification
– Industrial (mainly induction motor)
– Commercial (heating cooling and lighting)
– Domestic/ residential (heating cooling and lighting)
 Connected load
• Connected load is the sum of ratings of all
loads connected to the system.
 Demand
• Demand of an installation of a system is the
load that is drawn from the source of supply
at the receiving terminals averaged at
specified interval of time.
• Its may be given in KW, KVA, KVAR
 Demand Interval
• Demand interval is the period over which the
load is averaged. There are two demands:
– Instantaneous demand
– Sustained demand
Sustained demand is generally calculated for the
interval of 15/ 30 minutes or even longer. But 30
min is the basic time in india
 Maximum demand and peak load
• Maximum demand of an installation or system
is the greatest of all demands which have
occurred during the specified period of time.
• Interval of maximum demand can be daily,
weekly, monthly or annually.
 Demand Factor
• Ratio of maximum demand to total connected
load.
• Demand factor=maximum demand /total
connected load
• It is usually less than 1
• Demand factor can be calculated for the part
of the system. Fox example Commercial
industrial etc.
 Average load or average demand
• Ratio of energy consumed in a given period of
time to Hours in that time period
• Energy consumed in specified time/specified
time in hours
 Load Factor
• Ratio of average load to peak load.
• Load factor= Average load/Peak load
• Load factor= Average load*T/ Peak load*T
• Load factor= Energy consumed during a period of time/
peak load*T hours
– Daily load factor
– Monthly load factor
– Annual load factor
• Plays important role on the cost of generation of unit.
Higher load factor lesser the cost per unit for the same
maximum demand.
 Numerical
• A consumer has the following connected load:
10 Lamps each of 60 W
2 heaters each of 1000 W
Maximum demand 1500 W.
On the average he uses 8 lamps of 5 hours in a day,
each heater 3 hours per day. Find the Following:
a. Average load
b. Monthly energy consumption
c. Load factor
 Numerical
• Determine the maximum value of a load which
consumes 600 kwh per day at a load factor of
0.45. If the consumer increases the load factor to
0.65 without increasing the maximum demand,
determine the consumption of energy in kwh.
 Diversity factor
• Ratio of sum of individual maximum demand to coincident of
maximum demand of whole system. Its value is either 1 or greater
than 1.
• Diversity factor=Sum of individual maximum demands/ Coincident
maximum demand of the whole system
• Large diversity factor has the effect of reducing the maximum
demand, hence less plant capacity is required. So less capital
investment on the plant is reduced.
• Higher diversity factor can be achieved by giving incentives to
industries and farmers to use electrical energy at night or light load
duration
• Cost of generation is reciprocal to diversity factor or load factor.
• Coincidence factor is the reciprocal of diversity factor
•
Numerical
There are four consumers of diversity having different load requirements
at different timings:
– Consumer 1
• Average load=1 Kw, Maximum demand=5 Kw at 8 pm
– Consumer 2
• Maximum demand= 2 kw at 9pm
• Demand at 1.6kw at 8 pm
• Daily load factor =0.15
– Consumer 3
• Maximum demand= 2 kw at 12 noon
• Load at 1 KW at 8pm
• Average load of 500 W
– Consumer 4
• Maximum demand =10Kw at 5pm
• Load of 5 Kw at 8pm
• Daily load factor=0.25
The maximum demand of the system occurs at 8 pm determine the
a. Diversity factor
b. Average load and load factor of each consumer
c. Average load and load factor of combined load
 Numerical
• Find the diversity factor of the power station
which supplies the following loads:
– Load A: Motor load of 150kW between 10 am to 7
pm
– Load B: Lighting load of 50 Kw between 7 PM to
11 PM
– Load C: pumping load of 55kw between 3 pm to
10 am
 Numerical
• A power station supplies the peak loads of 25
MW, 20 MW, 30 MW to three localities. The
annual load factor is 0.60 p.u. and the diversity
of the load at the station is 1.65, calculate
(a) The maximum demand of the station
(b) Installed capacity
© The energy supplied in a year
 Numerical
• A power system had the daily load curve given
by the following table:
Time Load in MW
12:00 Night to 2 am 20
2 am to 8 am 10
8 am to 12:30 noon 50
12:30 noon to 1:00pm 40
1 :00 pm to 6 pm 50
6 pm to 12 night 70

