Bulking, Deflocculation, and Pinpoint Floc

Author(s): Wesley O. Pipes

Source: Journal (Water Pollution Control Federation), Vol. 51, No. 1 (Jan., 1979), pp. 62-70
Published by: Water Environment Federation
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/25040241
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Bulking, deflocculation,
and pinpoint fioc
Wesley O. Pipes
Drexel University, Philadelphia, Pa.

The activated sludge process works only as sludges with different initial settling velocities
long as the sludge settles and compacts in the can have the same svi values and sludges with

secondary settling tank to the extent that the the same initial settling velocity can have dif
return sludge suspended solids (ss) concentra ferent Svi values.1 The svi of a sludge can vary
tion is high enough to maintain the mixed depending on the initial solids concentration of
liquor suspended solids (mlss) concentration the settling test, whether or not the sludge is
at the desired level. Sludge solids in the efflu stirred during settling, as well as other condi
ent are mostly microorganisms and the respira tions of the test.1 The svi test does not meet
tion of these microorganisms is biochemical the usual criteria of validity and reproduci
oxygen demand (bod) . If practically all of the bility required of scientific measurements and
organic matter in the influent wastewater is there is no reason to believe a priori that it
converted into sludge in the aeration tank, the should correlate with any other scientific mea
of an activated process de surements or parameters. The svi is not a
performance sludge
pends on how well the sludge is separated from scientific parameter; it is an operational
the effluent in the secondary settling tank. The parameter.
effectiveness of separation depends on the de The svi test gives the operator a quick
sign of the settling tank, the operation of the method of determining what the return sludge
settling tank, and the settling and compaction flow rate should be. If it is assumed that the
characteristics of the activated sludge. supernatant in the 30-minute settled volume
Settling or nonsettling of activated sludge is determination represents the overflow, Q, from
not an absolute phenomenon. Any sample of the secondary settling tank and the sludge
mixed liquor from an aeration tank contains represent the underflow, R, then the ratio of
some suspended solids that will settle and some the return sludge flow rate t? the effluent flow
that will remain behind in the supernatant rate should be set equal to the sludge volume
liquid. There is a need to characterize how divided by the supernatant volume. This will
well a sample of activated sludge settles, how prevent solids from building up in the settling
well it compacts, and how clear a supernatant tank and perhaps eventually overflowing into
it leaves behind in order to evaluate how the the effluent. (For example: if the sludge vol
characteristics of the sludge influence the per ume is 200 ml and the supernatant volume is
formance of the process apart from the design 800 ml, then R should be set at 0.25Q; if the
and operation of the settling tank. sludge volume and supernatant volume are

How well a sludge settles and compacts has both 500 ml, then R should be set equal to Q.)
been measured for many years as the sludge
If the return sludge flow rate is determined
volume index (svi), which is the volume this way, the return sludge suspended solids
(sv30 in millilitres per litre) occupied by the should be 106/svi. A solids balance on the
sludge after 30 minutes settling divided by the influent to the aeration tank then gives the
mlss concentration in mlss as
(measured grams per
litre).
MLSSX 10-6 = (2)
svi = SV30 (ml/1) Q-?^?
X svi
(ml/g) -?-7?
mlss (g/1) (*)
Of course, sludge separation in the secondary
Exactly what svi measures is not widely under settling tank should be more effective than in a
stood. It certainly is not directly related to the one-litre graduated cylinder, and the operator
initial settling velocity of the sludge because should be able to keep R/Q a bit lower than

