NAVIGATION

CLASS NOTES

P Gallagher Sept 2003

Index

Introduction Section A

Charts Section B

Magnetic Compass Section C

Navigation Section D

Airspeed Section E

Altimeter Section F

Calculations Section G

Exercises Section H

Miscellaneous Section M

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 NAVIGATION

Section A Introduction

Syllabus
Course summary

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 NAVIGATION SYLLABUS

1 64* Form of the earth

· Axes, poles
· Meridians of longitude
· Parallels of latitude
· Great circles, small circles, rhumb lines
· Hemispheres, north/south, east/west

2 65 Mapping
· Aeronautical maps and charts
· Projections and their properties
· Conformality
· Equivalence
· Scale
· Great circles and rhumb lines

3 66 Conformal orthomorphic projection (ICAO 1:500,000 chart)

· Main properties
· Construction
· Convergence of meridians
· Presentation of meridians, parallels, great circles, rhumb
lines
· Scale, standard parallels
· Depiction of height

4 69 Distances
· Units
· Measurement of distance in relation to map projection

5 70 Charts in practical navigation

· Plotting positions
· Latitude and longitude
· Bearing and distance
· Use of navigational projector
· Measurement of tracks and distances

6 71 Chart reference information

· Topology
· Relief
· Cultural features
· Aeronautical symbols
· Aeronautical information
· Conversion of units

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7 28 Magnetic compass

8 67 Direction
· True north
· Earth s magnetic field, variation annual change
· Magnetic north
· Vertical and horizontal components
· Isogonals, agonic lines

9 68 Aeroplane magnetism
· Aeroplane magnetism
· Compass deviation
· Turning, acceleration errors
· Avoiding magnetic compass interference with the compass

10 20 Pitot static system

11 21 Airspeed indicator

12 22 Altimeter

13 23 Vertical speed indicator

14 72 Principles of navigation
· IAS, RAS (CAS) and TAS
· Track, true and magnetic
· Wind velocity, heading and groundspeed
· Triangle of velocities
· Calculation of heading and groundspeed
· Drift, wind correction angle
· ETA
· Dead reckoning, position, fix

15 73 The navigational computer

· Use of the circular slide rule to determine
o TAS, time and distance
o Conversion of units
o Fuel required
o Pressure, density and true altitude
o Time en-route and ETA
o Use of the computer to solve triangle of velocities
o Application of TAS and wind velocity to track
o Determination of heading and groundspeed
o Drift and wind correction angle
16 75 Flight planning
· Selection of charts
· Route and aerodrome weather forevasts and reports
· Assessing the weather situation
· Plotting the route
· Considerations of controlled/regulated airspace, airspace
restrictions, danger areas, etc.
· Use of AIP and NOTAMS
· ATC liaison procedures in controlled/regulated airspace
· Fuel considerations
· En-route safety altitude(s)
· Alternate aerodromes
· Communication and radio/navaid frequencies
· Compilation of flight log
· Selection of check points, time and distance marks
· Mass and balance calculations
· Mass and performance calculations

17 76 Practical navigation
· Compass headings, use of deviation card
· Organisation of in-flight workload
· Departure procedure, log entries, altimeter setting and
establishing IAS
· Maintenance of heading and altitude
· Use of visual observations
· Establishing position and checkpoints
· Revision to headings and ETA
· Arrival procedures, ATC liaison
· Completion of flight plan and aeroplane log entries

18 74 Time
· Relationship between universal co-ordinated (standard)
(UTC) time and local mean time
· Determination of sunrise and sunset times

* Numbers in this column refer to module numbers in full JAR FCL

PPL syllabus
 NAVIGATION - COURSE SUMMARY

1 AERONAUTICAL CHARTS

- Position and relative direction. Protractor.

- Latitude, longitude, co-ordinates, degrees, minutes, seconds,

characteristics of lat. and long, grid system, graticule. Great circle
and rhumb line courses. Nautical mile.