Plot the following curves

• Chronological load curve
• Load duration curve
• Load energy curve
• Load factor & Utilization factor if the installed capacity is 100 MW.
 Load diversity
• Difference between the sum of individual load
to peak of combined load.
 Utilization factor
• It is the ratio of maximum demand to Rated
system capacity/ rated capacity of power
plant.
 Plant capacity factor/Plant use factor
• Ratio of actual energy produced or supplied in
time T to Maximum plant rating *T
– It can be
• Daily
• Monthly
• Annually
• Plant capacity factor is the indication of reserve
capacity
• Reserve capacity = plant capacity-maximum
demand
 Spinning reserve
• Difference of total capacity and used capacity
• It is unused capacity of the plant.
• It is the reserve capacity of the plant
connected to the grid and ready to take load.
Spinning reserve= Total plant capacity-Used capacity
Reserve capacity= Plant capacity-Pmax
=(Pavg /Plant capacity factor)-(Pavg /Plant Load factor)
=Pavg (1/PCF-1/PLF)
=(Pavg /PLF) ((PLF-PCF)/PCF)
 Numerical
• A generated station has a Maximum demand
of 30 MW LF=60 % PCF=50 % Then the
reserve capacity of the plant is
A. 5 MW
B. 4 MW
C. 6 MW
D. 10 MW
 Numerical
• Reserve capacity at 70 % plant capacity factor
is:
A. 0
B. 30 MW
C. 10 MW
D. 50 MW
 Cold reserve
• Reserve capacity of the plant in service but
not in operation. Not immediate for
immediate loading. It is ensured by special
reserve units with small startup time period of
the cold reserve start up is 2 -24 hrs.
 Hot reserve
• It is in operation but not in service. It can be
made available quickly.
• For example we have a hydroelectric
generator of rating say 100 MVA but currently
supplies only 70 MVA. In this case we have 30
MVA hot reserve which can be loaded
immediately by simply opening the valve of
hydro turbine.
 Firm Power
• Reserve capacity of plant used for meeting
emergency condition.
 Load curve
• It is also called chronological load curve.
• Graphical representation of Load in proper time of
sequence and time in hours.
• Information obtained from load curves
– Load variation during different hours of the day
– Peak load of the load curve gives the maximum demand
– The area under the curve gives the total energy generated
or consumed in that duration
– Area under the load curve divided by total hours gives the
average load.
– The ratio of area under the load curve to total area of
rectangle in which it is contained gives the load factor.
 Utility of load curve
• To decide the installed capacity of plant
• To choose most economical size of generating
units
• To estimate the generating units
• To decide the operating schedule of power
station
 Numerical
• A Power system has the following daily load curve
given by the following data:
– Time Load in MW
12:00night to 2 AM 20
2 AM to 8 AM 10
8 AM to 12:30 Noon 50
12:30 noon to 1PM 40
1 PM to 6 PM 50
6PM to 12 night 70
Plot the Chronological load curve & Load duration curve.
Also calculate the load factor and the utilization factor of the
plant if the installed capacity is 100 MW
 Numerical
• The load duration curve for the system is
shown in figure. Determine the load factor.
 Numerical
The load duration curve for a system is shown in figure. Determine the load factor.
 Numerical
• The load curve of an electrical ssytem is linear
with the following values at different times of
the day:
Plot the chronological
Time Load (MW) load curve
12 midnight 40 Load duration curve
Load energy curve
4 am 40
Calculate the energy
9 am 100 required by the system in
12 noon 100 one day and system daily
load factor.
5 pm 120
8 pm 150
12 midnight 40
 Numerical
• The load on a power station on a typical day
is as follows:
Time Load (MW) PLOT THE CHRONOLOGICAL LOAD
12 MIDNIGHT-6 AM 40 CURVE & LOAD DURATION CURVE
6 AM-10 AM 60 LOAD FACTOR OF POWER STATION
ENERGY SUPPLIED BY POWER STATION
10 AM-6PM 120 DURING 24 HRS
6 PM-10PM 180 IF THE INSTALLED CAPACITY OF THE
PLANT IS 200 MW, DETERMINE THE
10 PM -12MIDNIGHT 40
CAPACITY FACTOR AND THE UTILIZATION
FACTOR.
 Numerical
• The maximum demand of power station is 100
Kw. The capacity factor is 0.6 and the
utilization factor is 0.8. Find
– Load factor
– Plant capacity
– Reserve capacity
– Annual energy production
 Base load & Peak load
• Base load
– The unvarying load which occurs almost the whole
day in the station is called base load.
• Peak Load
– The various peak demands over the base load is
known as peak load
 Load duration curve
• It is also a plot between load in Kw with respect to
time but in descending order.
– Daily load duration curve
– Monthly
– Annualy
 Information available form load
duration curve