62 Journal WPCF, Vol. 51, No. 1

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 Pinpoint Floe

the value calculated from the settled volume There are at least 10 different types of acti
determination and to obtain a somewhat higher vated sludge problems that can result in the
mlss than that calculated from R/Q divided by loss of excessive amounts of ss in the effluent.2
the svi. Despite the fact that it doesn't char In this paper, three of these types of activated
acterize process performance exactly and the sludge problems, namely, filamentous bulking,
fact that it is not a valid scientific parameter, deflocculation, and pinpoint floe, are con
the svi is the most useful characteristic of acti sidered. The purpose is to give a better de
vated sludge compaction ever devised. scription of the problems and to explore how
The svi is used to characterize the solids that they are related to each other and to the
settle. As unscientific as it is, it is still much organic loading of the process.
better than any test proposed so far to charac
terize the solids which do not settle. The METHODS
supernatant suspended solids concentration A total of 94 sets of samples from 32 differ
(spss) left after the sludge is settled in a ent activated sludge plants were collected over
cylinder, or the secondary effluent suspended a 12-year period. The data presented in this
solids concentration (sess), may be measured paper were derived from 77 sets of samples
to find out how much of the solids do not collected from 29 plants. The sets of samples
settle. However, the ss concentration left after eliminated for the purpose of this analysis were
settling is related to how the settling is ac those from plants for which over 25% of the
complished as well as to the nature of the influent flow was derived from industrial
particles themselves. Very small, bacterial-size sources and those from plants which had an
never settle in any reasonable period obvious actinomycete scum at the
particles problem
of time and always produce turbidity in the time of sampling. The actinomycete scum

supernatant or effluent. Larger, visible par problem is a peculiar type of deflocculation

ticles suspended in a clear supernatant should which gives a bod-sess relationship quite dif
be settleable under some conditions. How ferent from that found for other activated
ever, sometimes it is quite difficult to judge sludge processes.3 Most of the plants
were
whether larger particles in the effluent from an treating wastewater with a relatively high al
activated sludge process are there because of kalinity (> 100 mg/1) and a relatively high
poor sludge characteristics or because of prob pH (> 7.5). Plants treating wastewater with
lems of the design or operation of the settling a lower alkalinity and lower pH have more of
tank. a tendency to grow fungi and may not fit into
The amount of solids and the particle size these descriptions and conclusions. These
of the solids that do not settle are in some way data do not represent a random sample of
related to how well the activated sludge is activated sludge plants or even represent the
flocculated. Despite several investigations of range of types of operating problems that
the flocculation of activated sludge and a num occur with the activated sludge process. All
ber of different plausible theories, there still is of the plants sampled have occurrences of
no generally accepted explanation of why acti bulking, deflocculation, or pinpoint floe from
vated sludge flocculates (or more importantly, time to time, although in some cases no prob
sometimes it does not). Even worse, there lem was at the time the was
why occurring plant
is no good way of measuring the extent of the sampled.
flocculation. If the spss and sess are low Each set of samples included samples of the
enough, the sludge is considered to be well mixed liquor, return sludge, secondary effluent,
flocculated. If the spss and sess are high and and influent to the aeration tank. The deter
the supernatant and effluent are clear with minations made on the samples included set
individually visible particles in it, it is said that tling tests, ss determinations, and, in all cases,
pinpoint floe is being produced. If the spss bod. Temperature, dissolved oxygen (do),
and sess are high and the supernatant and and pH determinations were made when the
effluent are turbid, it is said that deflocculation samples were obtained. The other determina
is occurring. All this is very unscientific and tions were made after the samples were re
there is less reason to believe that pinpoint floe turned to the laboratory. All determinations
or deflocculation should correlate with scien were made according to the procedures in
tific measurements or parameters than to be "Standard Methods."4
lieve that the svi would. However, they are The data reported represent average values
terms useful to operators for describing of at least two determinations. In many cases,
problems. the values from determinations on several rep

January 1979 63

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Pipes

Methods"4), and YN agar [nutrient agar

16 (Difco) with 3 g/1 yeast extract added].

