10610420610658938

Journal of Product & Brand Management
Are brands forever? How brand knowledge and relationships affect current and future purchases
Franz‐Rudolf Esch, Tobias Langner, Bernd H. Schmitt, Patrick Geus,
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Are brands forever?
How brand knowledge and relationships affect
current and future purchases
Franz-Rudolf Esch and Tobias Langner
Justus-Liebig-University, Giessen, Germany
Bernd H. Schmitt
Columbia Business School, New York, New York, USA, and
Patrick Geus
BBDO Brand Consulting, Munich, Germany
Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to develop a comprehensive model that combines brand knowledge and brand relationship perspectives on
brands and shows how knowledge and relationships affect current and future purchases.
Design/methodology/approach – The paper uses structural equation modeling to test the significance of the overall model and the specified paths.
Findings – It is found that current purchases are affected by brand image mostly directly and by brand awareness mostly indirectly. In contrast, future
purchases are not affected by either dimension of brand knowledge directly; rather, brand knowledge affects future purchases via a brand relationship
path that includes brand satisfaction, brand trust, and attachment to the brand. Thus, brand knowledge alone is not sufficient for building strong brands
in the long term; brand relationship factors must be considered as well.
Research implications/limitations – The present study did not examine feedback effects and included consumer categories only and no individual-
differences variables. It is recommended that future research examine feedback effects and include additional consumer categories, B2B categories and
individual-differences variables such as variety seeking and innovativeness.
Practical implications – Brand managers spend considerable resources on measuring brand awareness and brand image. It is recommended that
practitioners also use brand relationship measures and develop strategic and tactical initiatives that ensure that consumers are satisfied with the brand,
trust it and feel attached to it.
Originality/value – The paper is a cross-paradigm paper: it is the first that combines the two separate broad-based perspectives on brands into a
simple comprehensive model for researchers and brand managers.
Keywords Brand awareness, Brand management, Brand equity, Consumer behaviour
Paper type Research paper
An executive summary for managers and executive models – such as Aaker’s brand equity model and Keller’s
readers can be found at the end of this article. customer-based brand equity model – have focused heavily
on how consumer perceive and evaluate brands by
investigating certain knowledge structures such as brand
Introduction awareness, image and personality (Aaker, 1991; Aaker, 1997;
Building strong brands is one of the most important goals of Keller, 1993). More recently, researchers have argued that it
product and brand management. Strong brands result in is important to consider how consumers build brand
higher revenue streams, both short term and long term relationships and form brand communities similar to how
(Aaker, 1991, 1996; Kapferer, 2004; Keller, 2003). they build relationships and communities in their personal
Therefore, the stated goal of strategic brand management is lives (Fournier, 1998; Grossman, 1998; McAlexander et al.,
to build brands that last for decades and can be leveraged in 2002; Muniz and O’Guinn, 2001).
different product categories and markets (Aaker, 1996). Brand practice, to some degree, has followed a similar path.
Brand researchers have developed several For a long time, establishing brand awareness and image have
been key goals of brand management. Brand marketers,
conceptualizations of brands and how brands affect
especially in fast moving consumer goods such as food items
consumer behavior (current and future purchases). Earlier
as well as mass market sports, apparel and electronics items,
spend considerable resources to assess and track consumer
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at awareness of brands and brand image. Recently, sophisticated
www.emeraldinsight.com/1061-0421.htm and forward-looking marketers and research agencies have
moved into brand relationship domains incorporating
relationship-based ideas such as trust and bonds with a
Journal of Product & Brand Management brand into brand management and measurement.
15/2 (2006) 98– 105
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited [ISSN 1061-0421] Yet, what is missing in both the research and practical
[DOI 10.1108/10610420610658938] approaches, is a comprehensive model that includes
98
Are brands forever? Journal of Product & Brand Management
Franz-Rudolf Esch, Tobias Langner, Bernd H. Schmitt and Patrick Geus Volume 15 · Number 2 · 2006 · 98 –105
perceptual/cognitive and relationship variables at the same confirmed in prior marketing research (Agarwal and Rao,
time and shows how these variables are interrelated and 1996; Mackay, 2001; Pappu et al., 2005).
contribute to the ultimate goal of brands – to produce strong Brand awareness refers to the strength of the brand node in
current and future purchases. Unfortunately, there has not memory, i.e. how easy it is for the consumer to remember the
been much interaction between the two perspectives and no brand (Keller, 1993). Brand recall is the most common way to
attempt to bring the two perspectives together. In fact, the measure brand awareness. In a study including various brand
perceptual and brand relationship perspectives are guided by knowledge and behavioral variables, using one product
two different research paradigms. While brand knowledge is category, “candy bars,” Agarwal and Rao (1996) found
typically conceptualized and tested using experiments and support for a two factor solution: one factor clearly
