4-5. Plastic Pipe
Other than the above
In the United States, where it is used in both water and
sewage service, poly vinyl chloride (PVC) is the most
commonly used plastic pipe. It is a polymer extruded
under heat and pressure into a thermoplastic that is
nearly inert when exposed to most acids, alkalies,
fuels, and corrosives, but it is attacked by ketones (and
other solvents) sometimes found in industrial waste-
waters. It has a high strength-to- weight ratio and is
durable and resilient, but it lacks the stiffness neces-
sary for exposed service and is susceptible to flotation
in groundwater conditions. Most types of PVC pipe
should not be exposed to direct sunlight (see ANSI/
AWWA C900). Some designers have had poor experi-
ences with solvent-welded flanges and no longer use
them on buried PVC pressure pipe in any size. PVC
pipe conforming to AWWA C900 or C905 with duc-
tile iron fittings can be used for buried service in sizes
1000 mm (24 in.) or smaller. For larger pipe, AWWA
C905 may not be sufficiently conservative in some
applications. A proper analysis of static and transient
internal and external pressures is required. Note that
the fatigue limit for PVC is very low, and the pipe
could be vulnerable to rupture from excessive pres-
sure cycles. HDPE pipe is better for cyclic loading.
High-density polyethylene (HDPE) pipe and poly-
vinyl chloride (PVC) are both suitable for use in pota-
ble water service and raw sewage service. HDPE, in
general, is much less sensitive to surge pressures than
PVC because of the long molecular chains in the plas-
tic material. See AWWA C906 for the method of cal-
culating the required pressure class. The heat fused
butt joint system for HDPE pipe is a satisfactory joint
that is easy to install in the field.
A key consideration in specifying either PVC or
HDPE is their susceptibility to scratches in the pipe
wall that can be caused by dragging the joined sec-
tions of pipe for long distances over the ground.
Rocks usually cause scratches about 3-mm (Vg-ni.)
deep and sometimes much deeper. In HDPE, scratches
0.19-T (T is the pipe wall thickness) deep reduce the
cyclic loading life span by 90%, whereas scratches
0.04 T deep have little influence on fatigue strength.
Specifying that pipe must be dragged over smooth
surfaces, such as railroad ties, is one way to avoid
deep scratches.
In addition, careful attention must be paid in speci-
fications and construction inspection to ensure that the
pipe is fully bedded, with no voids or poorly com-
pacted areas beneath the springline. Because of its
permeability to organic solvents with low molecular
weight (gasoline, for example) HDPE should not be
used for potable water beside roads where gasoline
could penetrate into the ground.
considerations, HDPE is ideal for systems with mod-
erate pressures. Although the cost of the pipe itself is
about the same as it is for steel, its installed cost is
likely to be less than that of steel because of the ease
and speed of handling.
Many designers refuse to specify PVC pipe for the
small (75 -mm or 3 -in. and smaller) piping that, for
example, conveys seal water inside pumping stations.
The primary reason is due to the difficulty of getting
the PVC pipe installers to do a proper job. Specific
problems that occur include:
• Inadequate or excessive amounts of solvent cement
applied to the joints. See ASTM D 2855.
• Inadequate curing time allowed before moving pipe
with solvent-cemented joints. It is wise to specify
eight hours of curing time before pipe can be
moved (in spite of manufacturers' claims that two
hours is adequate).
• Forcing and springing the pipe into position to make
up for errors in initially installing the pipe. The
overstress in the pipe can result in breakage after a
time lapse of less than a year. Adequate inspection
during installation could prevent the overstress, but
inspection after installation is useless.
Because of these problems, copper, steel, or stain-
less steel for the small-size service piping is a better
choice where applicable. These metallic piping sys-
tems are far more resistant to poor installation prac-
tices than is plastic piping. Furthermore, it is
preferable to avoid exposed plastic pipe in any pump-
ing station because of the hazard of melting (or even
supporting combustion) in fires (see NFPA 820). Plas-
tic pipe may, however, be the only practical selection
for chlorine solution or other chemical services.
Other plastic piping materials include
• Aery lonitrile-butadiene- sty rene (ABS)
• Chlorinated polyvinyl chloride (CPVC)
• Polypropylene (PP)
• Polyethylene (PE)
• Polyvinylidene fluoride (KYNAR™ or PVDF)
• Fiberglass-reinforced plastic (FRP).
Most of these materials are used for corrosive chemi-
cals, but some may have special uses for water, sewage,
or sludge. Consult manufacturers for properties, joints,
and fittings. Investigate installations before specifying
such materials. The impact strength of most plastics
decreases when exposed to sunlight. Consequently, be
wary of using plastic pipe in exposed outdoor service
unless it is coated with an ultraviolet-resistant paint
such as a polyurethane. However, FRP should be
installed only where it is exposed and easily inspected;
if it is buried, it should be used with both very conser-
vative safety factors and considerable caution.
Available Sizes and Thicknesses
The range of available sizes is given in Table 4-11, but
consult the appropriate ASTM standards (D 1785 and
D 2241) to find exact sizes, thicknesses, and pressure
ratings.
Wall thickness design for PVC pipe is defined by
two separate sets of nomenclature: (1) standard dimen-
sion ratios (SDR) and (2) schedules. The ratio of pipe
outside diameter to wall thickness is called the "SDR."
For PVC pipe, SDR is calculated by dividing the aver-
age outside diameter of the pipe by the minimum wall
thickness. The available thicknesses are SDR 35
through SDR 14 (refer to ANSI/ASTM D 2241 for a
complete discussion of SDRs and corresponding pres-
sure ratings; refer to ANSI/ASTM D 1785 for a com-
plete discussion of the wall thicknesses and pressure
ratings for the various schedules of PVC pipe).
Joints
Joints of PVC can be solvent welded, flanged, push-on
with rubber gaskets, or threaded. Threads should be
used only for 100-mm (4-in.) pipe and smaller, and the
thinnest threaded pipe should be Schedule 80 (see
ANSI/ASTM D 2464). Solvent-welded Schedule 40
pipe is stronger than threaded Schedule 80 pipe, and
solvent- welded Schedule 80 pipe is the strongest of all.
Gaskets
Gaskets for PVC flanges should be 3.2-mm- (V8-in.)-
thick ethylene propylene rubber (EPR), full faced,
with a Durometer hardness of 50 to 70, Shore A.
When connecting PVC flanges to raised-face metal
flanges, remove the raised face on the connecting
metal flange to protect the PVC flange from the bolt-
ing moment.
Valve Pressure Rating
The maximum allowable working pressure of PVC
valves is even lower than that of Schedule 80 threaded
piping. Most PVC valves are rated at 1040 kPa (150
lb/in.2) at a temperature of 380C (10O0F). The maxi-
mum recommended pressure for any flanged plastic
pipe system (PVC, CPVC, PP, PVDF) is the same.
Fittings
Threaded, flanged, or solvent-welded fittings are used in
exposed and buried service for piping smaller than 100
mm (4 in.). Class 125 mechanical joint ductile or cast-
iron fittings should be used in buried applications for
pipes 100 mm (4 in.) and larger. The adapters must be
installed in the manner prescribed by the manufacturer.
Fittings for PVC pipe include tees, crosses, wyes,
reducers, and 22.5°, 45°, and 90° bends.
Criteria for Selection of PVC Pressure Pipe
Recommended criteria for using PVC pressure pipe is
as follows:
• Seventy-five mm (3 in.) and smaller, exposed and
buried service: Schedule 80 per ASTM D 1784 and
D 1785. Other ASTM standards applicable to PVC
pipe are D 2464, Schedule 80 Threaded Fittings; D
2467 Schedule 80 Socket Type Plastic Fittings; and
D 2564 Solvent Cements for PVC Pipe. Based on
the experience and observations of various engi-
neers, this pipe should not be used in applications in
which the operating pressure exceeds 550 kPa (80
lb/in.2). Use copper or steel pipe for water service;
use PVC pipe only for chemical service.
• One hundred and 150 mm (4 and 6 in.), exposed ser-
vice: Schedule 80 per ASTM D 1748 and D 1785.
Use solvent-welded—not threaded—joints. Based on
the experience and observations of various engineers,
this pipe should not be used in applications in which
the operating pressure exceeds 345 kPa (50 lb/in.2).
Use PVC only for chemical service piping. Use steel
or ductile iron for water piping and other services.
• Two hundred mm (8 in.) and larger, exposed service:
PVC pipe should not be used at all in such sizes.
• One hundred through 300 mm (4 through 12 in.),
buried service: AWWA C900. Fittings should be
cast or ductile iron.
• Three hundred fifty through 900 mm (14 through 36
in.), buried service: AWWA C905. This standard
may not be sufficiently conservative in its pressure
ratings for some applications. For a pressure class
of 1035 kPa (150 lb/in.2), consider using an SDR of
18 for 350- to 600-mm (14- to 24-in.) pipe and an
SDR of 21 for 750- to 900-mm (30- to 36-in.) pipe.
These SDR values are based on a surge allowance
of 345 kPa (50 lb/in.2) over the pipe pressure class,
with a safety factor of 2.5 for 350- to 600-mm pipe
and a safety factor of 2.0 for 750- to 900-mm pipe.
• Never use plastic pipe for air or compressed gas
service.
4-6. Asbestos Cement Pipe (ACP) to select which of the safety factors should apply. Per
AWWA C400, safety factors should be no less than
Asbestos cement pipe, available in the United States 4.0 and 2.5 if no surge analysis is made. The low
since 1930, is made by mixing portland cement and safety factors given in AWWA C403 should be used
asbestos fiber under pressure and heating it to produce a only if all loads (external, internal, and transient) are
hard, strong, yet machinable product. Over 480,000 km carefully and accurately evaluated.
(300,000 mi) of ACP is now in service in the United
States, and, according to a mid-1970s survey, more than
a third of pipe then being installed was ACP [8]. Joints and Fittings
In recent years, attention has been focused on the
