General Chemistry Lecture Guide

Lecture Guide in General Chemistry
Property of: Leo M. Aresgado

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Pre-test Score:
Direction: Choose and encircle the letter of the BEST answer.
1. Chemistry is _______________.
a. a science that deals with the structure and properties of substances and the changes that they go through.
b. a science that deals with matter and energy and the way they act on each other in heat, light, electricity
and sound.
c. Both a and b
d. None of the above
2. It is a branch of chemistry that deals with the study of determining how much of something is present in
something.
a. General chemistry
b. Biochemistry
c. Analytical chemistry
d. Physical chemistry
3. Which among the following laboratory practices is NOT wrong?
a. Always wear safety goggles whenever you are working with chemicals or other substances that might
get into your eyes.
b. Never reach across a flame.
c. Sometimes look directly into a test tube when mixing or heating chemicals.
d. Always point a test tube away from you and others when heating it over a flame or other heat source.
4. Which part of the Scientific method you affirm or deny your hypothesis?
a. Statement of the problem
b. Conduct an experiment
c. Research the question
d. Draw Conclusions
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Introduction
Chemistry is a branch of science concerned with the study of matter.
Coverage:
Chapter 1: The study of Chemistry

Chapter 2: Significant figures and measurement
Chapter 3: Matter
Chapter 4: Modern Atomic Theory
Chapter 5: The Periodic Table
Chapter 6: Chemical Bonding
Chapter 7: Chemical Equations
Chapter 8: Acid and Bases
Chapter 9: Biochemistry
CHAPTER 1: THE STUDY OF CHEMISTRY
Why study Chemistry? This question is asked by students for years. For many students the answer is that
it is required for a degree in education, biology, agriculture, engineering, nursing and so forth. But this is not a
very satisfactory answer. Most students want to know why it is required for a degree in these various fields and
why science and more specifically, chemistry are important to them either in their chosen field or in their lives
as educated and informed citizens.
An understanding of basic principles of chemistry is important in such areas. But even beyond that, the
food you eat, the clothes you wear, the medicine that you take and most other aspects of your life are directly
affected by the substances and factors that will study about in this course.
Lesson 1 Branches of Chemistry
Chemistry is generally divided into five branches. In general chemistry course, along with the
fundamental topics that are basic to all branches of chemistry, you will at least touch on all of these branches.
The five branches are as follows:
1. Organic chemistry-the study of the compounds of carbon. All living organisms have traces of carbon.
2. Inorganic chemistry-the study of chemical elements and their compounds except carbon.
3. Physical chemistry-deals with the relations between the physical properties of substances and their
chemical formations along with their changes.
4. Analytical chemistry-deals mostly with the composition of substances. It seeks to improve means of
measuring chemical composition of natural and artificial materials.
5. Biochemistry-a science that fused biology and chemistry. It is concerned with the composition and
chemical reactions that occur in the formation of living species.
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Activity 1. Branches of Chemistry Score:
Find and encircle the eight terms that have something to do with the branches of chemistry.
A C V N M K L G T D J C Y A C A E E R
M M B O L U B N L A W S A V H A Q B Y
C O C I G U I M L U N I W L E S W I O
A F B A O R G A N I C A M K M D E C I
R A A A W C J K L N O O L M I F Y H Y
B W A W E R H J H O I E I Y S G U E F
O F A S D F F E A B C D E F T H O M D
N J C V B E E E M A A A A A A I O I O
L O I N O R G A N I C C B N M E C C I
E I A E R T Y U H J S B J D E E E A L
Q F A N F I I O O C V T N D Y J J L L
A F Q A E V C X G K H H R I O Y V M M
P H Y S I C A L Y D B I O Y C N D J N
Your answers here:
1. _____________________
2. _____________________
3. _____________________
4. _____________________
5. _____________________
6. _____________________
7. _____________________
8. _____________________
Time started:______
Time finished:_____
Duration of work:______
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Lesson 2 Laboratory Safety Rules
Science is a hands-on laboratory class. You will be doing some laboratory activities which require the
use of hazardous chemicals. Safety in the science classroom is the #1 priority for students, teachers, and parents.
To ensure a safe science classroom, a list of rules has been developed.
The following rules must be followed at all times:
A. CLOTHING
1. Any time chemicals, heat, or glassware are used, students will wear laboratory goggles.
2. Contact lenses should not be worn in the laboratory unless you have permission from your instructor.
3. Dress properly during a laboratory activity.
4. Long hair, dangling jewelry, and loose or baggy clothing are a hazard in the laboratory. Long hair must
be tied back and dangling jewelry and loose or baggy clothing must be secured.
5. Shoes must completely cover the foot. No sandals allowed.
B. ACCIDENTS AND INJURIES
1. Report any accident (spill, breakage, etc.) or injury (cut, burn, etc.) to the instructor immediately, no
matter how trivial it may appear.
2. If a chemical splashes in your eye(s) or on your skin, immediately flush with running water from the
eyewash station or safety shower for at least 20 minutes. Notify the instructor immediately.
3. When Mercury thermometers are broken, Mercury must not be touched. Notify the instructor
immediately.
C. HANDLING CHEMICALS
1. All chemicals in the laboratory are to be considered dangerous. Do not touch, taste, or smell any
chemicals unless specifically instructed to do so. The proper technique for smelling chemical fumes is to
whip the air above the chemical towards your face.
2. Check the label on chemical bottles twice before removing any of the contents.
3. Take only as much chemical as you need.
4. Never return unused chemicals to their original containers.
5. Never use mouth suction to fill a pipet. Use a rubber bulb or pipet pump.
6. When transferring reagents from one container to another, hold the containers away from your body.
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7. Acids must be handled with extreme care. Always add acid to water, swirl or stir slowly the solution
and be careful of the heat produced, particularly with sulfuric acid.
8. Handle flammable hazardous liquids over a pan to contain spills. Never dispense flammable liquids
anywhere near an open flame or source of heat.
9. Never remove chemicals or other materials from the laboratory area.
10. Take great care when transporting acids and other chemicals from one part of the laboratory to another.
Hold them securely and walk carefully.
D. HANDLING GLASSWARE AND EQUIPMENT
11. Carry glass tubing, especially long pieces, in a vertical position to minimize the likelihood of breakage
and injury.
12. Never handle broken glass with your bare hands. Use a brush and dustpan to clean up broken glass.
Place broken or waste glassware in the designated glass disposal container.
13. Inserting and removing glass tubing from rubber stoppers can be dangerous. Always lubricate glassware
(tubing, thistle tubes, thermometers, etc.) before attempting to insert it in a stopper. Always protect your
hands with towels or cotton gloves when inserting glass tubing into, or removing it from, a rubber
stopper. If a piece of glassware becomes “frozen” in a stopper, take it to your instructor for removal.
14. When removing an electrical plug from its socket, grasp the plug, not the electrical cord. Hands must be
completely dry before touching an electrical switch, plug, or outlet.
15. Examine glassware before each use. Never use chipped or cracked glassware. Never use dirty glassware.
16. Report damaged electrical equipment immediately. Look for things such as frayed cords, exposed wires,
and loose connections. Do not use damaged electrical equipment. If you do not understand how to use a
piece of equipment, ask the instructor for help.
17. Do not immerse hot glassware in cold water; it may shatter.
E. HEATING SUBSTANCES
1. Exercise extreme caution when using a gas burner. Take care that hair, clothing and hands are a safe
distance from the flame at all times. Do not put any substance into the flame unless specifically
instructed to do so. Never reach over an exposed flame. Light gas (or alcohol) burners only as instructed
by the teacher.
2. Never leave a lit burner unattended. Never leave anything that is being heated or is visibly reacting
unattended. Always turn the burner or hot plate off when not in use.
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3. You will be instructed in the proper method of heating and boiling liquids in test tubes. Do not point the