~BOD=8.8+0.61SS RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

85^ Effluent BOD and suspended solids. In the
' E 43 / -7, literature previous to 1967, effluent bod from
40- 82 6>^74
O 80 ^ an activated
44 92^29 sludge process was inter
usually
*' *}/ as leftover
preted influent bod?that is, organic
substrate that was not removed from the waste
water in the aeration tank. Over the past 10
years, there has been a general recognition that
most of the effluent bod is a result of the respir
EffluentSuspended Sol?ds(mg/l) ation of the microorganisms which make up the
5
FIGURE 1. Effluent BOD is related to efflu sludge solids lost in the effluent. Eckenfelder
ent solids. reported that activated sludge systems could be
suspended
designed to limit soluble bod in the effluent to
less than 10 mg/1 and that the 5-day bod ex
erted by 1 m g of sludge solids varied between
licate were averaged. In a few cases,
samples
0.3 and 0.8 mg, depending on the solids reten
the samples were composite samples collected
tion time. Loehr and deNavarra6
over or 24-hour When reported
8-, 12-, periods. pos
analyses of effluent from a municipal that
the results of the determina plant
sible, laboratory
were
showed that the soluble bod averaged 13 mg/1
tions checked against the determinations
and that the 5-day bod exerted by 1 mg of ss
made by plant personnel. Flow rates and op
was 0.43 mg. also that effluent
were obtained from They reported
erating parameters plant bod values above 20 mg/1 were caused by
operating data. The sizes of the aeration tanks,
excessive loss of solids from the
tanks, and pumps were ob secondary
settling piping,
settling tank.
tained from the operators, and whenever pos
The effluent bod values are versus
sible, this information was checked against the plotted
of the units or the physical
the SESS for 75 of the 77 sets of samples in
blueprints against
Figure 1. The other two had sess
measurements. It is inevitable that in a study samples
of this a certain amount of
well over 100 mg/1; those data are not plotted
type heterogeneity
of data will but
in this figure because to do so would have dis
occur, every reasonable step
was ensure torted the scale and obscured the main of
taken to that the data from the point
various are presenting these data. The least-squares, best
plants comparable.
fit line for all 77 data has the equation,
Sludge samples were examined microscopic
ally to reveal any unusual microorganisms pres bod = 8.8 + 0.61 ss
ent. Enumeration of and
(3)
sludge particles
filaments was a Neubauer This equation is the solid line in Figure
accomplished using 1.
haemocytometer. The sludge samples were The 95% confidence interval for the intercept
diluted with supernatant from settled mixed is 1.4 mg/1 to 16.2 mg/1, and the 95% confi
liquor, thereby sufficiently dispersing particles dence interval for the slope is 0.54 to 0.69.
so that individaul particles could be clearly The extreme limits for the confidence intervals
distinguished. The particles were sized and are plotted as dashed lines in Figure 1. The
were
counted, and the filaments counted using points with sess less than 30 mg/1 and bod
a 200 X magnification. At least 200 particles values less than 28 mg/1, which are between
were counted for each the dashed lines in Figure 1, are plotted as x's
sample.
Filamentous bacteria and fungi in the sam because they are believed to effluent
represent
ples were isolated from streak plates. A heavy quality within the normal range for activated
streak of sludge was made on the surface of an processes. The other are
sludge points plotted
agar plate. The filamentous organisms were as the number for of
sampling trip purposes
found growing out from the streaks in a few identification. The equation fitted to these
days. The media used for the isolations were data implies that the soluble effluent bod is
GPY agar (0.5 g dextrose, 0.1 g yeast extract, usually between 1 and 17 mg/1 and the 5-day
0.1 g neopeptone, and 15 g agar per 1 000 ml bod exerted by 1 mg of sess is between 0.54
distilled water), TGB agar (tryptone glucose and 0.69 mg. These values are within the
extract agar prepared according to "Standard ranges reported by other investigators.