hazards of asbestos in the environment and, particu- The joints are usually push-on, twin-gasketed cou-
larly, in drinking water. The debate continues with one plings (Figure 4-10), although mechanical and rubber
set of experts advising of the potential dangers and a gasket push-on joints can be used to connect ACP to
second set of experts claiming that pipes made with iron fittings.
asbestos do not result in increases in asbestos concen- Ductile iron fittings conforming to ANSI/AWWA
trations in the water. Studies have shown no associa- C110/A21.10 are used with ACP, and adapters are
tion between water delivered by ACP and any general available to connect ACP to flanged or mechanical duc-
disease, but fear may be as important as reality, so tile iron fittings. Fabricated steel fittings with rubber
consult with owners and local health authorities gasket joints can also be used. ACP may be tapped with
before deciding whether to specify ACP. corporation stops, tapping sleeves, or service clamps.
In January 1986, the EPA published a proposed reg-
ulation banning further manufacture and installation of
ACP, but it was made clear that the proposed action 4-7. Reinforced Concrete Pressure Pipe
was based on the hazard of inhaling asbestos fibers (RCPP)
during manufacture and installation of the pipe—not
because it contaminated drinking water. For awhile Reinforced concrete pressure pipe can be made to meet
after October 1987, the EPA had been reassessing the special strength requirements by using a combination
January proposal [8], but the proposed ban was over- of a steel cylinder and steel cages, by using one or
turned by a U.S. Federal Appeals court in 1991. Con- more steel cages, or by prestressing with spiral rods (as
sequently, ACP is still being manufactured and used. shown in Figures 4-11 and 4-12 and in Table 4-12).
A distressing number of failures of prestressed
concrete cylinder pipe (AWWA C301) have occurred
Available Sizes and Thicknesses in the United States within the last decade. The outer
shell of concrete cracks, which allows the reinforce-
Available sizes are given in Table 4-11. Refer to ASTM ment to corrode and subsequently fail. Therefore, do
C296 and AWWA 401, 402, and 403 for thicknesses not depend on AWWA specifications or on manufac-
and pressure ratings and AWWA C401 and C403 for turers' assurances, but do make a careful analysis of
detailed design procedures. AWWA C401-83, for 100- internal pressure (including water hammer) and exter-
to 400-mm (4- to 16-in.) pipe, is similar to AWWA nal loads. Make certain that the tensile strain in the
C403-84 for 450- to 1050-mm (18- to 42-in.) pipe. The outer concrete shell is low enough so that cracking
properties of asbestos cement for distribution pipe either will not occur at all or will not penetrate to the
(AWWA C400) and transmission pipe (AWWA C402) steel under the worst combination of external and
are identical. Nevertheless, under AWWA C403 the internal loading. Note again that strength is not the
suggested minimum safety factor is 2.0 for operating issue. The concern is for the tensile strain in the outer-
pressure and 1 .5 for external loads, whereas the safety most concrete. When cracks do occur, they appear to
factors under AWWA C402 are 4.0 and 2.5, respec- penetrate to a depth of about 18 to 25 mm (0.75 to
tively. So the larger pipe has the smaller safety factors. 1 in.), so a clear cover of at least 38 mm (1.5 in.)
Section 4 in AWWA C403 justifies this difference should be specified. Water hammer must be carefully
on the basis that surge pressures in large pipe tend to analyzed and controlled. Wire-wrapped, prestressed
be less than those in small pipes. But surge pressures concrete pipe has the worst history of failure. Rein-
are not necessarily a function of pipe diameter (see forced concrete pipe is better, but if any significant
Chapters 6 and 7). The operating conditions, includ- water hammer can occur, ductile iron or steel is best.
ing surge pressures, should be evaluated before the For salt or brackish water, PVC, HDPE, or ductile iron
pipe class is selected. It is the engineer's prerogative with cathodic protection should be used.
Sizes and Joints
Sizes range from 600 to 3600 mm (24 to 144 in.), as
shown in Table 4-11.
Joints are shown in Figures 4-11 and 4-12. Joints
for buried service include
• Rubber gasket and concrete (Figure 4-1 Ia)
• Rubber gasket and steel (Figure 4-1 Ib, c, d)
• Lugged rubber gasket and steel (Figure 4-12).
Note that rubber gasket and concrete joints (Figure
4-11) should be used only for pressures less than 380
kPa (55 lb/in.2). The other joints can withstand pres-
sures up to 2800 kPa (400 lb/in.2), but consult manu-
facturers for joint pressure ratings.
Wall Thickness Design
The wall thickness design should be based on both
external trench loads and on a detailed hydraulic anal-
ysis of the pumping system, including water hammer
and surge pressure. Surge pressures should not be able
to induce even hairline cracks in the external surface.
A variety of wall thicknesses and reinforcing designs
are available for each pipe diameter.
Some of these types of pipe have severe internal
pressure limitations. The AWWA standards cited in
Table 4-12 should be consulted.
Fittings
Standard fittings are tees, crosses, 45° wyes, eccentric
reducers, concentric reducers, flange and mechanical
joint adapters to connect concrete pipe to steel or duc-
tile iron (Figure 4-13), and bends from 7.5° to 90° in
7.5° steps. RCPP can be tapped by drilling a hole into
the pipe and then strapping a threaded or flanged tap-
ping saddle to the pipe. Alternatively, a threaded steel
outlet connection can be cast in the pipe wall during
manufacture. Some pipe designers prefer to use fabri-
cated steel specials for fittings and for any pipe seg-
ment containing an outlet or nozzle.
Linings
Pipe that is only partly full of sewage or in which air
can enter by any means (temperature changes, vortices
in the wet well, or leaks) requires protection against
corrosion caused by bacterial action. Sometimes, pipe
can fail in only a few years. Anaerobic, sulfate-reduc-
ing bacteria (such as Desulfovibrio) living in the slime
below the water surface utilize the oxygen in sulfate
and create hydrogen sulfide, which escapes from the
water surface to the atmosphere above. Aerobic bacte-
ria (Thiobacillus) on the sides and soffit of the pipe
convert the hydrogen sulfide to sulfuric acid at a pH of
2 or even less. Thiobacillus cannot live in pipe that is
always full, so it is important to keep force mains
(whether concrete, steel, or ductile iron) full at all
times. Therefore, where a force main terminates at a
manhole, design the connection so that no part of the
force main is exposed to air. Either connect the force
main up through the bottom of the manhole, or if it
enters from the side, either (1) set the invert of the
downstream sewer above the crown of the force main
or (2) use plastic pipe near the manhole.
Lining and coating systems for pipes include vari-
ous brush- or spray-applied epoxies, resins, polyure-
thanes, and coal tars. Coatings such as coal-tar
epoxies have a history of poor performance where
hydrogen sulfide attack can occur. A more effective
(and more costly) lining system consists of PVC liner
sheets (such as Ameron Tee-Lock®) that are made
with keys or ribs projecting from one side of the sheet.
The smooth PVC face is attached directly to the forms
prior to casting the concrete. The ribs project into the
concrete and form a mechanical bond with it. PVC
liners can be cast around the entire circumference of
pipe and the longitudinal joint heat-fused to form a
360° liner, but it is cheaper to line only the portion
above low-water level. These liners offer maximum
protection for concrete pipe and manholes subject to
corrosive environments, and they have a 40-year
record of success. If the workmanship and inspection
of the welding at the joints is good, the system will
have a long, trouble-free life. The designer's problems
are: (1) to write specifications that ensure workers are
not hurried through this important task and (2) to
ensure that inspection is of high caliber. PVC liners
are usually applied only to pipes in sizes of 900 mm
(36 in.) and larger and usually only to the upper 270°
of the full circumference. Corrosion-resistant materi-
als such as vitrified clay pipe, PVC, or HDPE should
be used for smaller sewer pipes. See Section 25-1 1 for
more discussion of concrete protection.
4-8. Design of Piping
The emphasis in this section is on the piping within
the pumping station (i.e., exposed) and problems such
as pipe thickness, flange bolts, and pipe supports. The
design of external (i.e., buried) piping is limited to
generalities because there is an extensive body of
excellent literature on such problems [9, 1 1-15].
 In selecting a pipe size, be aware that it is the out- Table 4-14. Root Areas of Threaded Rods
side—not the inside—diameter that is fixed. The
inside diameter varies with the wall thickness, Nominal rod diameter Root area of coarse thread
whereas the outside diameter does not. This is true for mm in. mm 2 in. 2
all sizes of ductile iron, copper, brass, and plastic 3
pipe. It is also true for most steel pipe used in pump- 10 /8 43.9 0.068
13 V2 81.3 0.126
ing stations. 5
16 /8 130.3 0.202
3
19 /4 194.8 0.302
7
22 /8 270.3 0.419
Exposed Piping 25 1 356.1 0.552
28 IV 8 447.1 0.693
The selection of pipe size governed by hydraulics is 31 IV 4 573.5 0.889
given in Example 3-1. Other practical considerations 35 1% 679.4 1.053
that depend on available pipe diameters and wall and 38 IV 2 834.2 1.293
lining thicknesses are discussed in Sections 4-3 and 41 l5/8 977.4 1.515
4-4 under "Available Sizes and Thicknesses." 44 l3/4 1125 1.744
47 l7/8 1321 1.048
50 2 1479 2.292
Tie Rods 63 2V2 2397 3.716
75 3 3626 5.672
Mechanical couplings, mechanical joints, and push-on
joints (Figures 4-7, 4-8, 4-10, and 4-11) must be
restrained from sliding apart either by soil friction (if
the pipe is buried) or by tie rods (if the pipe is exposed) and bolts for tensile stress at the net cross-sectional
as shown in Figures 4-3 and 4-12. Always design rods area at the root of the threads (see Table 4-14).