open end of a test tube being heated at yourself or anyone else.
4. Heated metals and glass remain very hot for a long time. They should be set aside to cool and picked up
with caution. Use tongs or heat-protective gloves if necessary.
5. Never look into a container that is being heated.
6. Do not place hot apparatus directly on the laboratory desk. Always use an insulating pad. Allow plenty
of time for hot apparatus to cool before touching it.
7. When bending glass, allow time for the glass to cool before further handling. Hot and cold glasses have
the same visual appearance. Determine if an object is hot by bringing the back of your hand close to it
prior to grasping it.
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Activity 2. Laboratory Safety Rules Score:
Direction: The Bikini Bottom gang has been learning safety rules during science class. Read the paragraphs
below to find the broken safety rules and underline each one.
Scenario:
SpongeBob, Patrick, and Gary were thrilled when Mr. Krabbs gave their teacher a chemistry set! Mr.
Krabbs warned them to be careful and reminded them to follow the safety rules they had learned in science
class. The teacher passed out the materials and provided each person with an experiment book.
SpongeBob and Gary flipped through the book and decided to test the properties of a mystery substance.
Since the teacher did not tell them to wear the safety goggles, they left them on the table. SpongeBob lit the
Bunsen burner and then reached across the flame to get a test tube from Gary. In the process, he knocked over a
bottle of the mystery substance and a little bit splashed on Gary. SpongeBob poured some of the substance into
a test tube and began to heat it. When it started to bubble he looked into the test tube to see what was happening
and pointed it towards Gary so he could see. Gary thought it smelled weird so he took a deep whiff of it. He
didn’t think it smelled poisonous and tasted a little bit of the substance. They were worried about running out of
time, so they left the test tube and materials on the table and moved to a different station to try another
experiment.
Patrick didn’t want to waste any time reading the directions, so he put on some safety goggles and
picked a couple different substances. He tested them with vinegar (a weak acid) to see what would happen even
though he didn’t have permission to experiment on his own. He noticed that one of the substances did not do
anything, but the other one fizzed. He also mixed two substances together to see what would happen, but didn’t
notice anything. He saw SpongeBob and Gary heating something in a test tube and decided to do that test. He
ran over to that station and knocked over a couple bottles that SpongeBob had left open. After cleaning up the
spills, he read the directions and found the materials he needed. The only test tube he could find had a small
crack in it, but he decided to use it anyway. He lit the Bunsen burner and used tongs to hold the test tube over
the flame. He forgot to move his notebook away from the flame and almost caught it on fire.
Before they could do another experiment, the bell rang and they rushed to put everything away. Since
they didn’t have much time, Patrick didn’t clean out his test tube before putting it in the cabinet. SpongeBob
noticed that he had a small cut on his finger, but decided he didn’t have time to tell the teacher about it. Since
they were late, they skipped washing their hands and hurried to the next class.
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Lesson 3 Scientific Method
The Scientific Method is a process used to find answers to questions about the world around us.
The following are the basic steps in scientific method:
1. Formulate a question- What do you want to know or explain? Use observations you have made to
write a question that addresses the problem or topic you want to investigate.
2. Research the question- Researching your question lets you know if others have done this same
experiment before and if so, what their data suggests. If they had a widely accepted conclusion, you may
want to try a different angle with your experiment or test a different variable.
3. Form a hypothesis- What do you think will happen? A hypothesis is your prediction for the outcome of
the experiment. It is based on your observations and should be testable!
4. Conduct an experiment to test your hypothesis- Design a procedure that tests your hypothesis to see
if your prediction is correct.
5. Record and Analyze data- Record all of your data and observations and put them into a table that is
neat and organized. Is your data reliable? Does it make sense?
6. Draw Conclusions- Do your data and observations support your hypothesis? If you cannot make a
definite conclusion, you may need to try the experiment again. This means you may either need to
rewrite your procedure if it was not specific enough; you may need to change your hypothesis.
7. Communicate results- Report the results of your experiment to let others know what you have learned.
This will be represented as either a lab report, oral presentation, or Science Fair display board. Scientists
may want to repeat your procedure to see if they get the same results as you. They may also tweak your
experiment a little and have a slightly different focus. Also, your report may lead to a new question
which may lead to another investigation. This of course brings us right back to the first step again!
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CHAPTER 2: SIGNIFICANT FIGURES, SCIENTIFIC NOTATION, MEASUREMENT AND
CONVERSION OF UNITS
The coverage of this is very important as it serves as a springboard for higher calculations in
Chemistry.
Lesson 4: Significant figures and scientific notation
The significant figures in a number are those that give reasonably reliable information, and include the
digits that are certain, plus one estimated digit of the measurement. The following rules are used to determine
the number of significant digits in a measurement.
To avoid confusion in determining the number of significant figures in a measurement, numbers may be
written in a scientific notation. Numbers written in this manner will consist of first part (any number between 1
and 10) and the second part (powers of ten). Hence the numbers 0.0000534 is written as 5.34 x 10-5 and 53, 400,
000 is written as 5.34 x 107. To convert numbers into a scientific notation, the proper exponent is determined by
counting how many times the decimal point must be moved to bring it to its final position, so that the first part
of the number is between 1 and 10.
When is a digit significant?
1. All non-zero integers are counted as significant figures. Hence the number 3.72 has three significant figures
while 278.5 has four significant digits.
2. Zero may or may not be significant. Following the guidelines may be useful for determining whether zero is
significant or not. Zeros may be classified into:
a. Leading zeros- i.e. zeros before the digits 1-9 are not significant.
b. Captive zeros- i.e. zeros that appear between non-zero digits are significant, e.g. 50.37 and 5.037 both
have 4 significant figures.
c. Terminal zeros- with a decimal point are significant. e.g.:
135.00 has 5 significant figures
3. Terminal zeros with no decimal point are not significant.
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Significant figures in calculations
In calculation, we keep tract of the number of significant figures in each quantity so that we don’t claim
more significant figures (more certainty) in the answer than in the original data. If we have too many significant
figures, we round off the answer to obtain the proper number of them.
The general rule for rounding is that the least certain measurement sets the limit on certainty for the
entire calculation and determines the number of significant figures for the final answer.
1. For multiplication and division: the answer contains the same number of significant figures as in the
measurement with the fewest significant figures.
Example: Suppose you want to determine the volume of a graphite composite given the following data.
Volume (cm3) = 9.2 cm x 6.8 cm x 0.3744 cm = 23 cm3
The calculator would say 23.4225 cm3, but you should report the answer as 23 cm3, with two significant
figures because the length and width contain only two significant figures.
2. For addition and subtraction: the answer contains the same number of decimal places as in the
measurement with the fewest decimal places.
Example: Suppose you want to determine the total volume of a graduated cylinder given the following data.
Volume (mL) = 83.5 mL + 23.28 mL = 106.8 mL
The calculator would say 106.78 mL, but you should report the volume as 106.8 mL, with one decimal
place, because the measurement with fewer decimal places (83.5 mL) has only one decimal place.
Activity 4: Significant Figures and Scientific Notation
Direction (1): Express the following numbers in the exponential form and determine the number of significant
figures in each.
Number Exponential Notation Number of significant figures