empirical modeling, the brand relationship perspective has represented unaided recall. Brand image refers to strong,
been guided by an interpretative paradigm, combining favorable and unique brand associations in memory (Keller,
sociological, anthropological and cultural theory with 2003), which result in perceived quality, a positive attitude
qualitative data collection. and overall positive affect. Indeed, many of the brand factors
In this paper, we provide a conceptual model that specifies identified as different aspects of brand equity by other authors
how perceptual/cognitive and relationship variables are (such as perceived quality, personality and organizational
interrelated and how they jointly affect current and future associations) may be viewed as belonging to the overall
purchase behavior. To do so, we focus on three sets of category of brand image and its immediate effects.
variables that we believe must be of concern for both According to Keller (1993), brand awareness is a necessary
researchers and practitioners: Brand knowledge variables that condition for the creation of a brand image. When a brand is
assess how customers perceive and evaluate brands; brand well established in memory, it is easier to attach associations
relationship variables that measure the bond between the to the brand and establish them firmly in memory. As
consumer and the brand; and behavioral outcome variables Schuiling and Kapferer (2004) showed that awareness is
that assess current and future consumer behavior. Next, we indeed significantly correlated with many valuable image
develop hypotheses about how brand knowledge and dimensions. Thus we predict:
relationship concepts are empirically related and how they H1. Brand awareness has a positive effect on brand image.
affect behavioral outcomes. We subsequently test our Moreover, perceptual and cognitive models assume that
framework using an AMOS model. brand knowledge (i.e. brand awareness and image) affects
consumer response to the brand, defined as perceptions,
Brand knowledge and purchase behavior preferences and, most important, behavior arising from
marketing mix activity. To assess this brand impact, we
Different authors have presented different perceptual and propose to distinguish two dimensions of consumer behavior:
cognitive factors that influence purchase. Aaker (1991), in his current behavior and intended future behavior. Current
seminal book Managing Brand Equity, identified three key behavior can refer to the purchase of the brand as well as its
perceptual/cognitive variables: name awareness, brand usage; future behavior refers to intentions to purchase the
associations, and perceived quality. All three are seen as key brand in the future. Following the customer-based brand
determinants of brand loyalty. Feldwick (1996) and equity model, we predict that brand knowledge (awareness
Chernatony and McDonald (2003) have distinguished six and image) affects current purchase and usage of brands.
types of brand attributes: H2. Brand awareness has a positive effect on current
1 awareness; purchase.
2 image; H3. Brand image has a positive effect on current purchase.
3 perceived quality;
4 perceived value; Moreover, it has been argued that brand equity does not have
5 personality; and only immediate value but also long-term value by
6 organizational associations. guaranteeing future revenue streams (Aaker, 1991; 1996).
Therefore, we expect brand knowledge (awareness and
Aaker (1997) distinguished five dimensions of brand image) to affect intended future behavior as well.
personality, viewed as traits associated with the brand: H4. Brand awareness has a positive effect on future
1 sincerity; purchase.
2 excitement; H5. Brand image has a positive effect on future purchase.
3 competence;
4 sophistication; and
5 ruggedness.
Brand relationships and purchase behavior
One of the most widely used, and, in our view, most
parsimonious, models today is Keller’s (1993, 2003) Research on brand relationships offers a different perspective:
customer-based brand equity model. Keller (1993, p. 2) brands affect consumers not only because of the knowledge
conceptualizes customer-based brand equity as “the systems that consumers carry about brands in their heads;
differential effect of brand knowledge on consumer response they are also part of a psycho-social-cultural context
to the marketing of the brand”. Customer-based equity (Fournier, 1998). Consumers therefore engage in certain
occurs when the consumer is aware and familiar with the types of relationships with brands, similar to personal and
brand and holds positive associations about the brand in intimate relations they form with other people. Brand
memory. That is, there are two distinct types of brand relationships may be the result of imagination or actual
knowledge: brand awareness and image. These two participation in brand communities, so-called “subcultures of
dimensions of brand knowledge have been generally consumption” (Fournier, 1998; Fournier and Yao, 1997;
99
McAlexander et al., 2002; Muniz and O’Guinn, 2001). The Attachment relations are formed first early in childhood
relationship process can generate cognitive benefits as well as (between a child and his or her mother). The formation
positive affect and emotions that result in a bond between the process continues throughout lifetime: people form
brand and the consumer (Fournier, 1998). attachments to friends, pets, places, and celebrities.
What are the key concepts of brand relationships that can Attachment is detected in early years when a child shows
be used as empirical variables in our model? In the brand separation anxiety and distress as soon as a parent or
relationship literature, we do not find easily clearly defined significant other is no longer present. Similarly, attachment to
and operationalized constructs, similar to brand awareness objects can result in a feeling of regret and sorrow when the