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 Pinpoint Floe

All of the 10 points plotted on the high side

of the confidence interval are from plants for
which there is a good reason for excessively high,
soluble effluent bod. The samples collected on

trip Number 8 were from a plant re

sampling
ceiving a wastewater that contained a large
amount of molasses from an accident at a feed
mill in the community served. The influent
bod during the molasses spill was over 2 000
mg/1, and the activated sludge could not ab
sorb that much soluble bod in a short period of
time. One interesting observation made by the
operator was that, although the molasses caused
the svi to increase from 60 ml/g to 80 ml/g in
less than a day's time, it also reduced the sess
from 55 mg/1 to 30 mg/1; that is, it flocculated
the sludge.
The samples collected on trip Number 44
were from a plant that had just received rancid
coconut oil from a bakery specializing in
cookies. The samples collected on sampling
trip Number 59 were from a plant with a sour

digester, and 3.8 m3 (1000 gal) of digester

supernatant were wasted into the aeration tank
on the day the samples were collected. Much
of the effluent bod was a result of the sour

digester supernatant. The high, soluble efflu Filaments Cthousands /gmJ

ent bod values in collected on trips
samples FIGURE 2. A high index is
numbers 73 and 82 were also a result of di
sludge volume
the result of a large number of filamentous
gester supernatant being introduced into the
organisms in the sludge.
aeration tanks, although in these cases the

digesters were operating normally.

The effluent collected on filaments were counted but not measured.
samples sampling
numbers and 81 contained Figure 2 is a plot of svi versus the number of
trip 43, 46, 61, 80,
measurable concentrations of both ammonia filaments per gram
sludge. The of
data col
and This indicates a lected on sampling trips numbers 9, 22, 41, 42,
nitrogen nitrate-nitrogen.
nitrified effluent and the nitrification 49, 71, and 85 have been plotted as the sam
partially
would be expected to continue in the bod pling trip number for identification. The ap
thus results parent correlation is not as good for these data
bottles, giving showing excessively
soluble, effluent bod. No was as for the previously published data because
high, attempt
were counted
made to limit nitrification or to measure ni long filaments and short filaments
demand from car the same.
trogenous oxygen separately
bonaceous oxygen demand in the bod tests on The reason that a high number of filaments
any of these samples. produces a high svi is that the filaments extend
SVI and filamentous microorganisms. There ing out from the floe particles, as shown in
is little doubt that a high svi is usually the Figure 3, decrease the settling rate of the par
result of a heavy growth of filamentous micro ticles and physically hold the particles apart,
in the Both Finestein and thus preventing them from compacting to a
organisms sludge.
Heukelakian7 and Sezgin et al.s have mea high solids concentration. Sometimes the fila
sured the total length of filaments in sludge ments wrap around the sludge particles or
and shown that svi is proportional to around each other, as shown in Figure 4. When
samples
the total filament length. Chudoba et al? this occurs, a highly filamentous sludge can
used a microscopic that gave the have a relatively low svi. This observation ex
technique
relative of filamentous and floccu plains some of the scatter in Figure 2. It also
proportions
lated organisms in the sludge and found that explains the observation that the svi of a fil
the svi was to the of amentous sludge changecan rapidly, whereas
proportional proportion
filamentous In these studies, the the svi of a nonfilamentous sludge is stable.
organisms.

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Pipes

the results of at least two and sometimes sev

eral replicate tests. It is quite clear from this

graph that a higher svi usually produces a

lower spss. It is not to get a
possible good
correlation between spss and the inverse of the
svi, but the svi does seem to indicate some