1,200,000
59,000
5,237.368
0.6920
10.003
50,000.78
5.6302
0.0087
30.55
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Direction (2): Perform the following calculations and round off your final answers to the correct number of
significant figures.
1. 6.55230-5.12=_____________________
2. 4.29 (12.567) (8.099345) = _____________________
3. 7.903 + 5.8=_____________________
4. 9.609/2.54=_____________________
Lesson 5: Measurement
Measurement has been an important part of human existence. Ancient people also had measurement
using parts of the human body. However, these were not standardized as measurements vary from one person to
another.
Today there are two known systems that make use of standardized units: British/English System and
Metric System. The English system is also known as FPS System (Foot-Pound-Second). The Metrix system,
on the other hand, has been internationally known and recognized and later became the International System
of Units (SI). It was adopted in the Philippines on January 1, 1983 through the Batas Pambansa No. 8 (Navaza
& Cordero, 1996).
Essentially, there are two types of quantities: basic/fundamental quantities and derived quantities.
Fundamental quantities are those that can be measured directly while those which are indirectly measured and
need computations are derived quantities.
Quantity Unit Symbol

Length Meter m
Mass Kilogram kg
Time Second s
Temperature Kelvin K
Amount of Substance Mole mol
Electric Current Ampere A
Luminous Intensity Candela cd
Table 1. Basic Quantities of the SI System
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Quantity Unit Symbol
Speed meter/second m/s
2
Area square meter sq.m / m
Volume Liter L
2
Acceleration meter per second square m/s
3
Density kilogram per cubic meter kg/m
Force Newton N
Weight Newton N
Energy Joule J
Work Joule J
Power Watts W
Electric charge Coulomb C
Magnetic field Tesla T
Table 2. Derived Quantities
Lesson 6: Conversion factors and Inter-conversion by the Factor Unit Method
In converting one unit to another, the following table of prefixes will help in doing the task.
Prefix (abbreviation) Power of Ten

peta (P) 1015
tera (T) 1012
giga (G) 109
mega (M) 106
kilo (k) 103
deci (d) 10-1
centi (c) 10-2
milli (m) 10-3
micro (µ) 10-6
nano (n) 10-9
pico (p) 10-12
femto (f) 10-15
Table 3. SI Prefixes
1 inch=2.54 cm 1 kg=2.2 lbs

o
1 mile=1.609 km C=(oF-32) x 5/9
o
F=oC x 9/5 + 32 1 yard=0.9144 m
1 foot=30.48 cm K=oC + 273.16
Table 4. Other Conversion Units
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The main goal is that the chosen conversion factor cancels all units except those required for the answer.
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑓𝑡
beginning unit x 𝑏𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 = final unit as in mi x 𝑚𝑖 = ft
or in cases that involve a ratio of two units,

𝑏𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡2 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡2 𝑚𝑖 𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑡
x = 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 1 as in x 𝑚𝑖 =
𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 1 𝑏𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 ℎ ℎ
Use the following examples A and B to study how to convert from one unit to another.
Example A:
Convert 400 m to ____________Gm.

1𝐺𝑚
Solution: 400m x 1𝑥109 𝑚 = 400 x 10-9 Gm = 4.00 x 10-7 Gm
Example B:
Convert 921 Mg to ____________ g.

1 𝑥 10 6 𝑔
Solution: 921 Mg x = 921 x 106 g = 9.21 x 108 g
1 𝑀𝑔
Activity: Conversion factors and Inter-conversion by the Factor Unit Method
Direction: Solve for the following.
1. Express 2.70 feet in:
a. __________millimeters
b. __________centimeters
c. __________meters
d. __________yard
e. __________inches
f. __________Gigameter
g. __________inches
h. __________kilometer
i. __________femtometer
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Lesson 5: Formula Transformation
A formula is a set of algebraic symbols representing a mathematical fact, rule or principle. For example,
A= l (w)
From this, one quantity is unknown; you can simply rearrange the quantities to arrive at the needed
equation. This process is known as formula transformation.
Example A:
The original equation is A = at + v, determine the equation for a.
Solution: A = at +v
A + (-v) = at + v + (-v) (to cancel +v, add to both sides its opposite, -v)
A –v =at
𝐴−𝑣 𝑎𝑡
= 𝑡 (to eliminate t, divide both sides by t)
𝑡
𝐴−𝑣
=a
𝑡
𝐴−𝑣
Therefore: a = 𝑡
Example B:
𝐛𝐜𝟐
From the equation w = determine the equation for c.
𝟒
𝒘 𝒃𝒄𝟐
Solution: =
𝟏 𝟒
4w = bc2 (cross multiply both sides to eliminate the denominator)

4𝑤 𝑏𝑐2
= (divide both sides by b to eliminate b)
𝑏 𝑏
𝟒𝒘
= c2
𝒃
𝟒𝒘
c2 = 𝒃
𝟒𝒘
√𝒄𝟐 = ±√ 𝒃 (extract c2by squaring it the same with the other side)
𝟒𝒘
Therefore: C = ±√ 𝒃
Example C:
From the equation d = vi + ½ gt2 derive the equation for t if vi = 0.
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Solution: d = vi + ½ gt2
d = ½ gt2 (since vi =zero)
2d = gt2 (eliminate 2 on the denominator by cross multiplying d by 2)

2𝑑 𝑔𝑡2
= (divide by g on both sides of the equation)
𝑔 𝑔
2𝑑
= t2
𝑔
2𝑑
√ 𝑔 = √t2 (extract t2by squaring it the same with the other side)
2𝑑
±√ 𝑔 = t
2𝑑
Therefore: t = ±√ 𝑔
Activity: Formula Transformation
Direction: Solve for the unknown variable in each of the equations given.
1. Derive the equations for v.