Example 4-1
Design of Tie Rods for a Sleeve Pipe Coupling

Problem: Determine the number and size of tie rods required for a sleeve coupling in a 600-mm
(24-in.) DIP under a maximum static and surge pressure of 1070 kPa (155 lb/in.2).
Solution: The outside diameter of the pipe is 655 mm (25.8 in.); because the pressure acts on
the gross face area of the end of the pipe, use the OD (not the ID) to compute thrust.

Sl Units U.S. Customary Units

Pipe area = «W'f5? = 0.337 m2 Pipe area = ^*? = 523 in.2

Thrust = 1070 kPax 0.337 m 2 Thrust = 155 lb/in.2 x 523 in.2

= 361 kN = 81,100 Ib
Materials recommended in AWWA Ml 1 [9] are (1) rods or bolts (ASTM A 193, Grade B7
or equivalent with a yield stress of 725,000 kPa [105,000 lb/in.2]), (2) welded lugs (ASTM
A 283, Grade B or ASTM A 285, Grade C or equivalent with a yield stress of 186,000 kPa
[27,000 lb/in.2] or ASTM A 36 steel with a yield stress of 248,000 kPa [36,000 lb/in.2]) (see
the ASTM standards for stresses).
Reduce the tensile yield stress at the root of the threads by a safety factor of 2 to obtain the
allowable working stress. The total root area required is then
2
, 36IkN nnnm A 81,000 Ib t ., . 2
A =
362 kPa = a°°10 m
000 kPa
362,000
A =
^000 lb/in2
= L56 m<

Many combinations of rod sizes and numbers can be used. Try several and choose a suitable
one. (Note, however, that the resulting bending stresses in the pipe shell should be checked.
Using two large-diameter rods, for example, causes greater bending stresses than using four
 smaller ones. Sometimes the pipe wall thickness must be increased to reduce the stress.) From
Table 4-14 the root area of a 22-mm (7/8-in.) bolt is 270 mm2 or 0.000270 m2 (0.419 in.2); thus,
the number of rods required is

N = 0.0010 m 2 x IQ 6 = 3? A, __ 1.56 in.2 = 3?

270 mm2 0.419 in.2

Use four 22-mm rods. Use four 7/g-m. rods.