• Minimum load present through out the given
period
• Selection of base and peak load power plants
Layout of Power supply network
 Distribution system
• The component of electrical power system connecting all the
consumers in an area to the bulk power sources is called
distribution system.
• Bulk power stations are connected to generating stations by
transmission line.
• Bulk power station feeds the number of substations which
are situated near the load center at the convenient location.
• Substation distributes the power to domestic, commercial
and relatively small consumers.
• Consumers requiring large power cam directly connected to
the subtrasmission level.
 Sub transmission level
• It is similar to distribution system. It differs
from distribution in the following manner:
– Have higher voltage than Distribution system
– Supplies only bigger loads
– It supplies only few substations as compared to a
distribution system
 Transmission level
• It performs two tasks one is transport of energy from
generating stations to bulk receiving stations and
second the interconnection of two or more generating
stations i.e. called tie lines.
• Interconnection of two neighboring sub transmission
line will also be done by transmission line.
• It has higher voltage than distribution and sub
transmission line. It supplies power to very big
consumers.
 Advantages of Interconnection of
Generating stations
– It ensures the power at minimum cost with greater security and best usage
of resources.
• Enables mutual transfer of energy from surplus to deficit zone
economically.
• Less overall installed capacity to meet the peak demand
• Lesser standby reserve generating capacity.
• The size of biggest unit is not related to the peak load of the individual
system but it relates to the peak load of interconnected system. Thus
fewer but larger machines of greater efficiency are need to be installed.
• It permits the generation of energy at the most efficient and cheapest
stations at every time.
• It reduces the capital cost @ cost of energy generated.
• If there is a major breakdown of any plant then interruption of power
supply will not be there.
 Grid
• Interconnected power system covering the major
portion of the country’s territory (state) is called
grid.
• It’s a interconnected network for transferring the
power from generating end to customer end.
• Different grids may be interconnected through
transmission line (called tie lines ) are called
regional grid.
• When regional grids are interconnected they
form the national grid.
• Stand-alone power distribution systems on a
smaller scale, for example serving a single
village, are usually called “mini-grids,” and
facility-scale systems, often interconnected
with a larger regional grid, are called
“microgrids,” although sometimes the two
terms are used interchangeably.
Level of transmission voltage
 System voltage & Transmission
efficiency
• System voltage effects the following:
– Capital cost of transmission line
– Weight of conductor material
– Efficiency of the line
– Voltage drop in the line
– System stability
So the choice of voltage is very crucial
 Cont…
• Considering the n phase system of transmission, let
P=power to be transmitted per phase in watts
V= voltage to neutral in volts
I = current in each phase in amperes
L=length of line in meters
A= cross sectional area of each conductor in m3
ɐ= specific resistance of conductor material ohm/ meter
R= resistance of each conductor in ohms
ɑ= Current density in A/m2
Cosȸ= power factor of the load
P=VI Cosȸ I= P/V Cosȸ A=I/ ɑ= P/V Cosȸ ɑ
The resistance of each conductor is given by
R= ɐl/A=ɐlV Cosȸ ɑ/P
 Power Loss
• Power loss=𝐼2 R=(P/Vcosφ)^2* (ρlV Cosφ ɑ/P)
= αρl P/Vcosφ
Above equation shows that power
loss is inversely proportional to both
the system voltage and power factor.
 Voltage drop in resistance
• Voltage drop in resistance per phase=IR
=Aαρl/A=αρl
• Percentage voltage drop in the line=(αρl /V)*100
– Voltage drop in resistance per phase is constant for
the particular current.
– Percentage voltage drop in the resistance decreases
with the increase in the system voltage.
 Weight of conductor material
• Let σ be the density of material. The weight of
conducting material required for each phase
=AL σ=PL σ/αVcosφ
Weight of conducting material will decrease with
the increase supply voltage and power factor.
 Transmission Efficiency
• ɳ=Line output/ Line input + line loss
= P/(P+αρl P/V cosφ )=(1+ αρl / V cosφ )^-1
=1- αρl /V cosφ
Efficiency of Transmission line increases with
increase of voltage.
 Working voltage
• As discussed above the high voltage is