𝑑 𝑣2 𝑣 𝑏
a. d=vt b. t=𝑣 c. a=2𝑑 d. 𝑎=𝑐
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CHAPTER 3: MATTER
Various Definition of Matter
 Physical substance in general, as distinct from mind and spirit; (in physics) that which occupies space and
possesses rest mass, especially as distinct from energy.
 In science, matter is the term for any type of material. Matter is anything that has mass and takes up space.
 Matter is defined as anything that has mass and takes up space (it has volume).
Contents:
1. States of Matter
2. Phases of Matter
3. Classification of matter
4. Physical and chemical properties
5. Physical and chemical change
6. Separation of matter
Clarifying Terms:
Mass-the amount of matter in an object.
Weight- the force of gravity on the object and may be calculated as the mass times the acceleration of gravity.
Formula: w = mg SI unit is Newton
https://www.online-sciences.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/mass-vs-weight-111.jpg
Weight vs. Mass
Volume-the amount of space something occupies. Different states of matter will fill volumes in different ways.
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Lesson 1: States of Matter
Solids, liquids, and gases are the three states of matter commonly found on earth. A fourth state of matter,
plasma, occurs naturally in the interiors of stars. Plasma is the most common form of visible matter in the
universe.
Solid
In a solid, the particles (ions, atoms or molecules) are closely packed together. The forces between
particles are strong so that the particles cannot move freely but can only vibrate. As a result, a solid has a stable,
definite shape, a definite volume and a high density. Solids can only change their shape by force, as when broken
or cut.
Solids can be transformed into liquids by melting and can also change directly into gases through the
process of sublimation.
Liquid
In liquids, the molecules have the ability to move around and slide past each other. A liquid will take on
the shape of the container it is being held in. When a solid is heated above its melting point, it becomes liquid.
While a liquid is easier to compress than a solid, it is still quite difficult – imagine trying to compress water in a
confined container!
A liquid can be converted to a gas through heating at constant pressure to the substance’s boiling point or
through reduction of pressure at constant temperature. This process of a liquid changing to a gas is called
evaporation.
Water is an example of a liquid, and so is milk, juice and the petrol you put in the car.
Gas
In gases, the atoms are much more spread out than in solids or liquids, and the atoms collide randomly
with one another. A gas will fill any container, but if the container is not sealed, the gas will escape. Gas can be
compressed much more easily than a liquid or solid.
Right now, you are breathing in air – a mixture of gases containing many elements such as oxygen,
nitrogen and carbon.
Plasma
In a plasma, electrons are ripped away from their nuclei, forming an electron “sea”. This gives it the ability
to conduct electricity. Plasma is very similar to gas, In fact, the easiest way to describe plasma is as a gas that can
carry an electrical charge. Plasma is a form of matter that exists when atoms are in an excited state. They are so
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excited that they jump an energy level and, in doing so, give off light. Plasma particles are spread out and move
around randomly, but unlike gas, they contain some free ions and electrons.
A lightning storm is an example of plasma, one of the known states of matter. Auroras are another form of
plasma, where atoms in the upper atmosphere are affected by particles coming in from outer space. The most
common form of plasma is in the stars – our Sun exists in the plasma state.
On Earth, plasmas are commonly found in some kinds of fluorescent lights and neon signs.
http://shelledy.mesa.k12.co.us/staff/computerlab/images/KFW_3rd_Grade_States_of_matter.jpg
States of Matter
Activity: Recognizing States of Matter
Direction: Read the following statements and determine if it describes solid, liquid, gas or plasma. Write you
answer on the space provided.
1. The state of matter with the weakest intermolecular forces is _____________.

2. The state of matter with an indefinite shape and definite volume is _____________.
3. The state of matter with a definite shape and volume is _____________.
Lesson 2: Phase Change of Matter
All matter can move from one state to another. It may require extreme temperatures or extreme
pressures, but it can be done. Sometimes a substance doesn't want to change states. You have to use all of your
tricks when that happens. To create a solid, you might have to decrease the temperature by a huge amount and
then add pressure.
Phase changes typically occur when the temperature or pressure of a system is altered. When temperature
or pressure increases, molecules interact more with each other. If you have liquid water (H2O) at room
temperature and you wanted water vapor (gas), you could use a combination of high temperatures or low
pressures to solve your problem.
 Melting (Solid → Liquid)
Melting is the process by which a substance changes from the solid phase to the liquid phase usually with
the addition of heat. There is a special temperature for every substance called the melting point. When a solid
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reaches the temperature of its melting point, it can become a liquid. For water, the temperature needs to be a little
over zero degrees Celsius (0oC) for you to melt.
Melting
 Freezing (Liquid → Solid)
Freezing is the process through which a substance changes from a liquid to a solid. All liquids except
helium undergo freezing when the temperature becomes sufficiently cold.
 Vaporization (Liquid → Gas)
Vaporization, or evaporation, is the process by which molecules undergo a spontaneous transition from a
liquid phase to a gas phase.
https://media.nationalgeographic.org/assets/photos/000/270/27037.jpg
Evaporation
 Condensation (Gas → Liquid)
Condensation, the opposite of evaporation, is the change in the state of matter from the gas phase to the
liquid phase.
Example: Water drops forming on a glass holding a cold drink on a hot summer day.
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Condensation
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 Deposition (Gas → Solid)
The phase transition in which gas transforms into solid without passing through the liquid phase.
Deposition is a thermodynamic process. The reverse of deposition is sublimation and hence sometimes
deposition is called desublimation.
Example: Frost is a thin layer of ice on a solid surface, which forms from water vapor in an above freezing
atmosphere coming in contact with a solid surface whose temperature is below freezing, and resulting in a phase
change from water vapor (a gas) to ice (a solid) as the water vapor reaches the freezing point.
Frost
http://cimg2.ck12.org/datastreams
 Sublimation (Solid → Gas)
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Sublimation is the transition from a solid phase to a gas phase without passing through an intermediate
liquid phase.
Example: Dry ice is solid carbon dioxide (CO2). Amazingly, when you leave dry ice out in a room, it just turns
into a gas. Coal is another example of a compound that will not melt at normal atmospheric pressures. It will
sublimate at very high temperatures.
Figure. Dry Ice
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 Ionization (Gas → Plasma)
Ionization energy is the quantity of energy that an isolated, gaseous atom in the ground electronic state
must absorb to discharge an electron, resulting in a cation.
Example: In many signs, there are glass tubes filled with neon (Ne) gas. Normally, the gas stays a gas. When you
turn on the sign and send an electric current through the tubes, the neon loses its electrons and becomes plasma.
http://www.chem4kids.com/files/art/wherepics/neonsign.png
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 Recombination (Plasma → Gas)
Turning off the power to a neon light allows the ionized particles to return to the gas phase called
recombination, the combining of charges or transfer of electrons in a gas that results in the neutralization of ions.
Activity: Phases of Matter
Direction: Read and encircle the letter of the correct answer.
1. What forms a solid to a liquid?