upper limit to the spss. There are seven ex

ceptions to this general rule; these exceptions

are identified in Figure 5 by the sampling trip
number. It should be noted that these seven
exceptions are all plotted on the left side of
Figure 2; that is, they appear to have a higher
svi than can be the number of
explained by
filaments counted in the sludge.
FIGURE 3.
Filaments sticking out from
Classification of sludge types. Bulking
sludge particles hold the particles apart and
prevent the sludge from compacting to a high sludge has a high svi. As a general rule (not
as a precise an svi of greater than
solids concentration. definition),
200 ml/g indicates severe bulking and an svi
in the range of 100 to 200 ml/g indicates
The factors which control whether the filaments moderate bulking. Any svi less than 100 ml/g
or wrap
extend out from around the floe par may be considered to indicate a sludge with
ticles have not been identified. If this phenom normal compaction characteristics.
enon were understood, it might be possible to The only measure of the of floccula
degree
develop a method of reducing the svi of a tion of an activated sludge is the ss left behind
bulking sludge in a very short period of time. when most of the sludge settles. If too much
SVI and supernatant suspended solids. The suspended material remains behind, the sludge
filaments sticking out from the floe particles as is poorly lx
flocculated. Bisogni and Lawrence
they settle entrap small floe particles and carry used the percent of the total biomass of the
them down. Several authors, including aeration tank appearing in the effluent each
Keefer,10 have observed that a bulking sludge day as a measure of how well flocculated the
produces the clearest effluent if the sludge can sludge was and their data suggest that only 1
be kept from overflowing the secondary set or 2%/d would be lost by a well-flocculated
tling tank. Figure 5 is a plot of the concen sludge. This translates to an sess in the range
tration of suspended solids left behind in the of 5 to 20 mg/1 for mlss in the range of 2 000
supernatant when the sludge samples were to 4 000 mg/1. Their data was from a labora
settled in batch settling tests versus the svi
values. For some sludges, the supernatant
suspended solids from batch settling tests can
be quite variable; these values are averages of

?3 40

200 300 400 500

Sludge VolumeIndex(ml/grrt)

FIGURE 4. A filamentous sludge can have a FIGURE 5. A high sludge volume index
reasonably low sludge volume index if the usually produces a supernatant with a low sus
filaments wrap around the sludge particles. pended solids concentration.

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 Pinpoint Floe

tory study which was much better controlled

than most full-scale activated sludge processes. ? ?
Eckenfelder12 stated that under optimum con
ditions the spss from an activated sludge pro
cess could be held to less than 20 mg/l. Gagon
et al.,13 in an analysis of the bod removal effi

ciency of an activated sludge process, elimin

ated all samples which had an sess greater 49 ^ D?71
?40-1
than 30 mg/l on the grounds that gretaer than ^ B/ DPP
30 mg/l indicated excessive solids loss.
In this investigation, the use of sess as a
measure of flocculation was because it
rejected
was observed several times that a well-floc _ja-,-,-,-,-,-,-,? 40 80 100
2060 120 140
culated sludge could produce a high sess if the Suspended
Supernatent Solids(mg/b

secondary settling tank were either poorly de

FIGURE 6. Supernatant suspended solids
signed or improperly operated. This leaves
spss to work with as a measure of flocculation.
concentration from a batch settling test is not

Figure 5 suggests that in a case of severe bulk always a good predictor of effluent suspended
solids.
ing (svi > 200 ml/g), the spss should be less
than about 16 mg/l. This 16-mg/l limit is
not entirely arbitrary; it was selected because one case did a sample classified as pinpoint floe
the data for sample sets with svi > 200 ml/g show a sess higher than the spss. Many sam
and spss > 16 mg/l can be explained as bulk ples classified as pinpoint floe on the basis of
ing and deflocculation combined. For activated the spss from the laboratory settling tests had
sludge samples with svi < 200 ml/g, an upper quite satisfactory sess, suggesting that the pro
limit of 28 mg/l is proposed for well-flocculated posed definition of pinpoint floe is not very
sludges. useful for plant operation.
Usually, an operator distinguishes between The
points plotted in Figure 6 represent
well-flocculated and poorly flocculated acti bulking (B), normal (N), deflocculated sludge
vated sludge by observing the supernatant left (D), and pinpoint floe (P). Most of the points
after the sludge settles. A clear supernatant to the left of the line are B's. These are plants
with only a slight turbidity or a few sludge in which the operator did not have enough
particles suspended in it indicates a well-floc return sludge capacity and the bulking sludge
culated sludge. A distinct turbidity indicates was
overflowing the secondary settling tank.
deflocculation; individually visible suspended The N's to the left of the line represent plants
sludge particles indicate pinpoint floe. The which have poor designs for the secondary
activated sludges represented by these 77 sets settling tanks. The 13 samples classified as
of samples were all classified according to these deflocculated sludge, including the seven iden
proposed definitions. Since the proposed defi tified by sampling trip number, are scattered
nitions depend only on measurements and ob both to the left and to the right of the line.
servations made on activated sludge samples in SVI and organic loading. The relationship
the laboratory (solids determinations and between svi and organic loading has been in
settling tests in a 1-litre cylinder), they are vestigated several times. Logan and Budd 14
independent of the design, operation, and per found that the svi was at a minimum when the
formance of the activated sludge system itself. food:microorganism (f:m) ratio was between
However, to be useful, the definitions should 0.22 and 0.48/d and had a tendency to increase
be related to either process parameters or at either higher or lower loadings. Ford and
Eckenfelder 15 obtained similar results in labor
performance.
Effluent suspended solids. That the spss is atory and pilot-plant studies. However, other
a very poor predictor of the effluent suspended investigators
16'17 have found somewhat differ
solids is illustrated by Figure 6. The dashed ent relationships.
line on Figure 6 shows where the points should The svi values for these samples are plotted
lie if the spss and the sess were the same. Most versus the f:m ratios in Figure 7. Unlike the
of the points lie to the right of this line, indi other investigations of the relationship between
cating that better clarification is obtained in the svi and organic loading, which were either a
secondary settling tank than in a one-litre series of observations on a single process or a

