S T R U C T U R A L A N A LY S I S 43

4.3 Calculation of second-order effects

4.3.1 General
AS 4100 requires that the design action effects due to the displacement of the frame and
deformations of the members’ action be determined by a second-order analysis or a
method that closely approximates the results of a second-order analysis.
All frames undergo some sway deformations under load. Sway deformations of braced
frames are often too small to be considered. Unbraced frames rely on the rigidity of the
connections, and their sway deformations cannot be neglected. The sway may be caused
by lateral or asymmetrical vertical forces but most often by inadequate stability under
significant axial forces in the columns.
In performing a simple elastic analysis, the computational process ends with the
determination of bending moments, axial and shear forces. Displacements of nodes are
determined in the final steps of the analysis, but there is no feedback to include the
effects of the changed frame geometry in successive steps of the analysis. Such a method
of elastic analysis is known as first-order analysis.
Figure 4.2 shows bending moments and deformations of a single-storey rigid frame
subject to vertical and lateral loads. As can be seen, the tops of columns undergo lateral
displacement, ∆. Hence they are no longer vertical and straight. Applied vertical forces
P1 and P2 act on slanted columns and thus tend to displace the nodes further right, with
the consequence that the bending moments M1 and M2 will increase. This second-order
effect is also known as the P-∆ (P-large delta) effect. Additionally, the axial compressive
forces in the deformed beam-column members also produce bending moments in the
columns, equal to P-δ (that is the P-small delta effect).
It should be noted that the P-6 effect is primarily due to the relative lateral movement
of the member ends from sway frame action. However, the second-order moments from
P-δ effects is due to the interaction of individual member curvature (from bending
moments) with the axial compression forces present. In this instance there need not be
any relative transverse displacement between the member ends (i.e. a braced member) for
the second-order moment to occur.
Strictly speaking, member/frame second-order effects can be noticed in the following
action effects:
• bending moments: from the interaction of axial compression, member curvature from
flexure and sway deflections
• bending moments: from flexural straining (additional curvature deformations)
• axial loads: from axial straining (i.e. shortening or lengthening)
• bending moments and axial loads: from shear straining effects.
The last three second-order effects are not significant for typical steelwork applications
and are not specifically considered in the body of AS 4100. If required, commonly
available structural analysis programs provide non-linear options to consider these
second-order effects (see Appendix A.4). Shear straining effects are somewhat rare and
can arise from very stubby members with relatively high shear loads. Hence, from an
AS 4100 perspective and practically speaking, the only second-order effects to be
44 STEEL DESIGNERS’ HANDBOOK

considered are changes to bending moments from the interaction of axial compression,
member curvature and sway deflections.
M2
D2
D1 M1
P1 P2

a c
b d

A B

a 5 1st-order deflections
b 5 2nd-order deflections: ∆2 . ∆1
c 5 1st-order moments
d 5 2nd-order moments: M2 . M1

Figure 4.2 Moment amplification on a single-storey rigid frame

When a rational second-order elastic analysis is carried out, the design action effects
M *, V *, N * are obtained directly from the analysis. The analysis tracks the magnitudes of
all displacements as it proceeds to the evaluation of design action effects until all
displacements converge. If convergence is not achieved, the structure is regarded as being
unstable. No further amplification of bending moments needs to be applied.
There are two strategies for avoiding excessive design effort: one is to use a simplified
procedure such as the moment amplification method, and the other is to employ a
computer program (e.g. ‘Spacegass’, ‘Microstran’, ‘Multiframe’—see Appendix A.4)
suited to the task. Modelling of the structure for a second-order analysis should be carried
out with great care, as the structure must be fully modelled, including the secondary
(restraint) members.
AS 4100 allows, as a lower-tier option, replacing the second-order analysis with a
simpler manual procedure. Termed the ‘moment amplification method’ (as described in
Clause 4.4 of AS 4100) it can be used for simple structures which can result in an overall
saving in time while keeping the process easy to visualise and understand. Section 4.4
describes the method in detail. For further reading on the subject, the reader is directed
to Trahair [1992a,b,c,1993a] and Trahair & Bradford [1998].
4.3.2 Escape routes
As discussed earlier, flexural members are normally subject to negligible axial forces and
are therefore not subject to second-order effects. Similarly, tension members are not
subject to second-order effects. Triangulated frames in which member forces are
predominantly axial and no transverse forces are applied between the nodes of the
compression chord can also be designed on the basis of first-order analysis alone. This is
further elaborated in Sections 4.4.