a. Melting
b. Freezing
c. Boiling
2. What forms from a liquid to a solid?
a. Freezing
b. Boiling
c. Condensation
3. What goes from a liquid to a gas?
a. Evaporation
b. Boiling
c. Condensation
4. What goes from a gas to a liquid?
a. Condensation
b. Boiling
c. Freezing
5. What forms a solid to a gas?
a. Sublimation
b. Freezing
c. Condensation
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Lesson 3: Classification of matter
Figure __. Classification of Matter
What is matter?
Matter is commonly defined as anything that occupies space (has volume) and possesses mass can be
further be subdivided into many categories and sub-categories. Two broad categories are mixtures and pure
substances.
What is pure substance?
Simplest type of matter that is always homogenous. Homogenous means there is only single phase being
observe because of the uniformity and its fixed composition. Substance is composed of one atom or one
molecule. Have definite boiling point and melting point. We can divide pure substances into two classes: elements
and compounds.
What is an element?
An element is a substance whose atoms all have the same number of protons: another way of saying this is
that all of a particular element's atoms have the same atomic number. Elements are chemically the simplest
substances and hence cannot be broken down using chemical reactions. On the molecular level, each element is
composed of only one kind of atom. We can divide element into three classes: metal, non-metal and metalloid.
What is metal?
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Most elements are metals. They are usually shiny, very dense, and only melt at high temperatures. Their
shape can be easily changed into thin wires or sheets without breaking. Metals will corrode, gradually wearing
away, like rusting iron. Heat and electricity travel easily through metals, which is why it is not wise to stand next to
a flagpole during a thunderstorm!
What is non-metal?
On the right side of the periodic table, are very different from metals. Their surface is dull and they don’t
conduct heat and electricity. As compared to metals, they have low density and will melt at low temperatures. The
shape of nonmetals cannot be changed easily because they are brittle and will break.
What is metalloid?
Elements that have properties of both metals and nonmetals are called metalloids. They can be shiny or
dull and their shape is easily changed. Electricity and heat can travel through metalloids but not as easily as they
travel through metals.
What is compound?
Compound-substances composed of two or more elements, so they contain two or more kinds of atoms. Water,
for example, is a compound composed of two elements, hydrogen and oxygen. Compound can be divided as
either: organic or inorganic or as acid, base or neutral (salt).
Remember: Compound is a chemical combination of two or more elements. Chemical means make it possible
for compounds to be separated.
What is organic compound?
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Organic compounds don't just contain carbon. They contain hydrocarbons or carbon bonded to
hydrogen.
Example: Glucose (C6H12O6) and Methane (CH4) and
What is inorganic compound?
Inorganic compound is any compound that lacks a carbon atom. Common example of a simple inorganic
compound would be sodium chloride, known more commonly as household salt. This also include carbon
monoxide and carbon dioxide.
Remember: when you're determining whether a carbon compound is organic or not, look to see whether it
contains hydrogen in addition to carbon and whether the carbon is bonded to the hydrogen.
What is acid?
A substance whose water solution tastes sour, turns blue litmus red and neutralizes bases. Acids are very
common in some of the foods that we eat. Citrus fruits such as oranges and lemons contain citric acid and
ascorbic acid, which is better known as vitamin C. Carbonated sodas contain phosphoric acid. Vinegar contains
acetic acid. Your own stomach utilizes hydrochloric acid to digest food.
Examples of acids:
Hydrochloric acid, Sulfuric acid, Citric acid and Ethanoic acid (vinegar/acetic acid).
What is base?
Substance is called base if its aqueous solution tastes bitter, turns red litmus blue or neutralizes acids.
Bases are less common as foods, but they are nonetheless present in many household products. Many cleaners
contain ammonia, a base. Antacids, which combat excess stomach acid, are comprised of bases such as
magnesium hydroxide or sodium hydrogen carbonate.
Examples of bases:
Sodium hydroxide, Magnesium hydroxide, Ammonia and Sodium bicarbonate
What is salt?
Salt-a neutral substance whose aqueous solution does not affect litmus.
Examples of salts:
Potassium Chloride (KCl ) and Sodium chloride (NaCl)
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In chemistry, pH is a scale used to specify how acidic or basic a water-based solution is. Acidic solutions
have a lower pH, while basic solutions have a higher pH. At room temperature, pure water is neither acidic nor
basic and has a pH of 7.
https://www.scienceabc.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/An-Education-Poster-of-pH-Scale-illustration-
VectorBlueRingMedias.jpg
What is Mixture?
Physical combination of two or more substances with different compositions. Because of this mixtures
have varied boiling and melting points. A mixture is a substance made by combining two or more different
materials in such a way that no chemical reaction occurs. A mixture can usually be separated back into its original
components. Some examples of mixtures are a tossed salad and salt water.
There are four types of mixture namely: solution, suspension, colloid and alloy.
What is solution?
A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances. A solution may exist in any phase. A
solution consists of a solute and a solvent. The solute is the substance that is dissolved in the solvent. Example, in
a saline solution, salt is the solute dissolved in water as the solvent.
Note that in solutions with components in the same phase, the substances present in lower concentration
are solutes, while the substance present in highest abundance is the solvent. Example is air, oxygen and carbon
dioxide gases are solutes, while nitrogen gas is the solvent.
What is colloid?
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A mixture where very small particles of one substance are evenly distributed throughout another
substance. They appear very similar to solutions, but the particles are suspended in the solution rather than fully
dissolved. The difference between a colloid and a suspension is that the particles will not settle to the bottom over
a period of time, they will stay suspended or float.
Since in colloids, one substance is evenly dispersed in another. The substance being dispersed is referred
to as being in the dispersed phase, while the substance in which it is dispersed is in the continuous phase.
An easy way of determining whether a mixture is colloidal or not is through use of the Tyndall Effect.
When light is shined through a true solution, the light passes cleanly through the solution, however when light is
passed through a colloidal solution, the substance in the dispersed phases scatters the light in all directions,
making it readily seen. An example of this is shining a flashlight into fog. The beam of light can be easily seen
because the fog is a colloid.
Examples: Milk, fog and smoke
What is alloy?
An alloy is a combination of a metal with at least one other metal or nonmetal. The most common way to
combine metals into an alloy is by melting them, mixing them together, and then allowing them to solidify and
cool back to room temperature.
Metal alloys are used because they typically have enhanced mechanical or chemical properties. Alloying
elements can be added to a metal to increase a number of properties including hardness, strength, corrosion
resistance, machinability, and much more.
Examples: Example Alloys
 Steel: the name given to an alloy of iron with carbon, usually with other elements, such as nickel and cobalt.
The other elements add a desired quality to the steel, such as hardness or tensile strength.
 Stainless Steel: another iron alloy, which typically contains chromium, nickel, and other elements to resist rust
or corrosion.
What is suspension?
A mixture between a liquid and particles of a solid. In this case the particles do not dissolve. The particles
and the liquid are mixed up so that the particles are dispersed throughout the liquid. They are "suspended" in the
liquid. A key characteristic of a suspension is that the solid particles will settle and separate over time if left alone.
Example: mixture of water and sand. When mixed up, the sand will disperse throughout the water. If left alone,
the sand will settle to the bottom.
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Ways of Separating Mixture
Distillation
Distillation is an effective method to separate mixtures