Note that the rod material is high-strength steel (ASTM 193 Grade B7). If lower strength
steel (carbon or stainless) were used, the number and/or size of rods would be quite different.
The rods can be supported by lugs welded to the pipe, which is excellent with steel pipe but
can be done with ductile iron pipe only if great care is taken not to overheat the iron. An alternate
detail for ductile iron pipe is to bolt an "ear" (as in Figure 4-3a) to the pipe flange so that the tie
rod clears both the pipe flange and the pipe coupling. From the DIPRA handbook [11] and man-
ufacturers' catalogs, the critical dimensions are (1) flange bolt circle [749 mm (29.5 in.)], (2)
number and size of bolts [20 bolts 32 mm (I1I4 in.) in diameter], (3) flange OD [813 mm
(32.0 in.)], (4) flange thickness [48 mm (1.88 in.)], and (5) coupling OD [782 mm (30.8 in.)]. If
a clearance between the rod and flange of, say, 8 mm (5/16 in.) is chosen, the rod is centered 19
mm ( 3 /4 in.) from the flange OD. The ear can be designed (with an adequate safety factor applied
to the yield stress) to withstand the calculated force in the tie rod, but a more sensible design is to
size the ear so that yield stress is reached simultaneously in the ear and tie rod. The bending
moment in the ear is equal to the lever arm times the force in the tie rod.

M = 0.019 m(2.7 x 10~4 m 2 x 7.25 x 108 N/m2) M = 0.75 in.(0.419 in.2 x 105,000 lb/in.2)
= 3.720 N • m = 33,000 Ib • in.
The formula for bending stress is

s
Mc M (44)
= - = -s
where s is stress in newtons per square meter (pounds per square inch), M is moment in newton-
meters (pound-inches), / is moment of inertia in meters to the fourth power (inches to the fourth
power), and S is the section modulus in cubic meters (cubic inches). For rectangular cross-
setctions, S = bd2/6, where b is width in meters (inches) and d is depth in meters (inches). Rear-
ranging Equation 4-1 and using the yield stress for A 36 steel gives
, ,2 6 x 3720 N - m , ,2 6 x 33,000
! Ib • in.
bd = bd = —
248,000,000 N/m 36,000 lb/in.
= 9.0OxIO" 5 m 3 = 5.5 in.3
Let b = 63 mm = 0.063 m. Let b = 2.5 in.

"^r"""- "Jg-'-"
Use 63 mm x 38 mm plate. Use 21I2 in. x IV 2 in. plate.

Pipe Wall Thickness
The hoop (circumferential) tensile stress in metal
pipe due to the working pressure should not exceed
50% of the yield strength. The working pressure plus
surge pressure due to water hammer should not
exceed 75% of the yield strength or the mill test pres-
sure. Depending on the grade of steel used, the yield
strength can lie between 248,000 and 414,000 kPa
(36,000 and 60,000 lb/in.). The yield strength of DIP
is more uniform — a minimum of 290,000 kPa
(42,000 lb/in.2).
 The hoop tensile stress is given by the equation
5 = f («)
where s is the allowable circumferential stress in kilo-
pascals (pounds per square inch), p is the pressure in
kilopascals (pounds per square inch), D is the outside
diameter of the iron or steel cylinder in millimeters
(inches), and t is the thickness of the iron or steel cyl-
inder in millimeters (inches). (Theoretically, D should
be the inside diameter, but the outside diameter is con-
servatively specified in most codes, partly because the
ID is not known initially.) The longitudinal stress in a
straight pipe is half of the circumferential stress.
Hangers and Supports
Supports or hangers must carry the weight of the pipe
and fluid in exposed piping systems. The location of
supports and hangers depends on the pipe size, joint
systems, piping configurations, location of valves and
fittings, weight of pipe and liquid, beam strength of
the pipe, and the structure available to support the
weight and all other static and dynamic forces, includ-
ing expansion and contraction.
Supports or hangers must also carry the lateral
forces due to earthquake. Either design vertical sup-
ports to resist the horizontal force of pipe and fluid or
augment vertical supports and hangers with horizontal
ones. Note that tension in wall anchors must resist the
full horizontal force. Typical pipe supports are shown
in Figure 4-15 and a few of the many hangers manu-
factured are shown in Figure 4-16.
Some general design precautions for pipe support
system design include the following:
• Because pump casing connections to piping systems
are rarely designed to support any load transmitted
through the connection, supports should be provided
on both the suction and discharge side of pumps to pre-
vent pipe loads being transmitted to the pump casing.
• Flexible pipe couplings are recommended at pump
inlets and outlets. They are useful because (1) they
are "forgiving" and allow the contractor to level the
pump and make minor horizontal adjustments; (2)
properly selected, they isolate the pump from slight
movements of the pipe; and (3) they reduce vibra-
tion and, to a limited extent, noise.
• If expansion and contraction of the piping could
occur, the pipe supports should allow movement.
• Flexible joints, such as mechanical joints and cou-
plings, must be supported on both sides because
they are not designed to transmit loads. Flexible
couplings must be constrained with lugs and lug
bolts to prevent longitudinal movement caused by
internal pipeline pressure.
ANSI B31.1 describes hanger and support spac-
ings for steel pipe with a minimum wall thickness of
standard weight. A maximum bending stress of
16,000 kPa (2300 lb/in.2) and a maximum deflection
(sag) of 2.5 mm (0.1 in.) for pipes filled with water is
assumed in the ANSI spacings. The spacings given in
Table 4-15 should not be exceeded.
Hanger rod sizes should be
• at least 9.5 mm (3/8 in.) for pipe 50 mm (2 in.) and
smaller;
• at least 13 mm (1I2 in.) for pipe 63 mm (21I2 in.) and
larger.
Design hanger rods for a maximum working stress of
20 to 40% of the yield stress at the root area of the
threaded ends (see Table 4-14). If the hangers are embed-
ded in or supported by concrete, make sure the embed-
ment is as strong as the threaded rod or limit the allowable
load to the specifications in UBC Section 2624. Capsule
anchors containing a two-part resin (such as Emhart
Molly Parabond™) are superior to expansion anchors,
which use friction to resist being pulled out. Some engi-
neers do not trust glued anchors, however, because good
and dependable workmanship is critical. Embedded eye
bolts should be welded closed in addition to being welded
to the reinforcing bars, as shown in Figure 4-16a and b.
Hanger rod sizing for plastic pipe should be the same
as for steel pipe, but the spacing of hangers should be as
recommended by the plastic pipe manufacturer. Spacings
are typically half those for steel and ductile iron pipe.
In addition to installing supports or hangers for
straight runs of pipe, provide additional hangers or
supports at
• concentrated loads, such as valves;
• fittings;
• both sides of nonrigid joints; and
• pipe connected to suction and discharge casings of
pumps.
A wide variety of standard hangers and supports is
available [17]. Combining Equation 4-1 for stress due
to bending (s = McII ) and bending moment for simple
spans (M = wL2/8) and rearranging, the equation for
calculating pipe support spacings based on stress (for
straight pipe runs) becomes
/O „ J
Spacing = L = /— (4-3)
A/ WC
where L is the spacing in meters (inches), s is the
allowable stress in newtons per square meter (pounds
Figure 4-15. Pipe supports, (a) Concrete pipe support; (b) concrete base elbow support; (c) steel pipe support base
in soil; (d) steel pipe support on floor; (e) steel valve support on floor. For floor supports, provide similar horizontal
supports to resist seismic forces. Courtesy of Wilson & Company, Engineers & Architects.
Figure 4-16. Pipe hanger details, (a) Swivel rings (for pipe that requires no protecting shield); (b) clevis hanger [(for
flexible pipe, add a shield (e.g., a similar pipe split in half) between the pipe and hanger]; (c) clevis hanger (use for
hanging from steel joists); (d) adjustable swivel roller (use for pipe that expands and contracts). Courtesy of Wilson &
Company, Engineers & Architects.