- Mercator's and Lambent projections, methods of construction,

characteristics of same,

- Maps and charts, topographical, scales, scale rule, distances, units

of measure - nautical mile, statute mile, kilometre, knots etc.

- Chart symbols

- Indicators of height

- Definitions - summary

2 MAGNETIC COMPASS

- Principle of construction, compass rose, divisions.

- Compass checks

- True, magnetic and compass heading, variation (changing),

deviation - changing from T to C. Isogonals

- Angle of dip, acceleration and turning errors, DI

- Isogonals

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3 NAVIGATION

- Airspeed, airspeed indicator, temperature and pressure effects,

pressure altitude, IAS, RAS, TAS.

- Definitions of heading, ground speed, track, track made good, use

of protractor.

- Wind direction/speed, effect of wind, drift, and track error.

- Triangle of velocities, (vector diagram), determination of

heading/ground speed, wind direction/speed.

- Computer solution.

- One in sixty rule.

- Headwind, Crosswind components.

- Making a reciprocal track.

4 ALTIMETRY

- Altimeter

- Definitions of QNH, QFE, flight level, Pressure altitude, Density

altitude

- QNH problem

5 CALCULATIONS

- Speed calculations

- Fuel consumption

- Elapsed time, ETA

- Conversion from imperial to metric, US to imperial units etc. kt to

mph, kph

6 PRACTICAL NAVIGATION

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 NAVIGATION

Section B - Charts & Mapping

64 Form of the Earth

65 Mapping
66 Conformal Orthomorphic Projection
69 Distances
70 Charts in Practical Navigation
71 Chart Reference Information

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 THE GRATICULE

The earth is spherical in shape with diameter about 8,000 miles and rotates about its axis once per
day. The extremities of the axis of rotation are called the poles and are designated North and South.
Positions to the left of an observer facing North are designated, West, and those to the right, East.

In order to specify a location on the surface of the earth a graticule or grid system is required. The
standard system is shown on the sketch below and consists of a series of imaginary lines going from
north to south and from east to west.

The lines going north to south are called Meridians of Longitude and are numbered, in degrees
(maximum 180), east or west of the prime meridian of Greenwich. The lines going east to west are
called Parallels of Latitude and are numbered, in degrees (maximum 90), north or south of the
equator. Each degree (°) is divisible into 60 minutes (') and each minute into 60 seconds (") or
alternatively minutes and decimals of a minute – normally to 3 places of decimals.

It is noted that the meridians converge together at the poles and are of equal length whereas the
parallels never meet and get shorter going from the equator to the poles.

Positions are fixed on the surface of the earth with reference to the point of intersection of lines of
latitude and longitude; for example Athy has co-ordinates 53°N, 7°W.

A great circle is a circle on the earth's surface the plane of which passes through the centre of the
earth. All meridians are great circles whereas the only parallel which is a great circle is the equator.
All other parallels are termed small circles. A great circle route is the shortest distance between two
points on the earth's surface: the plane of a great circle divides the earth into two halves: there is
only one great circle between any two places on the earth's surface.

A nautical mile is defined as the distance on the surface of the earth represented by one minute of
arc along a great circle; it is taken as 6080 feet (1852 m). One second of longitude at the equator
(one sixtieth of a nautical mile) represents about 30 m (100 feet). In decimals of minutes 0.001
minutes represents 1.8 m (6 feet)

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 NAUTICAL MILE

Great Circle

1 Nautical
Mile

1 Minute

A nautical mile is defined as the distance on the surface of the earth represented by
one minute of arc measured along a great circle. As the earth is not a perfect sphere it
can vary somewhat but the standard in Europe is taken as 6080 feet (1852 m).

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 NAVIGATION BY GREAT CIRCLE AND RHUMB LINE

The figure below illustrates the difference between great circle and rhumb line tracks.
Whereas the shortest distance between C and D is along the great circle marked
the angle at which the track cuts the meridians changes
continuously. This requires the navigator to continuously change his course throughout
the journey. With rhumb line navigation shown the angle is
constant and no change of course is required.