comprised of two or more pure liquids. Distillation is a
purification process where the components of a liquid mixture
are vaporized and then condensed and isolated.
In simple distillation, a mixture is heated and the most

volatile component vaporizes at the lowest temperature. The
vapor passes through a cooled tube (a condenser), where it
condenses back into its liquid state. The condensate that is collected is called distillate.
Evaporation
A technique used to separate out homogenous mixtures where there is one or more dissolved solids.
This method drives off the liquid components from the solid components.
The process typically involves heating the mixture until no more liquid
remains, Prior to using this method, the mixture should only contain one
liquid component, unless it is not important to isolate the liquid
components.
This is because all liquid components will evaporate over time. This method is suitable to separate a
soluble solid from a liquid.
Filtration
A separation method used to separate out pure substances in

mixtures comprised of particles some of which are large enough in size to
be captured with a porous material.
Particle size can vary considerably, given the type of mixture. For
instance, stream water is a mixture that contains naturally occurring
biological organisms like bacteria, viruses, and protozoans.
Decantation Sedimentation Centrifugation Magnet
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Activity: Choose and encircle the letter of the correct answer.
1. Which of the following is not an element?

a. Water
b. Hydrogen
c. Carbon
d. Oxygen
2. Matter is defined as anything that _____
a. can be weighted
b. contains kinetic energy
c. has mass and takes up space
d. many colors
3. Which of the following pairs of substances may best be separated through distillation
a. sand and soil
b. water and soil
c. salt and sand
d. water and alcohol
4. Water is a/an ______
a. element
b. compound
c. mixture
d. base
5. This contains a variety elements and compounds that ARE NOT chemically combined.
a. Acids and bases
b. Mixture
c. Elements
d. Compounds
6. A room full of smoke is an example of what kind of substance?
a. Colloid
b. Compound
c. Suspension
d. Solution
7. A mixture that does not look the same throughout:
a. heterogeneous
b. homogeneous
c. element
d. compound
8. The scattering of light by colloids is called _________.
a. the Tyndall effect
b. air pollution
c. suspension
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d. none of the above
9. Acidic foods can be identified by what taste?
a. salty
b. sour
c. bitter
d. sweet
10. An unknown substance is added to a solution and the pH increases. The substance is:
a. acidic
b. basic
c. solvent
d. sweet
Changes in Matter
Physical change
A physical change affects a substance’s physical properties. Many physical changes are reversible (such as
heating and cooling). Example: solid ice to liquid water.
Chemical change
A chemical change affects its chemical properties. Chemical changes are often irreversible or only
reversible with an additional chemical change.
The five conditions of chemical change: color chage, formation of a precipitate, formation of a gas, odor
change, temperature change.
Example: burning of candle.
Activity: Choose and encircle the letter of the correct answer.
1. Tearing a piece of paper into 100 pieces.

a. Physical change
b. Chemical change
2. The formation of gas bubbles, a precipitate or an order are all signs of this.
a. Physical change
b. Chemical change
3. Burning a piece of paper.
a. Physical change
b. Chemical change
4. Letting the cut apple sit out and it turns brown.
a. Physical change
b. Chemical change
5. Letting the nail rust.
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a. Physical change
b. Chemical change
ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND PERIODIC TABLE
Contents:
1. Parts of an Atom, Atomic Mass and Number and Isotopes

2. Periodic Table and Periodic Trends
What is an Atom?
An atom is the smallest particle of any element that still retains the
characteristics of that element.
Parts of an Atom
 Protons are positively charged particle of an atom.

 Neutrons do not have any charge.
 Electrons, on the other hand, are negatively charged.
Note: An atom contains an equal number of protons and electrons, thus making an atom overall electrically
neutral.
What is Atomic Number?
Atomic number of an atom is equal to the number of protons in its nucleus. Periodic table is arranged in
an increasing atomic number.
What is Mass Number?
Mass number of an atom is equal to protons plus neutron (p + n).
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What is an Isotope?
Differ in the number of neutrons in the atomic nucleus. Have the same number of protons.
What are Radioisotopes?
Many elements have one or more isotopes that are radioactive. These isotopes are called radioisotopes.
Their nuclei are unstable, so they break down, or decay, and emit radiation.
What makes the nucleus of a radioisotope unstable? The nucleus may be unstable because it has too many
protons or an unstable ratio of protons to neutrons. For a nucleus with a small number of protons to be stable, the
ratio of protons to neutrons should be 1:1. For a nucleus with a large number of protons to be stable, the ratio
should be about 1:1.5.
All elements with atomic numbers greater than 83 are radioisotopes meaning that these elements have
unstable nuclei and are radioactive. Elements with atomic numbers of 83 and less, have isotopes (stable nucleus)
and most have at least one radioisotope (unstable nucleus).
Example: Carbon-14
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Carbon atoms with 8 neutrons are called carbon-14 (6 protons + 8 neutrons). The nuclei of carbon-14
atoms are unstable because they have too many neutrons relative to protons, so they gradually decay.
Living things take in carbon, including tiny amounts of carbon-14, throughout life. After living things die,
no new carbon-14 is taken in, and the carbon-14 they already have keeps decaying. Carbon-14 has a half-life of
5,730 ± 40 years, meaning that every 5,700 years or so the object loses half its carbon-14. The older a fossil is, the
less carbon-14 it still has, so the remaining amount can be measured to estimate the fossil’s age.
Activity: Read and encircle the letter of the correct answer.
1. How do the isotopes hydrogen-2 and hydrogen-3 differ?