and image. Research on brand relationships is usually object is no longer present or available.
conducted using interpretive frameworks and qualitative What empirical relations do we expect among the three
methodologies that offer the depth of individual case study different relationship constructs – brand satisfaction, brand
insight rather than standardized concepts and measurement trust and brand attachment – and how are they related to brand
scales. For example, Fournier (1998) has categorized 15 awareness and brand image? Beginning with the latter issue, we
different brand relationship forms based on in-depth expect brand awareness and brand image to be antecedents to
interviews of three women: committed partnership, marriage brand satisfaction and brand trust. That is, both brand
of convenience, arranged marriage, casual friendship, close satisfaction and brand trust require brand knowledge; unless a
friendship, compartmentalized friendship, kinship, rebound consumer has a representation of the brand in memory –
relationship, childhood friendship, courtship, dependency, including awareness and a positive image – he or she cannot be
fling, adversarial relationships, and enslavement. satisfied by the brand or trust the brand.
It is difficult to construct reliable and valid measures of all H6. Brand awareness has a positive effect on brand
15 brand relationships. A more manageable framework has satisfaction.
been provided in social psychological research where a H7. Brand awareness has a positive effect on brand trust.
distinction has been drawn between two different types of H8. Brand image has a positive effect on brand satisfaction.
relationships, exchange and communal relationship (Clark, H9. Brand image has a positive effect on brand trust.
1984; Clark and Mills, 1979; Clark et al., 1986). Moreover, regarding the relationship among the relationship
This distinction has been applied as well in recent studies in constructs, we expect brand satisfaction and brand trust to be
consumer behavior (Aggarwal, 2004). In fact, most of the result of exchange and communal relationships and
Fournier’s 15 brand relationships may be viewed as specific consider brand attachment as a reflection of the brand
subcategories of exchange and communal relationships. In relationship over time. Thus, while we hypothesize no
commercial settings, and in close relationships over time, it is significant relation between brand satisfaction and brand
useful to view these relationships not necessarily as mutually trust, we expect brand satisfaction and brand trust to result in
exclusive, but rather as different aspects or facets of one brand attachment. That is, only if a brand results in
overall relationship, i.e. as the exchange aspects of a satisfaction and is trusted by the consumer, will there be the
relationship and the communal aspects of a relationship. development of attachment.
Exchange aspects of a personal relationship involve H10. Brand satisfaction has a positive effect on brand
economic factors and offer primarily utilitarian benefits. attachment.
Exchange relationships are quid-pro-quo: people are H11. Brand trust has a positive effect on brand attachment.
concerned with how much they receive for what they give.
If a comparable reward is not forthcoming, a person is less Finally, we expect the ultimate, long-term outcome of brand
likely to be responsive to the person. The primary positive relationships – namely brand attachment – to be a
outcome of an exchange relationship is satisfaction. Hence, in determinant of both current purchase behavior and future
a commercial context, brand satisfaction may be defined as a purchase intention. As psychological research has shown,
cognitive evaluation of whether or not the exchange attachment results in approach behavior and a desire to be
relationship with the brand is rewarding. with the person one is attached to, both now and in the
In contrast, communal aspects of a relationship involve future. In the context of brands, it has been shown that a
feelings about other people; they transcend self-interest. Trust is commitment to a brand saves a customer the cost of seeking
an essential outcome of such relationships. In prior research, it new relations with other brands (Chaudhuri and Holbrook,
has been shown to be the cornerstone of close relationships, 2001).
both in psychology and marketing (Delgado-Ballester, 2004; Moreover, brand attachment, i.e. bonds, connections and
Garbarino and Johnson, 1999; Morgan and Hunt, 1994). Brand identifications with the brand strongly predict how often the
trust is affect-based, referring to a feeling that is the outcome of brand was purchased in the past and will be purchased in the
a communal relationship with a brand. In our model, we thus future (McAlexander et al., 2003; Thomson et al., 2005).
include brand satisfaction and brand trust to represent cognitive Thus, we predict:
and affective outcomes of the two types of relationships. H12. Brand attachment has a positive effect on current
Since relationships are, by definition, interactions over purchase.
time, the essence of a relationship is some kind of H13. Brand attachment has a positive effect on future
interdependence between the entities involved. We therefore purchase.
include an additional construct that signifies this Our final prediction concerns the relationship between our
interdependence: brand attachment (Thomson et al., 2005). two key endogenous variables: current purchases and future
We view brand attachment as a longer-lasting, commitment- purchases. We expect current purchases to affect future
inducing bond between the brand and the consumer. In the purchase intention (see Figure 1).
social developmental literature in psychology, attachment H14. Current purchase has a positive effect on future
refers to a bond between a person and a specific object. purchase.
100
Figure 1 Conceptual model