It can be seen that in the case of meridians of longitude and the equator in the case of
latitude, the great circle and rhumb line courses are identical.

At lower latitudes, and over relatively short distances, the difference between rhumb line
and great circle courses is not great and the advantage of the former from the
navigational point of view outweighs its disadvantages. At extreme latitudes the
differences become greater as can be seen from the rhumb line and great circle tracks
from A to B.

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 MERCATOR'S PROJECTION

The construction of the Mercator's projection, although done mathematically, is best

illustrated by reference to the figure below. A glass sphere, on which the graticule has
been scribed, is surrounded by a paper cylinder touching at the equator, and a light
positioned at the centre sphere projects the lines of latitude and longitude onto it. When
the cylinder is laid flat meridians and parallels appear as straight lines perpendicular to
one another. It is seen that the meridians of longitude do not converge and their
distances apart are equal while in the case of latitude the distance between parallels
increases towards the poles. The scale is therefore only accurate along the equator.
The main advantage of Mercator's projection is that rhumb lines appear as straight lines
and for this reason it is used almost exclusively for navigational purposes.

PROPERTIES

Conformality All angles and bearings are accurately portrayed.

Scale The scale is accurate only at the equator.

Great Circles All great circles, with the exception of the equator and the
meridians, appear as curves concave to the equator.

Rhumb Lines Rhumb lines appear as straight lines cutting the meridians at a
constant angle.

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 MERCATOR'S PROJECTION

60N

45N

30N

A
15N

0 Equator

15S

ABC Great Circle

ADC Rhumb Line

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 LAMBERT CONFORMAL CONIC

The principle upon which the Lambert Conformal Conic projection is constructed can
most easily be demonstrated by imagining a cone placed around the earth as shown in
the figure below. The standard parallels are the lines of latitude within which the area to
be mapped is situated. For example, on the Ireland ICAO 1:500,000 chart the standard
parallels are 51° N and 55° N. When the area selected is projected onto the cone and
the cone is then laid flat it is easily seen that when this area is relatively small the
conformity between the chart and the mapped area is extremely good.

The meridians appear as straight lines which converge towards the nearer pole.
The parallels of latitude appear as arcs of concentric circles centred on the nearer pole.
Lambert's projection is the most widely used mapping system for both navigational and
topographical charts.

PROPERTIES

Conformality All angles and bearings are accurately portrayed

Scale Although it does vary slightly it can be considered as

practically constant

Great Circles These can be considered as straight lines on the chart

Rhumb Lines Rhumb lines, with the exception of meridians, will appear as
curves concave to the nearer pole

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 CHART SCALE

Scale is defined as the ratio between a length measured on a chart and the actual
distance so represented on the earth.

Distance on Chart
Scale =
Distance on Earth

Scale is normally depicted/represented by:

- A graduated scale line printed on the bottom of the chart giving the
distance measured in kilometres and nautical miles.

- A graduated scale printed on the meridians of longitude of the chart.

- A representative fraction - the ratio of one unit of length on the chart to the
corresponding distance on the earth measured in the same units and
represented as a fraction.

e.g. 1:250,000

This means that 1 unit of measure (inch, centimetre, etc.) on the chart
represents 250,000 units (inches, centimetres, etc.) on the earth.

- A statement of the scale in words - the relationship between a chart

measurement and the corresponding distance on the earth - stated in the
appropriate units.

e.g. 1 inch = 10 nm, 1 cm = 5 km, etc.

By using a scale rule - with the scale of the rule matched to that of the chart - distance
can be measured directly from the chart.

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 PROBLEMS ON CHART SCALE

Read the problems thus:

Problem 1 On a map of scale 1:500,000 how many kilometres on the earth

are represented by 19.5 cm on the map?

Problem 2 On a map of scale 1:500,000 how many centimetres on the map

represent 106 nm on the earth?

Problem 3 On a map 95.3 nm is represented by 35.32 cm: what is the scale?