a. Hydrogen-3 has two neutrons
b. Hydrogen-2 has three protons
c. Hydrogen-2 has no protons
d. Hydrogen-3 has one more electron than hydrogen-2
2. Isotopes of the same element have __________
a. the same number of neutrons but different numbers of electrons
b. the same number of protons but different number of neutrons .
c. the same number of protons but different numbers of electrons
d. the same number of neutrons but different numbers of protons
3. The number 80 in the name bromine-80 represents _____________.
a. none of the above
b. the sum of protons and electrons
c. the atomic number
d. the mass number
4. What is the positive charge of an atom?
a. Proton
b. Electron
c. Neutron
d. All of the above
5. What can be found inside the nucleus?
a. Proton and electron
b. Proton and neutron
c. Proton only
d. Electron only
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What is Periodic Table?
The periodic table, also known as the periodic table of elements, is a tabular display of the chemical
elements, which are arranged by atomic number, electron configuration, and recurring chemical properties.
Who initiated the arrangement of Periodic Table?
In 1869 Russian chemist Dimitri Mendeleev started the development of the periodic table, arranging
chemical elements by atomic mass. He predicted the discovery of other elements, and left spaces open in his
periodic table for them.
What is Periodic Law?
When arranged by increasing atomic number, the chemical elements display a regular and repeating
pattern of chemical and physical properties.
Basics to Periodic Table
The blocks of the periodic table are arranged in to left to

right rows called a period/series. The period number of an element
signifies the highest energy level an electron in that element occupies
(in the unexcited state).
Elements that occupy the same column/group on the

periodic table have identical valance electron configurations and
consequently behave in a similar fashion chemically. For instance, all the group 18 elements are inert gases.
What are Valence Electrons?
Valence Electrons are those electrons found on the outside edge of the atom, farthest away from the
nucleus. An atom will have from 1 to 8 valence electrons, abbreviated as Ve- . Valence electrons are used to bond
to other atoms to form compounds.
Determining the number of Valence Electrons
Ignoring the transition elements, since they behave differently, the number of Valence Electrons can be
determined through the following:
Group 1 = 1 Ve- Group 15 = 5 Ve-

Note: from the group number (Groups 13-18 just use the SECOND number):
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What is Electronegativity?
Electronegativity is a measure of an atom’s attraction for another atom’s electrons. Generally, metals are
electron givers and have low electronegativity. Nonmetals are electron takers and have high electronegativity.
The noble gases possess a complete valence shell and do not usually attract electrons.
Activity: Read and encircle the correct answer.
1. The majority of the elements in the periodic table are

a. nonmetals
b. metals
c. metalloids
d. none of the above
2. Elements in the same column of the Periodic Table have what in common?
a. The same atomic weight
b. The same number of electrons in the outermost shell
c. The same total number of electrons
d. The same number of electron shells
3. What family of elements is in the right-most column of the Periodic Table?
a. Alkali metals
b. Transition metals
c. Halogens
d. Noble gases
4. What scientist is usually credited with inventing the Periodic Table?
a. Albert Einstein
b. Isaac Newton
c. Antoine Lavoisier
d. Dmitri Mendeleyev
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CHEMICAL BONDING AND NOMENCLATURE
Contents:
1. Chemical Bonds:
 Ionic Bond and Polyatomic Ions
 Covalent Bond and Polarity of Molecules
 Hydrogen Bond
2. Octet Rule
3. Lewis Dot Structure
What is Chemical Bonding?
Under normal conditions no other element exists as an independent atom in nature, except noble gases.
The attractive force which holds various constituents (atoms, ions, etc.) together in different chemical species is
called a chemical bond.
How does Chemical Bonding happen?
Atoms form chemical bonds to make their outer electron shells more stable. The type of chemical bond
maximizes the stability of the atoms that form it. An ionic bond, where one atom essentially donates an electron to
another, forms when one atom becomes stable by losing its outer electrons and the other atoms become stable
(usually by filling its valence shell) by gaining the electrons. Covalent bonds form when sharing atoms results in the
highest stability.
Valence Shell Electrons in Chemical Bonds
A valence electron is an electron that can participate in the formation of a chemical bond. The presence of
valence electrons can determine the element's chemical properties and whether it may bond with other elements.
An atom with a closed shell of valence electrons tends to be chemically inert. An atom with one or two
valence electrons more than a closed shell is highly reactive, because the extra valence electrons are easily
removed to form a positive ion. An atom with one or two valence electrons fewer than a closed shell is also highly
reactive, because of a tendency either to gain the missing valence electrons (thereby forming a negative ion), or to
share valence electrons (thereby forming a covalent bond).
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http://upload.wikimedia.org
Periodic Table Group Valence Shell Electrons

Group 1 (alkali metals) 1
Group 2 (alkaline earth metals) 2
Groups 3-12 (transition metals) The general method for counting valence electrons
is generally not useful for transition metals.
Group 13 (boron group) 3
Group 14 (carbon group) 4
Group 15 (pnictogens) 5
Group 16 (chalcogens) 6
Group 17 (halogens) 7
Group 18 (noble gases) 8
What is Octet Rule?
The octet rule states that atoms tend to form compounds in ways that give them eight valence electrons
and thus the electron configuration of a noble gas.
An exception to an octet of electrons is in the case of the first noble gas, Helium, which only has two
valence electrons. This primarily affects the element hydrogen, which forms stable compounds by achieving two
valence electrons. Lithium, an alkali metal with three electrons, is also an exception to the octet rule. Lithium
tends to lose one electron to take on the electron configuration of the nearest noble gas, Helium, leaving it with
two valence electrons.
There are two ways in which atoms can satisfy the octet rule. One way is by sharing their valence electrons
with other atoms. The second way is by transferring valence electrons from one atom to another. Atoms of
metals tend to lose all of their valence electrons, which leaves them with an octet from the next lowest principal
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energy level. Atoms of nonmetals tend to gain electrons in order to fill their outermost principal energy level with
an octet.
What is Electronegativity?
Electronegativity is a measure of how strongly atoms attract bonding electrons to themselves. The higher
the electronegativity, the greater an atom's attraction for electrons.
http://genchem1.chem.okstate.edu/BDA/ENTable.jpg
What is Ionic Bond?
If the two atoms of the bond are of equal electronegativity, the electrons are equally shared. If one atom is
more electronegative, the electrons of the bond are more attracted to that atom. If one atom is overwhelmingly
more electronegative than the other atom, the electrons will not be shared and an ionic bond will result.
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What are Ions?
A cation is a positively charged ion. An anion is a negatively charged ion. An ionic bond is an attraction
between an anion and a cation.
What is Covalent Bond?
A covalent bond is the sharing of a pair of valence electrons by two atoms. In a covalent bond, the shared
electrons count as part of each atom’s valence shell.
A single covalent bond, or single bond, is the sharing of one pair of valence electrons. A double covalent
bond, or double bond, is the sharing of two pairs of valence electrons.
How do we determine Polarity of Covalent Molecules?
In a nonpolar covalent bond, the atoms share the electron equally. In a polar covalent bond, one atom is
more electronegative, and the atoms do not share the electron equally. Unequal sharing of electrons causes a
partial positive or negative charge for each atom or molecule.
Note: Electronegativity values are useful in determining if a bond is to be classified as nonpolar covalent, polar
covalent or ionic.
Steps:
1. Look only at the two atoms in a given bond.