cylinder, as is reasonable to expect. In only laboratory study in which factors were varied

January 1979 67

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Pipes

. the low end of the loading range, they occur in

700-1
I B different processes. Processes which tend to
produce pinpoint floe also produce sludge with
a low svi; processes which tend to produce
600-1 \
bulking sludge do not produce pinpoint floe.
IB B\ Deflocculation can occur at any level of

organic loading. In most cases, the reason for

500-1 \
the deflocculation was obvious when the sam
IB \
ple was collected. In one case there had been
B
y^\
a failure of a mechanical aerator and the pro
| 400J cess had been anaerobic
cases the dissolved oxygen in the aeration tank
overnight, in two other

I B \\ 49
"O I y was less than 0.1 mg/1, in another case the
S. 300-1 \ /
?
B \ / process had received a pH shock the day be
B B\ 71 42@^ fore the were and in another
> B | B B \ / I 41
samples collected,
I there had been a shock load of toxic waste.
"I20?
I B B \ Deflocculation is not uncommon, but it is
^B bb BB \ / 22
@r> usually easy to explain.
B B B ' \ /
d The sludge samples collected on trips num
p ppn D D \N d\ J9 8^x
HpN P P PN p P P ND
^y
t?^ bers 22, 41, 42, 49, 71, and 85 were all de
D N
PPNPP p P P P NN flocculated and bulking. These samples plus
r i-1-1 i those from sampling Trip 9 represent all the
f 0.1I 0.2 0.3 0.4 0-5
exceptions to the inverse relationship between
F'.M Ratio (per day) spss and svi shown in Figure 5. These samples
FIGURE 7. volume were all obtained from relatively small plants,
Extremely high sludge
index values tend to occur at low F:M ratios. but the operators were knowledgeable about
the problems they had. In each of these pro
cesses the influent bod concentration was not
in an orderly manner, these data represent the excessive and the aeration tank had adequate
conditions in a variety of different municipal volume. The reason for the high f:m ratio was
wastewater treatment plants. The types of a very low mlss. In each case the had
operator
sludges produced are the results of differences increased the return sludge rate to the maxi
in wastewater strength and composition, in mum and then had wasted to keep it
sludge
design limitations on the capabilities of the from the settling tank.
overflowing secondary
processes, and in the individual operator's The mlss in these cases had dropped to be
methods of responding to problems. In par tween 800 and 1 200 mg/1 because there was
ticular, the operator's response to a developing not return to maintain
enough sludge capacity
can an f:m ratio quite differ a higher mlss with a poorly compacting sludge.
problem produce
ent from the value of the f:m ratio at the time With the high f-.m ratio there was opportunity
the problem initially occurred. for individual, nonflocculated bacterial cells to
The results plotted in Figure 7 show the grow in the aeration tank; these cells were be
low svi values in the intermediate range, as
ing lost into the effluent, giving it a high tur
previously reported. However, very few of bidity and a high bod. If the operators of
the processes sampled had f:m ratios in the these processes had had higher return sludge
range 0.3 to 0.4/d. The ones that did were capacity, they would have been able to main
the larger plants with more knowledgeable tain a higher mlss and a lower F:M ratio.
personnel. The better results may have been, This probably would have eliminated the de
to some extent, a result of better operational flocculated sludge, if not the bulking.
control, and the small number of data in this All of the cases of filamentous bulking en
range may have biased the results. countered these investigations were a
during
Samples with normal sludge characteristics result of excessive growths of some filamentous
were found throughout the entire range of or bacteria in the sludge. In all but four cases,
was
ganic loadings, up to 0.4/d. Both bulking more than one filamentous bacterium