pre-selected brands were included in subsequent analyses.

Method The position of the brand on the recalled list was coded on a
A total of 400 business students from a large European ten-point scale (10 for the first brand in the category, 9 for the
university (with an equal number of males and females) second brand etc). Brand image included three measures:
participated in the study. Because of missing data, 45 overall attitude towards the brand, the perceived quality of the
questionnaires had to be excluded from further analysis. brand and the brand’s overall affect, each on a five point scale
The product-category focus of the study was consumer (Low and Lamb, 2000).
products. To represent both relatively high and low
involvement products in the consumer product category, we
Brand relationship measures
selected two categories that had low and high ratings on a
Brand trust was measured on two five-point scales with
product category importance scale and were significantly
the items “I rely on the brand” and “I trust the brand”
different from each other (p , 0:05): athletic shoes and
(1 ¼ I disagree, 5 ¼ I agree). Brand satisfaction was
chocolates (M ¼ 3:62 vs 2.72). We then conducted a pretest
measured, following Mittal and Kamakura (2001) and
(n ¼ 40) to determine the brand strength of several brands in
Bloemer and Lemmink (1992) on a single five point scale,
these two categories. The pretest was conducted to select
with the question “Based on your own experience how
strong and weak brands within each category. Brand strength
would you rate your satisfaction with this brand?” (1 ¼ very
was operationalized by number and uniqueness of
dissatisfied, 5 ¼ very satisfied). Brand attachment was
associations. As a result of the pretests, four brands were
operationalized via the item “I feel strongly connected to
selected for the main study: Milka as a strong chocolate brand
the brand” and via another item focusing on the separation
and Alpia as a weak one; Adidas as a strong athletic shoe
anxiety aspect of attachment “I would strongly regret it if
brand and Fila as a weak one. In comparison to Alpia and
the brand was withdrawn from the market” (1 ¼ disagree,
Fila, Milka and Adidas had significantly more associations
5 ¼ fully agree).
(151 and 193 vs 238 and 234, respectively) and more unique
associations (60 and 71 vs 105 and 110, respectively), all
ps , 0:05. Behavioral outcome measures
Participants received a paper-and-pencil questionnaire that Current purchase was measured by two items focusing on
contained the relevant scales. In an introductory part, current purchase and usage patterns: “How often have
participants were informed about the nature of the study, a you bought the brand in the past?” (1 ¼ not at all,
research study on the perception and responses toward 5 ¼ very frequently) and “How often do you consume/use
various brands. At the end of the questionnaire, demographic the brand” (1 ¼ not at all, 5 ¼ very frequently). Future
information was collected. intended purchase was measured by “Do you intend to buy
the brand in the future?” (1 ¼ not at all; 5 ¼ very likely).
Brand knowledge measures
Brand awareness was measured by unaided recall (Rossiter
Results
and Bellman, 2005). Participants were asked the open-ended
question “Which brands do you know in the product category Structural equation modeling (AMOS 5.0) was used to test
of X”. Only the responses of participants that could recall the the model and hypothesis shown in Figure 2. The model was
101
Figure 2 Estimated model (standardized estimates)