Table 4-15. Support Spacing for Iron or Steel Pipe per ANSI B31.1

Span
Nominal pipe size Water service Steam, gas, or air service
mm in. m ft m ft

25 1 2.1 7 2.7 9
50 2 3.0 10 4.0 13
75 3 3.7 12 4.6 15
100 4 4.3 14 5.2 17
150 6 5.2 17 6.4 21
200 8 5.8 19 7.3 24
300 12 7.0 23 9.1 30
400 16 8.2 27 10.7 35
500 20 9.1 30 11.9 39
600 24 9.8 32 12.8 42
per square inch), / is the moment of inertia in meters The equation of sag for a uniformly loaded simple
to the fourth power (inches to the fourth power), w is span is
the weight of pipe and water per unit length in new-
tons per meter (pounds per inch), and c is the distance s 5wL ,, cx
8 (4 5)
from the neutral axis to the outer fiber (OD/2) in = 384E/ '
meters (inches). / for pipe is given by
and rearranging to find L gives
4 4
7 _ TC[(OD) -(/D) ]
64 L = (**™*r (4-6)
\ 5w J
where E, the modulus of elasticity, is given in Table
A-IO. Be careful to use compatible units.

Example 4-2
Hanger Rod Sizing and Spacing

Problem: A 600-mm (24-in.) steel pipe of standard weight is filled with water. The allowable
tensile stress (including the factor of safety) in the hanger rods is 62,000 kPa or 62 x 106 N/m2
(9000 lb/in.2). Assume that a factor of safety of 1.5 is to be applied to the ANSI maximum bend-
ing stress in the pipe, so that stress is limited to 1.07 x 107 N/m2 (1500 lb/in.2).
Solution: Calculate / from Equation 4-4 (see Table B-3 or B-4 for dimensions and weight of
the pipe barrel).

SI Units U.S. Customary Units

/ = A[(0.610)4-(0.591)4] / = ^[(24) 4 -(23.25) 4 ]

= 8.08 x 10~4 m4 = 2070 in.4

Calculate w, the total mass of pipe and water in kilograms per meter (pounds per foot) (see
Tables B-3 and B-4 for the mass of the pipe barrel and for the inside cross-sectional area).

w = 141 kg/m + 0.273 m 2 x 1000 kg/m3 w = 94.6 Ib/ft + 2.94 ft2 x 62.4 lb/ft3
= 414 kg/m = 278 lb/ft = 23.2 lb/in.
Transforming mass to force,

w = 414 kg/m ?^_N = 4060 N/m

kg
From Equation 4-3 the maximum spacing is

L = /8 x 1.07 x IQ7 N/m2 x 8.08 x 10~4 m = /8 x 1500 lb/in.2 x 2070 in?

~ V 4060 N/m x 0.305 m "^ 23.2 lb/in. x 12 in.
= 7.47 m = 299 in. = 24.9 ft
From Equation 4-6, the span for the allowable sag of 2.5 mm (0.10 in.) is

, _ ("384 x 2.07 x IQ 11 N/m2 _ f384 x 2.9 x IQ7 lb/in.2

L L
~ ( 5 ~ ( 5

_ 4 02 c 2070 in4 x 0.2 in.A0'25

8.08 x IQ"4 m4 x 0.0025 mV-25 x 23 3 lb/in J
4060 N/m J
= 9.35 m = 379 in' - 31 5 ft
'
 So stress, not deflection, governs. Although the allowable span from Table 4-15 is 9.8 m (32 ft)
based on an allowable stress of 15, 900 kPa (2300 lb/in.2), use a lesser spacing, about 7.3 m
(24 ft), for an allowable stress of 10, 400 kPa (1500 lb/in.2) in this problem. The force per
hanger is
F = 4060 N/m x 7.3 m F = 23.2 lb/in. x 12 in./ft x 24 ft
= 30,000 N = 6700 Ib

and the required area at the root of threads is

A = 30,000 N A = 6700 Ib
62 x 106 N/m2 9000 lb/in.2
= 4.8 x 10~4 m 2 = 480 mm2 = 0.74 in.2

From Table 4-14, use rods 31 mm (I1I4 in.) in diameter. However, if the rods are to be anchored
only by embedment in concrete, note that UBC Section 2624 allows a maximum load of only
14,000 N (3200 Ib) per bolt. That requirement would permit a spacing of only
T 14,00ON ,.. , 3200 Ib ., . ,f
L =
4060NM = 3 ' 4 5 m L =
278lWft=1L5ft

Buried Piping
External Loads
Buried pipes must support external structural loads,
including the weight of the soil above the pipe plus
any superimposed wheel loads due to vehicles if the
pipeline crosses a runway, railway, or roadway. The
two broad categories for external structural design are
rigid and flexible pipe. Rigid pipe supports external
loads because of the strength of the pipe itself. Flexi-
ble pipe distributes the external loads to surrounding
soil and/or pipeline bedding material. Consider DIP,
steel, and PVC to be flexible, whereas AC and RCPP
are rigid. (FRP is also rigid, but refer to Section 4-5
for a warning about buried service.)
Supporting strengths for flexible conduits are gen-
erally given as loads required to produce a deflection
expressed as a percentage of the diameter. Ductile iron
pipe may be designed for deflections up to 3% of the
pipe diameter according to ANSI A21.50. Until
recently, plastic pipe manufacturers generally agreed
that deflections up to 5% of the diameter were accept-
able. Some manufacturers now suggest that deflec-
tions up to 7% of the diameter are permissible. Many
engineers, however, believe these values are much too
liberal and use 2 to 3% for design.
Pipeline bedding conditions affect the safe supporting
strength of both rigid and flexible conduits. Screenings,
silt, or other fine materials are unsuitable for stable pipe-
line bedding and should be avoided particularly where
the groundwater level may rise above the trench bottom.
Better systems range from (1) merely shaping the trench
bottom to (T) using select bedding material to (3) sup-
porting the pipe on a monolithically poured concrete cra-
dle. A stable, granular bedding material can be achieved
with a well-graded crushed stone with a maximum parti-
cle size of 3/4 in. and containing not less than 95% by
weight of material retained on the No. 8 sieve.
The design of pipe to resist external loads is
involved because it depends on the stiffness of the
pipe, the width and depth of trench, the kind of bed-
ding, the kind of soil, and the size of pipe. Discussions
are given in AWWA Mil [9], AWWA M9 [13], the
DIPRA handbook [11], by Spangler [14, 15], and in
many other publications.
Thrust Blocks
Where changes in flow direction occur, the exposed
pipes must be restrained against the resultant thrust.
Changes in flow direction occur at all bends, tees,
plugs, caps, and crosses. Joint systems, such as
flanges, welds, and grooved couplings, are designed to
provide restraint up to the manufacturer's rating. But
if the joint system is inadequate to contain the calcu-
lated thrust, external restraint is needed. Thrust calcu-
lations are illustrated in Example 3-5.
Buried pipes with mechanical or push-on joints
require thrust blocking at deflections, bends, tees,
plugs, or other changes in flow direction. Thrust
blocks are constructed of cast-in-place concrete
poured in the trench during pipeline installation. They
are designed to act as horizontal spread footings that
distribute the resultant force to the trench wall. The
required area of the thrust block can be determined
Figure 4-17. Typical underground thrust block details. Courtesy of Wilson & Company, Engineers & Architects.