No Scale Problem Answer

1 1:500,000 ? km = 19.5 cm 97.5 km

2 1:500,000 106 nm = ? cm 39.3 cm

3 1:? 95.3 nm = 35.32 cm 500,000

4 1:? 925 nm = 34.3 cm 5,000,000

5 1:5,000,000 ? nm = 10 cm 270 nm

6 1:5,000,000 270 nm = ? cm 10 cm

7 1:500,000 ? nm = 92.3 cm 249 nm

8 1:500,000 ? nm = 39.3 cm 106 nm

9 1:? 60 nm = 5.56 cm 2,000,000

10 1:1,000,000 ? nm = 7.29 ins 100 nm

11 1:1,000,000 ? nm = 5.83 ins 80 nm

12 1:500,000 ? nm = 37 cm 100 nm

13 1:? 60.7 nm = 45 cm 250,000

14 1:250,000 72 nm = ? cm 53.4 cm

15 1:500,000 ? nm = 3.75 ins 25.7 nm

16 1:500,000 ? km = 7 cm 35 km

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 AERONAUTICAL CHARTS - HEIGHT DEPICTION

1. Contours

Closed lines drawn on a chart connecting points of equal height above a

fixed specified datum. Contours show gradient as well as height.

2. Spot Height

Individual height shown on a chart by a black dot and the actual height in
feet.
1234

3. Layer Tinting (Hypsometric Tints)

A system of colouring on charts which uses various tints to represent

different ground height above datum. The colour gets darker with increase
in height. Layer tinting is normally used in conjunction with contours.

4. Hachuring

A system in which high ground representing by a series of short radial

lines emanating from the high point.

5. Hill Shading

A system of representing high ground on charts by using shading and

contrast to simulate 3D.

6. Highest point in the range

1234

7. Highest point on the chart

3409

8. Maximum Elevation Figures (MEF)

MEFs represent the maximum elevation (with an allowance) within half-

degree graticule quadrangles on the chart. The figure, in thousands and
hundreds of feet, is shown, for example (2,300 feet) thus:
23
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 COMMON AERONAUTICAL CHART SYMBOLS

Aerodrome (Abandoned, Disused)

Ballooning Site
Civil Aerodrome (Grass)
Civil Aerodrome (Hard)
Compulsory Reporting Point
Control Area, Zone
Cooling Towers
Customs Aerodrome
Glider Launching Area
Hang Gliding Site
Heliport
Highest Elevation on Chart
Highest elevation in Range
Isogonal
Lighted Radio Mast - Group
Lighted Radio Mast - Single
Marine Light
Parachute Site
Racetrack
Railway Line - Single
Railway Line - Double
Railway Line - Disused
Request Reporting Point
Restricted Airspace
Town, Village
Transmission Line

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 NAVIGATION

Section C - Magnetic Compass

20 Magnetic Compass
67 Direction
68 Aeroplane Magnetism

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 Terrestrial Magnetism

Notes
1 Geographical and Magnetic poles do not coincide
2 Magnetic poles are not antipodal
3 Poles appear to be under the earth not on the surface
4 Position of poles vary from year to year

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 E TYPE COMPASS

The E type compass, also known as the vertical card compass, is shown on the
accompanying diagram and is the most common model fitted to modern light aircraft. It
consists of a glass or plastic fronted sealed chamber, filled with a damping fluid, in
which a set of magnets, attached to a card (compass rose) which is free to pivot, is
mounted. On the face is located a lubber line against which the compass heading is
read - normally in units of 5 degrees.

In theory the internally mounted magnet and card remain stationary with respect to the
magnetic poles; in practice the inertia of the instrument, the direction of turn, the speed
of turn, acceleration effects and other causes result in errors in the readings obtained
from the compass when these factors are present.

The principle errors are:-

Turning Errors

When turning from an easterly or a westerly on to a northerly heading the

instrument lags the turn so that the turn should be stopped when the reading is
20 to 30 degrees before the heading required.