desirable when power is transmitted over long
distance. For ac systems the load power factor
should be near to unity as possible for
maximum economy. Heavy current is difficult
to handle than the heavy voltage.
 Draw back of transmission power at
Higher voltage
• Insulation cost
• For high voltage more clearance is required
from ground so the problem of mechanical
support arises.
• Corona effect
• Radio & television interference
• Voltage level of the system is governed by the
amount of power transmitted and the length
of line.
 Choice of Next High Voltage
• Choice of highest system voltage is the matter of
great significance.
• It is not the economic consideration to choose the
next higher voltage but the site of power station,
location and density of load and the technological
development of the times.
• Next voltage level need to determine taking care
of future requirement of load also.
 Classification of lines
• Electrical Classification
• DC system
– DC 2 Wire & 1 wire Earthed
– DC 1 wire, earth return
– DC 2 Wire, mid point earthed (used for large amount of power for long distance)
– DC 3 wire
• AC system
– Single phase 2 wire, 1 wire earthed
– Single phase 2 wire mid point earthed
– Single phase 1 wire earth return
– Single phase 3 wire
– Two phase 3 wire
– Two phase 4 wire
– Three phase 3 wire (primary distribution)
– Three phase 4 wire (secondary distribution/ bigger load / industry load)
• Domestic & small consumers are supplied by the single phase power obtained
by individual phases of three phase supply.
 Physical classification
• Overhead
– bare conductor (normally used because of
economical)
– Insulated conductor ( Populated area)
• Underground
• Underwater ( River and sea crossing)
 Comparison of conductor cost in
various system
• Conductor in a system is insulated from each other
and from earth as well. Cost of insulation varies with
the system.
• Conductor cost forms the bulk expenditure of the line,
it is necessary to compare it in various system.
• Conductor efficacy is defined as the ratio of conductor
material required for a given system to that required
for the DC 2 wire system with one wire earthed.
 Assumptions
• Same maximum voltage to earth
• Same power P to be transmitted
• Same route length l of the line
• The same efficiency of transmission, ie the
same i^ R losses for all the systems.
• Corona and leakage are neglected
• Balanced load so that no losses occurs in
neutral conductor.
 Procedure
• Draw the circuit diagram of the system
• Mark the direction of current and voltages. In AC system
the current and voltages should be expressed in terms of
their RMS values.
• Calculate i^R loss in all the conductors of the system and
denote by PL
• Equate the I^ R losses of the considered system with the
standard DC 2 wire system.
• Determine the volume of conductor material used in all the
conductors of the system.
• Determine the ration of the volume of conductor found in
step 4 to the volume of conductor used in DC 2 wire system
with one wire earthed.
DC 2 Wire system with one wire
earthed
I1= line current
R1=Resistance of each conductor
A1= Area of cross section of each
conductor
Power transmitted=V*I1
Line current I1=P/V
Total I^2*R losses for both conductors
PL1=2*I1^2*R1=2(P/V)^2*R1
Volume of conductor material used in
both conductors=v1=2L*A1
DC 2 Wire System with mid point
earthed
Line voltage =2V
Line current= I2=P/2V
If R2 is the resistance per conductor, then
the total I^2*R loss for both the
conductors is
PL2=2*I2^2R2=2(P/2V)^2*R2
Volume of conducting material used=
v2=2LA2
For same efficiency equate
PL1=PL2
2(P/V)^2*R1=2(P/2V)^2*R2
R1/R2=1/4
R1/R2=A2/A1=1/4=0.25,
v2/v1=A2/A1=1/4
 DC Current three wire system
This system having three conductors
namely two outer conductors & one
middle conductor. The middle conductor
is earthed at the supply end .
When the load is balanced the current
in middle conductor is zero.
The cross section of outer conductor is A3
& Middle conductor is 0.5 A3.
Line voltage =2V
Line current I3=P/2V
i^2R loss in the system= 2*I3^2*R3
=2(P/2V)^2*R3
Volume of conductor material
required=v3= 2LA3+0.5AL3=2.5AL3
For the same efficiency of transmission
line
PL1=PL3
2(P/V)^2*R1=2(P/2V)^2*R3
R1/R3=1/4=A3/A1
V3/V1=2.5LA3/2LA1=(2.5*1)/(2*4)=0.312
5
Single phase two wire with one wire
V
earthed
P= I 4COS
2
2P
I 4=
VCOS
2
 ( 2 P) 
LINE _ LOSS = PL4 = 2 I 42 R4 = 2*   * R4
 VCOS 
V4 = 2 LA4
Vrms =
V PL1 = PL4
2
2
P
2
 ( 2 P) 
2*   * R1 = 2*   * R4
V   VCOS 
R1 2
=
R4 COS 2
R1 A4 V4 2
= = =
R4 A1 V1 COS 2
Single phase two wire mid point
earthed system
P = 2VI 5COS
P
I5 =
2VCOS
2
 P 
PL5 = 2* I 5 * R5 = 2 
2
 * R5
 2VCOS 
V5 = 2 LA5
PL1 = PL5
2
 