Figure 4-18. Typical thrust blocks for exposed pipes, (a) Combination thrust block pipe support; (b) thrust block/
pipe support for emerging pipe. Courtesy of Wilson & Company, Engineers & Architects.
from the resultant force acting on the bend (see Exam-
ple 3-5) and the allowable soil bearing pressure. For
the resultant force, use whichever of the following is
greater: (1) the total (working plus water hammer)
pressure or (2) the pipeline test pressure. The allow-
able horizontal bearing pressure can best be found by
calculating the Rankine passive pressure from the
principles of soil mechanics, or it can be found in
tables [9] (see also DIPRA [1 1] or UBC Table 29-B).
The concrete in thrust blocks should have a mini-
mum compressive strength of 13,800 kPa (2000 lb/in.2)
at 28 days. The bearing area should be poured directly
against undisturbed earth. Figures 4-17 and 4-18 show
typical thrust block details.
The use of thrust blocks should be considered with
great care. They are only as good as the stability of
the soils used for reaction backing. In locations where
the soils may be disturbed by future excavations (yard
piping, treatment plant sites, busy streets, etc.), reli-
ance on thrust blocks (particularly for large diameters
and high-pressure pipeline systems) is not a very
good idea. Instead, the use of restrained (lugged or
harnessed) joints and trench friction is a better
approach.
Cleanouts
Cleanouts should be installed in sludge and slurry
lines that carry grease, grit, or other substances (such
as lime) that may form deposits in the pipe (typical
designs are shown in Figures 4-19 and 4-20). Lime-
carrying waters are especially troublesome, so use
troughs instead of pipe where possible.

Figure 4-19. Underground pipe cleanout. Courtesy of Wilson & Company, Engineers & Architects.

Figure 4-20. In-line cleanouts for exposed pipe. Courtesy of Wilson & Company, Engineers & Architects.
 Special cleanouts are required for flowmeters, and
a suitable system is shown in Figure 20-12.
Pig Launching and Recovery
Typical pig launching and recovery stations are shown
in Figures 4-21 and 4-22. The pig stop, Figure 4-23, is
placed in the pig retrieval pipe prior to the pigging
operation. The 2l/2 D barrel length is standard, but if
space is tight, I1I2 D can be used (although not with
deZurik pigs). Pressure gauges are unnecessary. The
best way to determine whether the pig has gone is to
isolate the launch barrel and insert a rod through the
launching valve quick-connect. At the retrieval end,
listen for the sound of the pig arriving.

Figure 4-21. Typical pig launching station. Courtesy of Brown and Caldwell Consultants.

Figure 4-22. Typical pig retrieval station. Courtesy of Brown and Caldwell Consultants.

Figure 4-23. Typical pig stop. Courtesy of Brown and
Caldwell Consultants.
4-9. Special Piping and Plumbing
The requirements for conveying small flows of wash-
down water, fuel, cooling water, and sump drainage
are entirely different from the foregoing. Pipes for
fuel, wash water, seal water, and air are small and
comparatively inexpensive even when constructed of
materials such as copper or stainless steel. Special
piping materials are listed in Table 4-16.
Water
If water is needed for lavatories or wash-down, galva-
nized steel with threaded connections is practical
because the pipe would rarely exceed 38 mm (11^ in.)
in diameter. Pipe fittings are usually made of mallea-
ble iron. Thread compound or Teflon™ tape should be
applied to threads. There should be enough strategi-
cally placed unions to allow for dismantling and
replacement. Threaded pipe must have a wall thick-
ness no less than standard weight per ANSI B36.10.
Copper tubing, with joints soldered with tin-
antimony (ASTM B 32, Grade SbS), is also practical.
Because there is evidence that lead can leach into the
water, avoid lead-based solder. Copper, however, is cor-
roded by hydrogen sulfide. So copper or brass piping
and tubing should be used with caution in areas of
wastewater pumping stations exposed to a hydrogen
sulfide atmosphere. Copper tubing also should not be
allowed to come in contact with prefabricated wood
trusses that have been treated with ammonium sulfate
fire-retardant material, because the ammonium sulfate
is very corrosive to copper. Require that the copper tub-
ing be attached to wood trusses by pipe hangers, and
not just attached directly to or laid directly on the wood.
PVC could be used in Schedule 40 for solvent-
welded joints or Schedule 80 for threaded joints, but it
requires closely spaced supports. Since galvanized
steel pipe within corrosive atmospheres, such as wet
wells, corrodes quickly, a more satisfactory material is
stainless steel or PVC.
Stainless-steel pipe in most pumping station ser-
vices is covered by ASTM A 312 for 3 through 750
mm (V8 through 30 in.) and A 778 for 75 through
1200 mm (3 through 48 in.) for material; for dimen-
sions, it is covered by ANSI B36.19 (not ANSI
B36.10). Note that the minimum wall thickness for
threaded pipe is Schedule 4OS. Fittings 50 or 75 mm
(2 or 3 in.) and smaller should be threaded and
should conform with ASTM A 403 and ANSI B 16.3
(see the previous discussion on the applicability of
threaded joints). Fittings larger than 75 mm (3 in.)
should be butt welded, grooved end, or flanged
and should conform to ASTM A 403 or A 774, and
ANSI B 16.9.
The wall thicknesses for the pipe schedules for
stainless-steel pipe are as follows:
• Schedule 4OS for stainless-steel pipe is the same as
Schedule 40 for carbon steel pipe in sizes of 10 in.
and smaller.
• Schedule 4OS for stainless-steel pipe is the same as
standard weight (3/8-in. wall) for carbon steel pipe
in sizes of 12 in. and larger.
• Schedule 80S for stainless-steel pipe is the same as
Schedule 80 for carbon steel pipe in sizes of 8 in.
and smaller.
Note that the letter S always follows the Schedule
number for stainless steel, for example, 4OS.
Threaded Joints
Threaded malleable iron fittings and couplings (ANSI
B 16.3) can be used with steel pipe and are usually
cheaper than forged steel fittings conforming to ANSI
B16.ll. Threading conforms to ANSI B 1.20.1 for
both malleable iron and forged steel fittings.
Forged steel fittings (90° and 45° elbows, tees,
crosses, couplings, caps, plugs, and bushings) con-
forming to ANSI B16.ll are available in sizes of 3
through 100 mm (V8 in. through 4 in.) Assembling
and disassembling threaded fittings and joints larger
than 50 to 75 mm (2 to 3 in.) is labor intensive, so
only small pipes are connected by threaded fittings.
Unions at strategic locations are needed for disas-
sembly. Steel unions conform to MSS SP-83; mallea-
ble iron unions conform to ANSI B 16.39.
Table 4-16. Piping Materials and Standards