estimated using the maximum likelihood method. A total of All other paths were statistically highly significant (p , 0:01).
14 structural paths were estimated for the model containing Furthermore, all these paths met the proposed causal directions.
the seven constructs (see Table I). The model’s estimation Thus, H1, H2, H3, and H8 through 14 were fully confirmed.
resulted in the following fit statistics: RMR ¼ 0:053, The model explains 53 per cent of the variance in current
RMSEA ¼ 0:056; GFI ¼ 0:960; NFI ¼ 0:969; CFI ¼ 0:984; purchase and 59 per cent of the variance in future purchase.
BIC ¼ 294:040 (BICsaturatedmodel ¼ 456:247); CAIC ¼ As Figure 2 shows, brand image plays a central role in the
329:040 (CAICsaturatedmodel ¼ 534:247Þ. These fit statistics model. A consideration of the standardized total effect shows
indicate a good fit of the model with the data. that brand image has a total effect of 0.63 on current purchase
Standardized path coefficients for the model are depicted in and 0.62 on future purchase. Of these total effects, the
Table II. Four of the tested paths (brand awareness ! future majority is direct (0.42) for current purchases, yet indirect via
purchase; brand image ! future purchase; brand awareness the relationship path for future purchases (0.50). In
! brand satisfaction, brand awareness ! brand trust) were comparison, the standardized total effect of awareness on
not statistically significant (p . 0:10). Hence, H4, H5, H6, current purchase is 0.41 and future purchase is 0.34; in both
and H7 were not confirmed. That is, the two brand cases indirect effects are larger than direct effects.
knowledge dimensions, brand awareness and brand image, Relationship variables are thus critical for predicting future
did not affect future purchases directly. Moreover, brand purchase as well as current purchases. A central relationship
awareness did not significantly affect brand satisfaction and construct in the model is brand attachment, with a total
brand trust. standardized effect on future purchases of 0.45.
Table I Covariance matrix

V1 V5 V12 V11 V10 V8 V9 V6 V7 V4 V3 V2
V1 12,568
V5 1,315 1,009
V12 1,566 767 1,611
V11 1,525 699 954 1,349
V10 1,862 757 1,048 1,275 1,771
V8 1,153 649 817 731 693 1,342
V9 1,683 838 1,091 839 947 1,017 1,953
V6 1,457 775 818 711 700 895 1,164 1,457
V7 1,309 750 831 671 712 797 1,052 1,152 1,444
V4 1,306 750 781 728 769 695 873 755 752 1,108
V3 1,071 577 556 445 543 488 577 568 597 545 865
V2 1,122 758 719 605 658 644 762 712 723 773 604 1,085
102
Table II Standardized path coefficients