sludges and pinpoint floe tended to occur at found. In the 27 cases of simple bulking at
low loadings, with the highest svi's occuring at low F:M ratios, Sphaerolitus natans was en

the extreme low end of the loading range. Al countered five times, Bacillus cereus or Bacillus
though bulking and pinpoint floe both occur at cereus var. mycoides was encountered 18 times,

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 Pinpoint Floe

Beggiotoa was encountered three times, a bac > 350 ml/g) were found in processes having
terium identified as belonging to the genus F:M ratios less than 0.2/d. Although both
Arthrobacter was encountered 13 times, and a pinpoint floe and extreme bulking occur in
bacterium identified as belonging to the genus activated sludge processes with low organic
Brevibacterium was encountered seven times. loading, the two, phenomena do not occur to
Other filamentous bacteria were seen but not gether. Bulking sludge from processes with
isolated and therefore not identified. In the low organic loading was always well-floccu
seven cases of bulking and deflocculation at high lated sludge. Activated sludge processes with
F:M ratios, Sphaerotilus natans was encoun F:M ratios less than 0.2/d produce their best
tered twice, Bacillus four times, Beggiotoa quality effluent when the svi is high as long as
twice, the filamentous Arthrobacter three times, the return sludge capacity is adequate to keep
and the filamentous Brevibacterium twice. The the sludge from overflowing the secondary
fact that the same filamentous bacteria were settling tank.
found in cases of bulking at both high and low Deflocculation can occur at any F:M ratio

organic loadings supports the idea that the for a variety of different causes. Low dis
same phenomenon can occur at both high and solved oxygen, low pH, and toxic shock loads
low loadings. are among the causes of deflocculation. De
flocculation also can occur in sludges having
SUMMARY any svi. When deflocculation occurs, the op
As indicated by the references cited in the erator is unable to maintain the desired mlss
discussion, there is nothing particularly new in because much of the solids are lost into the
this paper. The information is cumulative in effluent. As the mlss decreases, the F:M ratio
that it tends to confirm what several other in increases. The activated sludge processes sam

vestigators have reported previously. How pled during this investigation were all designed
ever, when brought together in one paper the for F:M ratios of less than 0.3/d. F:M ratios
information does tend to clarify the distinctions greater than 0.4/d were observed only in those
among three different types of activated sludge processes in which the mlss had been reduced
associated with operating problems. to a low value because of deflocculation or

Poor performance of activated sludge pro bulking or both.

cesses is usually associated with excessive loss Bulking and deflocculation can occur simul
of ss from the secondary settling tank into the taneously in an activated sludge process. In

effluent. Excessive loss of solids into the efflu this investigation, simultaneous bulking and de
ent may be caused by poor design or poor flocculation were observed six times?all in
operation of the secondary settling tank. If the processes with F:M ratios greater than 0.4/d.
was
settling tank is well designed and properly One other case in which the F:M ratio