Abbreviation Piping material Standard

ABDI Abrasion-resistant ductile iron None
ABS Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene ASTM D 1527, D 2661, D 2751, D 2680, F 409, F 545
ACP Asbestos cement pipe AWWA C400, C402; ASTM C 296
ALUM Aluminum pipe ASTM B 241, B 361
ARCI Acid-resistant cast iron ASTM A 518
BR Brass ASTM B 43
CASST Carpenter 20 stainless steel ASTM B 464, B 474
CCP Concrete cylinder pipe (pretensioned) AWWA C303
CISP Cast-iron soil pipe CISPI 301; ASTM A 74, A 888
CML Cement-mortar-lined steel pipe AWWA C200, C205, C208; ASTM A 53, A 134, A
135, A 139, A 234, A 283, A 570, A 572
CMP Corrugated metal pipe AASHTO M36
CPE Corrugated polyethylene ASTM F 405, F 667, ASTO M252
CPVC Chlorinated polyvinyl ASTM D 1784, F 437, F 439, F 441, F 493
CTEL Coal-tar enamel-lined steel AWWA C200, C203; ASTM A 53, A 134, A 135, A
139, A 234
CTXL&C Coal-tar epoxy -lined and -coated steel pipe AWWA C200, C210; ASTM A 53, A 120, A 134, A
135, A 139, A 234
CU Copper ASTM B42 75, B 88
DIP Ductile iron pipe AWWA C150, C151, Cl 10, C l I l , C115; ASTMA
395, A 436
DWV Drain, waste, and vent copper tubing ASTM B 306
FRP Fiberglass-reinforced plastic pipe ASTM D 2310, D 2992, D 2996, D 2997; PS-15-69;
AWWA C950
FXL&C Fusion-bonded epoxy-lined and -coated steel pipe AWWA C213; ASTM A 53, A 120, A 134, A 135, A
139, A 324
GALVS Galvanized steel pipe ASTM A 53
HDPE High-density polyethylene AWWA C906
PCCP Prestressed concrete-cylinder pipe AWWA C301
PP Polypropylene ASTM D 2146, D 4101
PPLS Polypropylene-lined steel pipe ASTM F 492
PTFELS Polytetrafluoroethylene- (Teflon™) lined steel pipe ASTM F 423
PVC Polyvinyl chloride (pressure) pipe ASTM D 1784, D 1785, D 2464, D 2466, D 2467, D
2564; AWWA C900, C905
PVC (G) Polyvinyl chloride (gravity) pipe ASTM D 2688, D 3034
PVDF Polyvinylidene fluoride (KYNAR™) pipe None
PVDFLS PVDF-lined steel pipe ASTM F 491
RCP Reinforced concrete pipe (gravity) ASTM C 76, C 679
RCPP Reinforced concrete pressure pipe AWWA C300, C302; ASTM C 361
RPMP Reinforced plastic mortar pipe ASTM D 3517, D 3262; AWWA C950
SP Steel pipe ASTM A 53, A 134, A 135, A 139, A 324, A 283, A
570, A 572, A 795; AWWA C200
SST Stainless-steel pipe ASTM A 240, A 312, A 403, A 774, A 778
VCP Vitrified clay pipe ASTM C 301, C 700
WSP Welded steel pipe AWWA C200, C208
YOL Yolloy™ ASTM A 7 14