Hypothesis Standardized coefficient Significance level
H1 Brand awareness ! brand image 0.40 p , 0:001
H2 Brand awareness ! current purchase 0.15 p , 0:01
H3 Brand image ! current purchase 0.42 p , 0:001
H4 Brand awareness ! future purchase 0.01 p ¼ 0:753
H5 Brand image ! future purchase 0.13 p ¼ 0:112
H6 Brand awareness ! brand satisfaction 0.02 p ¼ 0:543
H7 Brand awareness ! brand trust 0.06 p ¼ 0:174
H8 Brand image ! brand satisfaction 0.86 p , 0:001
H9 Brand image ! brand trust 0.78 p , 0:001
H10 Brand satisfaction ! brand attachment 0.19 p , 0:01
H11 Brand trust ! brand attachment 0.75 p , 0:001
H12 Brand attachment ! current purchase 0.28 p , 0:01

H13 Brand attachment ! future purchase 0.35 p , 0:001
H14 Current purchase ! future purchase 0.38 p , 0:001
Conclusion 2005). Second, we have tested our model with four brands in
two consumer categories (chocolate and athletic shoes). Future
The purpose of the current research was to provide a research should test our model on additional consumer goods
comprehensive model that combines the brand knowledge categories (e.g. luxury goods) and also in B2B markets. For
and brand relationship perspectives and shows how brand luxury goods, brand knowledge, and in particular brand image,
knowledge and relationships influences consumer behavior. Our may exhibit the direct effect on future purchase that we failed to
findings confirmed our prediction that brand awareness affects find in the present study. In B2B markets interpersonal relations
brand image and that both aspect of brand knowledge are direct are more important than in B2C markets and therefore brand
determinants of current consumer purchase behavior. Brand relationship factors may be even more pronounced than in the
image, in particular, exercises a strong direct influence on present study, resulting perhaps in indirect relations only
current brand-loyal purchase behavior. However, contrary to between brand knowledge and current and future purchases.
our predictions, brand knowledge does not affect future Finally, we did not consider individual differences such as
intended purchase directly. As our results indicate, to secure variety seeking or consumer innovativeness that may change
future purchases, a familiar brand with a positive image must
some of the relationships observed in the present study. For
build a positive brand relationship with the consumer. The
example, consumers high in variety seeking or innovativeness
different facets of that relation include cognitive and affective
may be less affected in their current purchases by brand
components – brand satisfaction and brand trust – that
attachment than those low in variety seeking or innovativeness.
culminate in brand attachment, which is a key antecedent of
current and future purchases.
The present model did not include feedback effects among Managerial implications
the variables. Rather we presented a model that in a one-
direction linear fashion proceeds from brand knowledge to In brand management practice, brand image and brand
relationships to behavioral outcomes. It is quite possible that awareness are considered the central brand variables for
some variables also influence preceding variables. In assuring the effectiveness of marketing campaigns. However,
particular, there may be feedback effects from the our results show that it is not sufficient to focus only on these
behavioral outcome variables to brand relationships and two variables – especially when brands are supposed to last
from relationships to brand image. For example, the mere fact forever. For long-term brand success, brand relationship
that a consumer purchases a product on a regular basis variables such as brand trust, brand satisfaction and brand
(perhaps out of habit) may at times result in brand attachment attachment play an important role in buying behavior.