When turning from an easterly or a westerly on to a southerly heading the

instrument leads the turn so that the turn should be stopped when the reading is
20 to 30 degrees after the heading required.

Acceleration/Deceleration Errors

When accelerating on an easterly or westerly heading the compass will indicate

an apparent turn to a more northerly heading. The opposite occurs when
decelerating. The effect is transitory and lasts only until constant speed is
achieved.

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Serviceability Checks for Magnetic Compass

- No cracks in face of instrument - i.e. the damping fluid has not

leaked away.

- No bubbles in damping fluid - i.e. the fluid is not leaking.

- No discolouration of damping fluid - no contamination of the fluid

has occurred.

- Compass card moves as the direction of the aircraft is changed

during ground manoeuvring - i.e. the pivoted parts inside the
instrument are free to move.

- When the aircraft is lined up for takeoff the compass reading

(making allowances for deviation) should be the same as the
runway heading. This indicates that the instrument is reading
approximately correctly.

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 MAGNETIC VARIATION AND DEVIATION

Magnetic Variation Magnetic Variation is the angular difference between true

north and magnetic north

Because the geographical north and magnetic north poles do not

coincide the magnetic compass does not point at the true north
pole. The angular difference between the poles is termed
magnetic variation. Lines which connect points of equal
magnetic variation are called Isogonals and are shown on charts
as dashed red lines with the actual variation and year of
compilation indicated. Using the chart a correction is made to the
true heading to facilitate the use of the compass for accurate
navigational purposes. Variation can be easterly or westerly,
depending on location on the earth's surface, and is expressed
as degrees W or degrees E. To convert from True north to
Magnetic north add the westerly variation and subtract the
easterly variation. Because the position of magnetic north
changes from year to year the location of isogonals also change
but the new location can be computed from the annual rate of
change printed on the chart.

"EAST IS LEAST AND WEST IS BEST"

Magnetic Deviation Magnetic Deviation is the angular difference between

magnetic north and compass north

When a compass is installed in an aircraft electrical circuitry,

magnets and metallic objects cause errors in its readings. The
angular difference between the compass reading and the
magnetic reading is termed deviation. It is specific to each
aircraft and its value for each heading is normally shown on a
correction card fitted near the compass. A sample is attached. As
with variation deviation can be either westerly or easterly. To
convert from magnetic north to compass north add in the case of
westerly and subtract in the case of easterly deviations.

Example

Given a true heading H(T) = 245 , Variation = 8 W, Deviation = 2 E find the

magnetic and compass headings.

To convert from true to magnetic we first apply the variation - in this case we
add it because it is West - giving 253 as the magnetic heading. To convert from
magnetic to compass heading apply the deviation - being East in this case we
subtract it - giving 251 as the compass heading. So to use the compass to fly a
true heading of 245 we fly with a setting of 251 .

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 COMPASS DEVIATION CARD

For Steer
Heading Compass
000 357
045 045
090 092
135 138
180 183
225 227
270 269
315 312
360 357

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 COMPASS PROBLEMS

Complete the table:

TRUE VARIATION MAGNETIC DEVIATION COMPASS
300 5W 1E
231 9W 2W
8W 1E 342
0W 2W 212
10E 4E 178
9W 2E 007
010 007 1W
010 013 2E
272 283 1E
181 181 0E
100 12E 089
040 10E 032
190 10W 198

TRUE VARIATION MAGNETIC DEVIATION COMPASS

300 5W 305 1E 304
231 9W 240 2W 242
335 8W 343 1E 342
210 0W 210 2W 212
192 10E 182 4E 178
360 9W 009 2E 007
010 3E 007 1W 008
010 3W 013 2E 011
272 11W 283 1E 282
181 0W 181 0E 181
100 12E 088 1W 089
040 10E 030 2W 032
190 10W 200 2E 198

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 NAVIGATION

Section D – Navigation

72 Principles of Navigation
73 The Navigational Computer

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Effects of Wind
 TRIANGLE OF VELOCITIES DEFINITIONS