operated, the excessive loss of solids is a result greater than 0.4/d showed a sludge that was
of either poor flocculation or poor settling of the deflocculated but not bulking. In the six cases
sludge. In this series of samples from munici of simultaneous bulking and deflocculation, the
pal activated sludge plants, excessively high, high F:M ratio was the result of bulking plus
(> 17 mg/l) soluble effluent bod concentra a limited return sludge flow rate. When the
tions were observed only when there was a very svi approached 300 ml/g the operator could
high, soluble influent bod (most often from not pump the sludge back into the aeration
digester supernatant) or when the effluent was tank fast enough to maintain a mlss of 2 000
partially nitrified. All other cases of excessively mg/1 and had to either waste sludge or watch
high effluent bod were associated with high it overflow the secondary settling tank into the
effluent ss. effluent. The high F:M ratio occurred because
Pinpoint floe consists of small yet visible floe of the reduced mlss after the bulking had been
particles that are in the supernatant after the occurring for several days. The observations

sludge has settled. Pinpoint floe has been ob made during this investigation are consistent

served only in processes with low organic load with the hypothesis that an F:M ratio of greater
ing (F:M < 0.2/d); however, the exact rea than 0.4/d leads to deflocculation, but there are
sons for the production of pinpoint floe are un not enough observations in the high organic
Pinpoint floe occurs only when
known. the range to substantiate this as a con
loading
svi is low (< 100 ml/g). clusion.
Activated sludge processes with low organic The dominant filamentous bacteria observed
loading can also produce bulking sludge. The in bulking sludges were identified as species
most extreme cases of bulking sludge (svi belonging to the genera, Bacillus, Sphaerotilus,

January 1979 69

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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
Pipes

and Brevibacterium; 6. Loehr, R. C, and D.

Beggiatoa, Arihrobacter, deNavarra, T., Jr.,
of a Municipal
however, other filamentous bacteria which were
"Grease Removal Treatment

not isolated and therefore not identified were Facility." Jour. Water Poll Control Fed.,

observed in some samples. 41, R142 (1969).

Bulking occurring 7. Finstein, M. S., and Heukelekian, H., "Fil
in activated sludge processes at high organic amentous Microorganisms and the Bulking
loadings seemed to involve the same filament of Activated Sludge." Proc. 20th Ind. Waste
ous as bulking occurring at low or Purdue W.
organisms Conf., Univ., Lafayette, Ind.,
ganic loadings. This is consistent with the Ext. Ser. 118, 175 (1965).
hypothesis that bulking is primarily a phenom 8. Sezgin, M., et al, "A Unified Theory of Acti
enon at low but can vated Sludge Bulking." Jour. Water Poll
occurring organic loading
lead to high organic loading (and defloccula Control Fed., 50, 362 ( 1978 ).
9. Chudoba, J., et al, "Control of Activated
tion) if it results in excessive solids loss or Filamentous Effect of
Sludge Bulking?II.
wasting. or Degree of Mixing in
Hydraulic Regime
an Aeration Tank." Water Res., 7, 1163
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS (1973).
Credits. Parts of the study were supported 10. Keefer, D. E., "Relationship of Sludge Den
from the U. S. Public Health Service sity Index to the Activated Sludge Process."
by grants
Water Poll. Control 1168
and the Federal Water Pollution Control Ad Jour. Fed., 35,
ministration. This paper was presented at the (1963).
11. Bisogni, J. J., Jr., and Lawrence, A. W., "Rela
WPCF 50th Annual Conference in Philadel
tionship between Biological Solids Retention
phia, Pa., October 2-7, 1977. Time and Settling Characteristics of Acti
Author. Wesley O. Pipes is Betz Professor vated Water
Sludge." Res., 5, 753 (1971).
of Ecology, Drexel University, Philadelphia, 12. Eckenfelder, W. Effi
W., Jr., "Boost Plant
Pa. At the time the data presented in this Water tr Wastes 9, 9, E 1
ciency." Eng.,
paper were collected, he was Professor of Civil (1972).
Engineering, Northwestern University, Evans 13. Gagon, G. A., et al, "Review and Evolution of
ton, 111. Aeration Tank Design Parameters." Jour.
Water Poll. Control Fed., 49, 725 (1977).
14. Logan, R. and W. "Effect of
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