and in turn positively influence the brand image, via the so- Therefore, brand managers are well advised to use measures
called “mere exposure” effect (Zajonc, 1968). of brand relationships in addition to brand knowledge measures.
There are several limitations that need to be addressed in They should also develop strategic and tactical initiatives that
future research. First, while our research employed a relatively ensure that consumers are satisfied with the brand, trust it and
small number of simple scale items that can easily be used by feel attached to it. This may require that managers employ not
practitioners, future research should test subcomponents of the only standard marketing mix and communication techniques
model using more scale items and perhaps additional but also experiential marketing techniques, which result in
constructs. For example, in recent research brand attachment increased interactions and emotional connections between the
has been split into three sub-constructs and scales – customer and the brand (Schmitt, 1999).
connection, affection, and passion (Thomson et al., 2005).
Also, the measurement of brand knowledge may be enriched by
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ties that blind: measuring the strength of consumers’
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pp. 573-92.
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Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 9, pp. 1-27.
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Vol. 38 No. 2, pp. 85-104.
Fournier, S.M. (1998), “Consumers and their brands: Corresponding author
developing relationship theory”, Journal of Consumer Franz-Rudolf Esch can be contacted at: franz-
Research, Vol. 24, pp. 343-73. rudolf.esch@wirtschaft.uni-giessen.de
Fournier, S.M. and Yao, J.L. (1997), “Reviving brand loyalty:
a reconceptualization within the framework of consumer-
brand relationships”, International Journal of Research in Executive summary
Marketing, Vol. 14, pp. 451-72. This executive summary has been provided to allow managers and
Garbarino, E. and Johnson, M.P. (1999), “The different roles executives a rapid appreciation of the content of this article. Those
of satisfaction, trust, and commitment in customer with a particular interest in the topic covered may then read the
relationship”, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 63, pp. 70-87. article in toto to take advantage of the more comprehensive
Grossman, R.P. (1998), “Developing and managing effective description of the research undertaken and its results to get the full
consumer relationships”, Journal of Product & Brand benefit of the material present.
Management, Vol. 7 No. 1, pp. 27-40.
Kapferer, J.-N. (2004), The New Strategic Brand Management:
Creating and Sustaining Brand Equity Long Term, Kogan Longevity requires more than a focus on brand image
Page, London. and awareness
Keller, K.L. (1993), “Conceptualizing, measuring, and Just what does constitute successful brand management?
managing customer-based brand equity”, Journal of What needs to be concentrated on to ensure lasting success?
Marketing, Vol. 57, pp. 1-22. For brand managers, focusing on brand image and
Keller, K.L. (2003), Strategic Brand Management: Building, awareness is usually seen as central to the success of
Measuring, and Managing Brand Equity, 2nd ed., Prentice- marketing campaigns. However, as Esch, Langner, Schmitt
Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ. and Geus have identified from their research and experiences,
Low, G.S. and Lamb, C.W. Jr (2000), “The measurement this is simply not enough. For long-term brand success
and dimensionality of brand associations”, Journal of relationships are the key. In branding terms this means
Product & Brand Management, Vol. 9 No. 6, pp. 350-70. fostering brand trust, brand satisfaction and brand
104
attachment among customers and target groups. It is not a .