2
P P
2   * R1 = 2   * R5
V   2VCOS 
R1 0.5 A5 V5
= = =
R5 COS  A1 V1
2
Three phase three wire star connected
system
V
VRMS =
2
V
P = 3* * I 6 * COS
2
2P
I6 =
3VCOS
2
 2P 
PL6 = 3I 6 2 R6 = 3   R6
 3VCOS 
V6 = 2 LA6 V = 3LA
6 6
PL1 = PL6
2
P
2
 2P 
2   R1 = 3   R6
V   3VCOS 
R1 1 A
= = 6
R6 3COS 2
A1
V6 3LA6 0.5
= =
V1 2 LA1 COS 2
 Criteria of equal maximum voltage
between conductors
• DC 2 wire mid point earthed
DC 2 WIRE WITH MID POINT EARTHED

SAME AS PREVIOUS CASE

DC 3 WIRE SYSTEM

SAME AS PREVIOUS CASE

Single phase two wire system
Single phase two wire mid point
earthed

Same
THREE PHASE THREE WIRE STAR
CONNECTED SYSTEM
P = 3VI 6COS
V
P= 3 I 6COS
2
2P
I6 =
3VCOS
2
 2P 
PL6 = 3I 6 R6 = 3 
2
 R6
 3VCOS  
V6 = 3LA6

PL1 = PL6
2
P
2
 2P 
2   R1 = 3   R6
V   3VCOS 
R1 1 A6
= =
R6 COS 2 A1
Three phase four wire system
For balanced load this system is same as the
three phase 3 wire system except there is
additional neutral wire.
The cross section of the neutral wire is half of
that is any line conductor.

3.5 LA7 1.75

=
2 LA1 COS 
2

4 LA7 2
=
2 LA1 COS 2
SECOND EQUATION WHEN THE CROSS
SECTION OF NEUTRAL CONDUCTOR IS ALSO
SAME AS LINE CONDUCTORS
 Conductor efficacy
System Same maximum voltage Same maximum voltage
to earth between conductors
DC 2 WIRE 1 WIRE EARTHED 1.0 1.0
DC 2 WIRE MID POINT EARTHED 0.25 1.0
DC 3 WIRE (NEUTRAL ½ LIVE) 0.3125 1.25
Single phase 2 wire 2 / COS 2 2 / COS 2
Single phase 2 wire mid point 0.5 / COS  2 2 / COS 2
earthed
Single phase 2 wire (neutral =1/2
0.625 / COS 2 2.5 / COS 2
live)
Three phase 3 wire 0.5 / COS 2 1.5 / COS 2

Three phase 4 wire (Neutral=live) 0.667 / COS 2 2 / COS 2

 Numerical
• In a DC 2 wire system a feeder is working on 250
V supply a constant load. If the supply voltage is
increased to 400V with the same power
transmitted , calculate the percentage saving in
conductor material.
• A 3 phase 4 wire system is used for lighting .
Compare the amount of conductor material
required with that needed for a 2 wire DC system
with same lamp voltage. Assume the same losses
and balanced load. The neutral wire has half the
cross section of the outers.
 Cont…
• A 50 km long transmission line supplies a load
of 5MVAat 0.8 power factor lagging at 33 KV.
The efficiency of transmission is 90 %.
Calculate the volume of conductor aluminum
required for the line when:
• 1) Single phase 2 wire system is used
• 2) Three phase three wire system is used
• Take the resistivity of aluminium as 2.85*106-
8 ohm-m
 Cont…
• An existing single phase ac system comprising
of two overhead conductors is to be converted
into a three phase 3 wire system by providing
an additional similar conductor. Calculate the
percentage of additional load that can be
transmitted by the three phase system if the
operating voltage and percentage line losses
remains the same in both system