2. Calculate the difference between their electronegativity values.
3. Only the absolute difference is important.
Rules: Electronegativity difference (DEN):
1. Less than 0.5-nonpolar covalent

2. Between 0.5 and 1.6-polar covalent
3. Greater than 2.0-ionic
Question: What about the gap between 1.6 and 2.0?

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1. Between 1.6 and 2.0
2. If a metal is involved-ionic
3. If only nonmetals are involved-polar covalent
Examples: Sodium bromide (Formula = NaBr)
Electronegativity Difference: Na (.9)-Br (2.8)=1.9 Ionic Bond
Activity: Read each items and encircle the letter of the BEST answer.
1. Which statement is true of covalent bonds?

a. No matter the element, there is the same bond length between neighboring atoms.
b. Valence electrons must be shared equally between atoms in order to achieve stability.
c. Covalent bonds form when the nuclei of two atoms attract each other.
d. Atoms find the ideal separation distance where electrostatics forces are reduced to a minimum.
2. If a covalent bond were to be formed between a nitrogen atom (electronegativity 3.0) and an oxygen atom
(electronegativity 3.5), which of the following statements would best describe such a bond?
a. Non-polar covalent
b. Polar covalent where the oxygen atom carried the partial negative charge
c. Polar covalent where the nitrogen atom carried the partial negative charge
d. Polar covalent where the oxygen atom carried the partial positive charge
3. Which among the following chemical bond were described by Kossel and Lewis?
a. Metallic bond
b. Polar covalent bond
c. Coordinate bond
d. Ionic and Covalent bond
4. Which among the following formation is not an example of Covalent bond?
a. LiF
b. NH3
c. CF4
d. HF
5. Atoms undergo bonding in order to?
a. Attain stability
b. Lose stability
c. Move freely
d. Increase energy
CHEMICAL REACTION
Contents:
 Types of Chemical reaction

 Balancing Chemical Reaction
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What is a Chemical Reaction?
A process in which one or more substances, the reactants, are converted to one or more different
substances, the products. Substances are either chemical elements or compounds. A chemical reaction rearranges
the constituent atoms of the reactants to create different substances as products.
Types of Chemical reaction
1. Combination-in combination reactions, two or more reactants form one product.

The reaction of sodium and chlorine to form sodium chloride.
2. Decomposition-the opposite of combination reactions. In decomposition reactions, a single compound
breaks down into two or more simpler substances (elements and/or compounds).
The decomposition of water into hydrogen and oxygen gases.
3. Single displacement-a more active element displaces (kicks out) another less active element from a
compound.
For example, if you put a piece of zinc metal into a copper (II) sulfate solution, the zinc displaces the
copper, as shown in this equation:
4. Double displacement-in double displacement reactions, or metathesis reactions, two species (normally
ions) are displaced.
If you mix a solution of potassium chloride and a solution of silver nitrate, here is the molecular equation
for this double-displacement reaction:
5. Neutralization- the other type of double-displacement reaction is the reaction between an acid and a base.
It forms salt and water.
The mixing solutions of sulfuric acid and sodium hydroxide will result into:
6. Combustion-occur when a compound, usually one containing carbon, combines with the oxygen gas in the
air. This process is commonly called burning. Heat is the most-useful product of most combustion
reactions in addition to water and carbon dioxide.
Here’s the equation that represents the burning of propane:
Activity: Classy the following according to type of chemical reaction.
1. 2Fe+O2 → 2FeO
2. 2KClO3 → 2KCl+3O2
3. H2+2AgNO3 → 2Ag+2HNO3
4. 2Na+2H2O → 2NaOH+H2
5. CaCO3+2HCl → CaCl2+H2CO3
6. C3H6O3 + O2 → CO2 (g) +H2O (g)
41 | P a g e

General Chemistry Lecture Guide

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General Chemistry Lecture Guide

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Lecture Guide in General Chemistry

Property of: Leo M. Aresgado

Direction: Choose and encircle the letter of the BEST answer.

d. None of the above

3. Which among the following laboratory practices is NOT wrong?

b. Never reach across a flame.

a. Statement of the problem

c. Research the question

Chemistry is a branch of science concerned with the study of matter.

Chapter 1: The study of Chemistry

CHAPTER 1: THE STUDY OF CHEMISTRY

Lesson 1 Branches of Chemistry

Activity 1. Branches of Chemistry Score:

Your answers here:

The following rules must be followed at all times:

3. Dress properly during a laboratory activity.

5. Shoes must completely cover the foot. No sandals allowed.

B. ACCIDENTS AND INJURIES

3. Take only as much chemical as you need.

4. Never return unused chemicals to their original containers.

9. Never remove chemicals or other materials from the laboratory area.

D. HANDLING GLASSWARE AND EQUIPMENT

17. Do not immerse hot glassware in cold water; it may shatter.

5. Never look into a container that is being heated.

Activity 2. Laboratory Safety Rules Score:

The following are the basic steps in scientific method:

Lesson 4: Significant figures and scientific notation

When is a digit significant?

c. Terminal zeros- with a decimal point are significant. e.g.:

135.00 has 5 significant figures

123.0 has 4 significant figures

0.123 has 3 significant figures

0.1230 has 4 significant figures

3. Terminal zeros with no decimal point are not significant.

Volume (mL) = 83.5 mL + 23.28 mL = 106.8 mL

Activity 4: Significant Figures and Scientific Notation

Number Exponential Notation Number of significant figures

2. 4.29 (12.567) (8.099345) = _____________________

Quantity Unit Symbol

Lesson 6: Conversion factors and Inter-conversion by the Factor Unit Method

Prefix (abbreviation) Power of Ten

1 inch=2.54 cm 1 kg=2.2 lbs

or in cases that involve a ratio of two units,

Convert 400 m to ____________Gm.

Convert 921 Mg to ____________ g.

Activity: Conversion factors and Inter-conversion by the Factor Unit Method

Direction: Solve for the following.

1. Express 2.70 feet in:

The original equation is A = at + v, determine the equation for a.

4w = bc2 (cross multiply both sides to eliminate the denominator)

From the equation d = vi + ½ gt2 derive the equation for t if vi = 0.

d = ½ gt2 (since vi =zero)

2d = gt2 (eliminate 2 on the denominator by cross multiplying d by 2)

Activity: Formula Transformation

1. Derive the equations for v.

Various Definition of Matter

Mass-the amount of matter in an object.

Formula: w = mg SI unit is Newton

Lesson 1: States of Matter

Activity: Recognizing States of Matter

1. The state of matter with the weakest intermolecular forces is _____________.

Lesson 2: Phase Change of Matter