Van Stone Flanges
Van Stone flanges are especially economical for
stainless-steel piping. The flange can be carbon steel
or ductile iron because it is not in contact with the
liquid and, hence, does not have to be corrosion
resistant unless the concern is for external corrosion.
The joint is made by roll flaring the end of the pipe.
A slip-on flange can then be placed over the pipe to
make the connection. Such flanges are especially
attractive with stainless-steel pipe, but where flanged
joints would be exposed to corrosive conditions (as
in a wastewater pumping station wet well), specify
stainless-steel flanges.
Diesel Fuel Service
Both the Uniform Fire Code and the Standard Fire
Prevention Code require that steel piping for flamma-
ble and combustible liquids have a wall thickness
determined in accordance with ANSI B 3 1.3 and
B31.4 with a minimum wall thickness of standard
weight. ANSI B31.1, B31.3, and B31.4 also contain
design guidelines for flammable fluid piping, which
are summarized as follows:
• Prohibited pipe: (1) furnace butt- welded steel, (2)
cast iron, (3) copper, (4) brass, (5) aluminum, and
(6) thermoplastic (aboveground).
• Prohibited connections: (1) cast, malleable, or
wrought iron threaded couplings, (2) cast-iron
flanges, unless integral with cast-iron valves, pres-
sure vessels, and other equipment.
• Required: (1) double welding for slip-on flanges
and (2) flat facing connecting steel flanges to cast-
iron flanges.
• Recommended materials: (1) seamless steel such as
ASTM A 53 Type S, (2) welded steel with straight
seam conforming to ASTM A 53 Type E, ASTM A
134, ASTM A 155, or (3) API SL electric resistance
or double- submerged arc welded with allowable
stresses no higher than for ASTM A 53 Type S with
an appropriate longitudinal joint efficiency factor
included.
• Recommended: (1) welded joints between steel
components where practicable, (2) where bolted
flanged joints are necessary, gaskets suitable for the
service, (3) where threaded joints are necessary, at
least Schedule 80 (extra strong) pipe with extreme
care in assembly to assure leak tightness, (4) steel
or ductile iron for valves, fittings, and other piping
components for systems within plants or buildings
that contain equipment with open flame or parts that
operate at temperatures over 26O0C (50O0F), and (5)
black steel—never galvanized steel, because the
zinc contaminates the fuel and the galvanizing
sometimes flakes off and can clog fuel metering ori-
fices.
The UFC Section 79. 305 requires that under-
ground piping incorporate swivel joints where the pip-
ing leaves the dispensing location and just before
connecting to the tank fittings. Swivel joints incorpo-
rate ball bearings and permit rotation and movement
from one to many degrees of freedom.
Sewers
Cast-iron soil pipe (CISP) 50 through 375 mm (2
through 15 in.) and larger is suitable for use as drain-
pipe inside buildings if it is installed above the floor
with no-hub ends and with neoprene sealing sleeves
and Type 301 or 303 stainless-steel clamps (in accor-
dance with CISPI 301). For buried service or service
under slabs and buildings, use hub-and-spigot ends
(see also ASTM A 74 standards). In lieu of CISP, ABS
pipe is frequently used; for drainpipe smaller than 50
mm (2 in.) use steel, copper, or PVC.
Dry Chlorine Gas
As recommended in ANSI B31 and by the Chlorine
Institute [18], make the piping arrangements as simple
as possible. Keep the flanged or screwed joints to a
minimum. Slope the pipe to allow drainage, avoid low
spots, allow for expansion due to temperature changes,
and be sure that the pipe is well supported.
Details of materials and construction can be
obtained from Pamphlet No. 6 of the Chlorine Insti-
tute [18]. Other publications may also be applicable to
pumping stations [19-25]. After assembly and pres-
sure testing, chlorine gas piping must be thoroughly
cleaned and all moisture must be removed.
Chlorine Solutions
Chlorine solutions can be carried in PVC piping. All
fittings should be plastic, glass, or Hastelloy™. Most
metals, including 316 stainless steel, corrode rapidly
in concentrated chlorine solutions.
Air
Use stainless steel or copper. Do not use PVC because
heat destroys plastic pipe. Do not use galvanized steel
because moisture in the air corrodes it, and although
dryers can be added at the compressor, maintenance
cannot always be ensured.
Design of Plumbing Systems
Plumbing work in a pumping station usually includes
roof drainage, toilet fixtures, floor drains, and sump
pumps in addition to the necessary water, waste, and
vent piping and a water heater.
Storm Drainage
The sizing of roof drains, horizontal conductors, and
vertical leaders or downspouts (usually covered in the
applicable plumbing code) is based on roof area and
historical rainfall intensity. Storm drainage, including
roof and area drains, catch basins, and foundation
drains, should (1) connect to a storm drain, (2) dis-
charge through a trap into a combined sewer, or (3) be
drained to grade if neither (1) nor (2) is available. In
addition to any sump receiving subgrade sanitary
waste, a separate sump may be required by code for
foundation drainage.
Roof drainage piping often conveys water at a tem-
perature below the dew-point temperature of air in the
building, so condensation tends to occur on the pipe.
The horizontal conductors (at least) should be insu-
lated to prevent dripping from such condensation,
especially if the pipes pass over or near electrical
equipment.
The materials usually used for storm drainage pip-
ing include galvanized steel pipe, galvanized cast-iron
drainage fittings, cast-iron soil pipe and fittings, and
polyvinyl chloride plastic pipe and fittings. Both
storm and sanitary drain lines buried below floors
should be encased in concrete when the floor is
poured to protect them from corrosion and settlement.
Sanitary Drainage
Sanitary soil, waste, and vent piping sizes and
arrangements must conform to the applicable plumb-
ing code. Equipment drains receiving pump seal water
can be enlarged hub drains raised above the floor or
regular floor-mounted drains fitted with a funnel
strainer. Cleanouts should be located on both sanitary
and storm drainage lines at 15-m (50-ft) intervals to
permit easy cleaning.
Cross Connections
Protection of the potable water supply against con-
tamination is vital. Reduced-pressure principle back-
flow preventers, or an equivalent approved means of
protection, must be installed in the branch pipe that
supplies equipment connections, hose bibbs, or hose
valves. Backflow preventers should be located above
the flood level with a proper air gap in their drain con-
nections. They must be tested at least annually to
ensure safe operation, and the care of backflow pre-
venters should be included in the O&M manual.
Some codes do not permit the installation of back-
flow preventers, but require potable water to be dis-
charged through an air break into a tank, from which it
may be pumped to potentially contaminating uses.
Interior hose bibbs should be conveniently located for
easy wash-down of the station, and exterior hose
bibbs should be frostproof in cold climates.
Sumps
To prevent frequent pump starts, sumps for subgrade
drainage should be sized to hold at least two to three
times the flowrate capacity of the installed sump
pump below the lowest inlet. Install duplex pumps and
a sump high-level alarm if damage to other equipment
could follow failure of a single pump. Each pump
should discharge individually through a check valve
and a gate valve before joining in a common discharge
riser to the gravity flow waste line. If the piping sys-
tem of a sump pump can be subjected to freezing tem-
peratures, it should either (1) be designed to be self-
draining or (2) be protected by heat tracing to prevent
the formation of ice.
So that occasional solids can be passed, sump
pumps should be of the semiopen impeller type with-
out an inlet screen. Submersible pumps have the
advantage of being inherently floodproof, provided
their control panel is located above the flood level.
Mercury-type float switches are recommended in
the sump. They are arranged (1) to alternate the opera-
tion of duplex pumps, (2) to start the second pump if
the first does not handle the load for any reason, and
(3) to energize local and remote alarms if the design
HWL is exceeded. The pumps should be capable of
continuous operation. Specify a manual "test" posi-
tion on pump selector switches to permit periodic
manual tests of pump operation, and state the recom-
mended frequency of testing in the O&M manual. The
pumps and their wiring, controls, and alarms must be
explosionproof if open to a space classified as hazard-
ous by Articles 500 to 502 of the NEC.
4-10. References
Anyone responsible for designing or selecting piping
should have a minimum library of reference materials
that includes design handbooks, standard codes and
specifications, and one or more manufacturer's cata-
logs for each of the piping materials in the chapter.
Manufacturers' catalogs often contain most of the
needed design methods and useful excerpts from stan-
dard specifications.
 Because some of these publications are revised
occasionally, obtain the latest edition. Codes, stan-
dards, and specifications are listed in Appendix E. The
addresses of publishers are given in Appendix F.
1. Crocker, S., M. L. Nayyar, and R. C. King, Piping
Handbook, 6th ed., McGraw-Hill, New York (1992).
2. Deutsch, D. J., Process Piping Systems, Chemical
Engineering, McGraw-Hill, New York (1980).
3. Langelier, W. E, "The analytical control of anti-
corrosion water treatment, " Journal of the American
Water Works Association, 28, 1500-1521 (October
1936).
4. Merrill, D. T., and R. L. Sanks, "Corrosion control by
deposition of CaCO3 films. A practical approach for
plant operators," Journal of the American Water Works
Association, Part I, 69, 592-599 (November 1977);
Part II, 69, 634-640 (December 1977); Part III, 70, 12-
18 (January 1978).
5. Merrill, D. T, and R. L. Sanks, Corrosion Control by
Deposition of CaCO3 Films. A Handbook of Practical
Application and Instruction. American Water Works
Association, Denver, CO (1978).
6. Pisigan, R. A., Jr., and J. E. Singley, "Calculating the
pH of calcium carbonate saturation," Journal of the
American Water Works Association, 77, 83-91
(October 1985).
7. Pisigan, R. A., Jr., and J. E. Singley, "Effects of water
quality parameters on the corrosion of galvanized
steel," Journal of the American Water Works
Association, 77, 76-82 (November 1985).
8. Pigg, B. J., "Asbestos cement pipe," ASTM Standardization
News, pp. 56-57 (April 1988).
9. AWWA Mil, Steel Pipe— A Guide for Design and
Installation, 2nd ed., American Water Works
Association, Denver, CO (1985).
10. Sanks, R. L., Water Treatment Plant Design for the
Practicing Engineer, Ann Arbor Science Publishers,
Ann Arbor, MI (1978).
11. DIPRA, Handbook of Ductile Iron Pipe, 6th ed.,
Ductile Iron Pipe Research Association, Birmingham,
AL (1984).
12. Handbook of PVC Pipe, Design and Construction, Uni-
BeIl PVC Pipe Association, Dallas, TX (1991; updated
frequently).
13. AWWA M9, Concrete Pressure Pipe, American Water
Works Association, Denver, CO (1979).
14. Spangler, M. G., Soil Engineering, 2nd ed., International
Textbook Company, Scranton, PA (1960).
15. Spangler, M. G., "Underground conduits—an appraisal
of modern research" (with discussions), Transactions
of the American Society of Civil Engineers, 113, 316-
374 (1948).
16. Piping Engineering, Tube Turns Division, Louisville,
KY (1974).
17. MSS, Pipe Hangers and Supports, Selection and
Application, Manufacturers Standardization Society,
Inc., of the Valve and Fittings Industry, Arlington, VA
(1976).
18. "Piping systems for dry chlorine," 13th ed., Pamphlet
6, The Chlorine Institute, Inc., Washington, DC (April
1993).
19. The Chlorine Manual, 5th ed., The Chlorine Institute,
Inc., Washington, DC (1986).
20. "Non-refrigerated liquid chlorine storage," 5th ed.,
Pamphlet 5, The Chlorine Institute, Inc., Washington,
DC (October 1992).
21. "Chlorine vaporizing systems," 4th ed., Pamphlet 9,
The Chlorine Institute, Inc., Washington, DC
(November 1994).
22. "Chlorine pipelines," 3rd ed., Pamphlet 60, The
Chlorine Institute, Inc., Washington, DC (April 1990).
23. "Estimating the area affected by chlorine releases," 2nd
ed., Pamphlet 74, The Chlorine Institute, Inc.,
Washington, DC (February 1991).
24. "Refrigerated liquid chlorine storage," 2nd ed.,
Pamphlet 78, The Chlorine Institute, Inc., Washington,
DC (June 1994).
25. White, G. C., Handbook of Chlorination, 2nd ed., Van
Nostrand Reinhold, New York (1986).
4-11. Supplementary Reading
1. Steele, A., Engineering Plumbing Design, Miramar, Los
Angeles, CA (1977).
2. Lindsey, F. R., Pipefitters Handbook, 3rd ed., Industrial
Press, New York (1967).
3. Procedures for Pipewelding, National Association of
Plumbing, Heating, Cooling Contractors, Washington,
DC (1983).
4. Singley, J. E., et al., Corrosion Prevention and Control in
Water Treatment and Supply Systems, Noyes, Park Ridge,
NJ (1985).