HEADING (H) The direction of the fore and aft axis of the aircraft. The
direction in which an aircraft must point in order to reach its
destination, taking the affects of wind into account. Heading
can be True (T), Magnetic (M) or Compass (C)

TRUE AIR SPEED The speed of the aircraft relative to the air.
(TAS)

AIR VECTOR The combination of Heading and TAS is termed the Air
Vector

TRACK (Tr) The intended direction of an aircraft over the ground. The
Track is always true

GROUNDSPEED The speed of an aircraft relative to the ground; the affects of

(G/S) wind being taken into account.

GROUND VECTOR The combination of Track and Ground Speed is termed the
Ground Vector

WIND VECTOR The true direction FROM which the wind is blowing and the
(W/V) speed of the air relative to the earth.

TRACK MADE This is the actual as distinct from the intended track the
GOOD (TMG) aircraft made over the ground.

DRIFT The drift is the angle between the Heading and the Track. It
is referred to as port or starboard according as to whether
the Track lies to the left or right of the Heading.

TRACK ERROR This the difference between the intended track and the track
made good.

When drawing Vector Diagrams the following symbols are used for the various
vectors each of which makes up a side of the Triangle of Velocities. H(T), Tr and W
are represented by the direction of the sides while the TAS, G/s and V are
represented by the lengths of the sides, respectively, of the triangle.
 SOLUTION OF TRIANGLE OF VELOCITIES

As previously explained there are 6 possible variables which affect the direction
and speed of an aircraft as it flies under the influence of wind. These are:-

Wind direction

Wind speed

TAS

Track (required)

Ground speed

Heading

Knowledge of any four of these variables will allow the calculation of the other two. In
practice the most common problem to solve is where the TAS, Track, Wind
direction/speed are known and the Heading and Groundspeed are required to be
calculated. The heading determines the direction in which to point the aircraft whereas
the Groundspeed determines how long it takes to get to the destination and
consequently how much fuel is required.

The triangle of velocities can be solved by plotting or by use of the Navigational

Computer.

Solution by plotting

Problem

Given the TAS = 95 kts, Track (required) = 100 (T), Wind = 210 /25,
Find the Heading (T) and Groundspeed.

Solution

1. Select a suitable unit of length which will allow the triangle to fit on a standard
page - in this case 1 centimetre to 10 kts.

2. Using the protractor draw a line representing the track at 100 . Leave the line
as long as possible - its length is not known yet. Draw 2 arrows, to symbolise
track, on the line.

3. Select a point B towards the end of the line and again using the protractor
draw a line to represent the wind direction to this point. Mark a point C a
distance of 2.5 centimetres along this line. Draw 3 arrows, to represent wind,
on this line.
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 4. Open a compass to 9.5 cm and from the point C draw a short arc cutting the
track; mark this point A. On the line AC draw 1 arrow representing the
Heading. Measure the distance AB and the direction along AC

Now

AC represents, in direction, the Heading (T) and, in length, the TAS.

CB represents, in direction, the Wind and, in length, it's strength.

AB represents, in direction, the Track and, in length, the Groundspeed.

Groundspeed = 100 kts

H = 115

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 Solution of the Triangle of Velocities using the Navigation Computer
(ASA E6-B Flight Computer)

A Given the Wind (W/V), Track (Tr) and True Air Speed (TAS)
Find the Heading (Hg) and Groundspeed (G/s)
Example: W/V = 345/25, Tr = 041, TAS = 110

Procedure

Refer to Fig 1

1 Centre the grommet

on the 100 speed arc.

2 Set the wind direction

(345 ) against TRUE
INDEX by rotating the
inner scale.

3 Add 100 to the wind

speed (25 kts) and
mark this point (125)
on the centre line of the
plastic window with a
soft pencil.

Fig 1

Refer to Fig 2

4 Rotate the inner scale

so that the Track
(041 ) is lined up with
the TRUE INDEX.