Exchange aspects of relationships involve give and as well
quick fix, but it is a way to the creation of lasting value. Brand as take and people tend to feel satisfied when there is a
building has never been about the short-term, always about a sense of fair exchange. So too with brands where
longer view and generating revenue over the long-term. customers evaluate whether the relationship with the
Brand managers need to think about the relationships they brand brings fair rewards.
have with people. They are rarely easy, but often ultimately .
Communal aspects of relationships are about having trust
rewarding. People are people. They do not change who they in each other. It takes time and must be worked at, for
are when given the label “consumer”. people as for brands.
To be truly successful marketers must now move beyond .
Interdependence is a cornerstone of successful
the standard notions of the marketing mix and become relationships. The work when we need each other.
obsessed with developing initiatives, both strategic and Brand attachment is the consideration that emerges from
tactical, that ensure customer satisfaction with the brand, this interrelationship.
reinforce their trust in it, and foster a sense of meaningful
Selfish partners can wreck a relationship. Affairs and one-
emotional attachment. Customer relationship management
night stands can cause breakdowns in trust that are never
has grown up and come of age. But what, in practical terms,
rebuilt. And if partners feel they no longer need each other

needs to be considered?
then it is game over.
Yet the corporate world is littered with devastating stories of
Brand attributes and personality corporations playing fast and loose with the emotions of their
The literature on brand management has grown in proportion loyal customer base. It can be sudden price hikes, ill-
to its increasingly significant profile in organizational success. conceived and poor quality brand extensions, or making
Two helpful contributions are from Chernatony and customers feel unwanted through shoddy customer service.
McDonald who identified six types of brand attributes, and
from Aaaker who distinguished five dimensions of brand Embracing the opportunity
personality. Brand awareness is important, but a limited measure of
Chernatony and McDonald’s six brand attributes are: success. A robust brand image will only be created and
1 awareness; maintained if it reflects the reality of all of the customer’s
2 image; emotions. Brand satisfaction and brand trust lead directly to
3 perceived quality; brand attachment, and there lies the opportunity.
4 perceived value; Customer lifetime value and the interrelated interest in
5 personality; and customer relationship management are driving marketing
6 organizational associations. today. New thinking is being aided by new technology in
Brands awareness and brand image are part of the picture, yet bringing companies closer to their mass base of consumers
they provide merely a visible tip to a much deeper iceberg. than ever before. In business-to-business (B2B) markets,
Aaaker’s notions of brand personality go deeper still and break relationships have always been key. B2B enterprises have
down into: tended to invest heavily in sales forces and people able to
.
sincerity; negotiate the labyrinth of complex decision making units.
.
excitement; Successful sales people have always been relationship builders
.
competence; – networking thinking stemmed from this simple fact. In
.
sophistication; and building these relationships they seek to be seen as fair,
.
ruggedness. trustworthy and helpful. These are good old-fashioned values
that just happen to be the key to the modern age.
A glance at the above highlights the false simplicity of current Business-to-consumer (B2C) marketing is embracing the
approaches. These various categories are helpful in identifying relationship message to its heart. Relationships are not forged
just how limited most current approaches to brand instantly, but they do provide the basis for a rich experience of
development can be, and the range of other areas that need life. It is both catch-up and cutting edge. Brand managers are
to be explored if truly successful brands are to be maintained. used to looking to the long term and having to fend off
Clearly a more multifaceted approach needs to be developed. corporate financial short-termist arguments.
However, for forward thinking marketers the rewards are Here is the challenge. Reject any initiatives that have even a
there to be taken for such smart endeavour. slight scent of rip off. Reject anything that could be
considered a breach of consumer trust. Recognize your
Understanding brand relationships interdependence with your customers. Do the right thing
So much current assessment of brand performance takes a consistently. The groundwork is then in place for customer
simplistic view, and misses the depth of response that there retention, repeat purchasing and referral business to soar.
can be from customers towards brands. It is not dissimilar to Look beyond measures of brand awareness and brand
personal relationships, and just as between people, can be image. These dimensions are necessary but also insufficient
both imaginary and as a result of active participation. Still measures of the success of brand marketing campaigns.
waters do indeed run deep. (A précis of the article “Are brands forever? How brand
It is a different, but potentially very rewarding way to look knowledge and relationships affect current and future purchases”.
at brands, and raises the following considerations: Supplied by Marketing Consultants for Emerald.)
To purchase reprints of this article please e-mail: reprints@emeraldinsight.com

Or visit our web site for further details: www.emeraldinsight.com/reprints
105
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Journal of Product & Brand Management

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BBDO Brand Consulting, Munich, Germany

Keywords Brand awareness, Brand management, Brand equity, Consumer behaviour

Paper type Research paper

Figure 1 Conceptual model

pre-selected brands were included in subsequent analyses.

Figure 2 Estimated model (standardized estimates)

Table I Covariance matrix

Table II Standardized path coefficients

H12 Brand attachment ! current purchase 0.28 p , 0:01

Chaudhuri, A. and Holbrook, M.B. (2001), “The chain of

attachment among customers and target groups. It is not a .

rebuilt. And if partners feel they no longer need each other

To purchase reprints of this article please e-mail: reprints@emeraldinsight.com

of Promotion Management 23:4, 521-539. [Crossref]

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