Fig 2

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 Refer to Figure 3

5 Move the slide up or

down until the
pencilled dot is over
the TAS (110) on the
speed arc.

6 Read the
Groundspeed (94)
under the grommet on
the speed arc.

7 Read the Drift (11o) on

the radial under the
pencilled dot. To find
the Heading subtract
the drift from the
Track (041 ) - 030o

Result
Fig 3 Hdg = 030o
G/s = 94 kts

B Given Wind W/V, Track Tr, Groundspeed G/s, find

Heading Hg and True Air Speed TAS

1 Centre the grommet on the 100 speed arc.

2 Set the wind direction against TRUE INDEX by rotating the inner
scale.

3 Add 100 to the wind speed and mark this point on the centre line of
the plastic window with a soft pencil.

4 Rotate the inner scale so that the Track is lined up with the TRUE
INDEX.

5 Move the slide up or down until the grommet is over the

Groundspeed.

6 Read the TAS under the pencilled dot.

7 Read the Drift. To find the Heading add the Drift to the Track - if it
lies to the right, or subtract from the Track - if it lies to the left.

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C Given Track Tr, Heading Hg, Groundspeed G/s and
True Air Speed TAS, find Wind Velocity W/V

1 Set the Track against the TRUE INDEX by rotating the inner scale.

2 Centre the grommet over the Groundspeed.

3 Compute the drift – the difference between the Heading and the
Track.
4 If the Heading is less than the Track then make a pencil mark at
the intersection of the TAS and the drift line on the left of the centre
line. If more mark on the right.

5 Rotate the inner scale so that the pencilled dot is on the centre line
above the grommet.

6 Read the wind direction on the dial against TRUE INDEX.

7 The difference between the pencilled dot reading and the grommet
reading is the wind speed.

D Given Wind W/V, Heading Hg and True Air Speed

TAS, find Track Tr, Groundspeed G/s

1 Centre the metal grommet on 100

2 Set the wind direction against TRUE INDEX by rotating the inner
scale.

3 Subtract 100 from the wind speed and mark this point on the
plastic window with a soft pencil

4 Rotate the inner scale so that the Heading is lined up with the
TRUE INDEX.

5 Move the slide up or down until the grommet is over the TAS.

6 Read the Groundspeed under the pencilled dot.

7 Read the Drift. To find the Track add the Drift to the Heading - if it
lies to the right, or subtract from the Heading - if it lies to the left.

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 FINDING THE HEADING AND THE GROUNDSPEED

Given the Track, TAS and Wind Velocity

Find the Heading and the Groundspeed

Track TAS Wind Heading Groundspeed Headi Groundsp

(T) (Kts) (W/V) (T) (Kts) ng eed (Kts)
(T)
041 110 345/25 030 94
153 100 010/15 148 111
053 130 025/10 051 121
029 108 189/22 033 128
220 113 360/45 235 143
035 148 128/18 042 148
355 90 120/15 003 98
074 85 275/30 066 112
086 100 020/55 056 64
078 132 005/27 067 122

FINDING THE HEADING AND TAS

Given the Track, Groundspeed and Wind Velocity

Find the Heading and TAS

Track Groundspeed Wind Heading TAS Heading TAS

(T) (Kts) (W/V) (T) (Kts) (T) (Kts)
337 165 219/19 331 157
330 77 050/30 350 88
177 158 340/23 180 136
136 161 346/21 132 143
003 217 196/29 001 189
183 76 095/15 172 78
140 56 140/20 140 76
325 74 350/24 331 96
024 122 307/34 010 134
009 176 170/30 013 148

PG 1/2 D 5-0
 FINDING THE WIND VELOCITY

Given the Heading, Track (Made Good), Groundspeed and True Air Speed

Find the Wind Velocity

TAS Heading Track Groundspeed Wind Wind

(Kts) (T) (Kts) (W/V) (W/V)
114 282 288 98 250/20
100 335 321 92 040/25
164 147 140 197 290/40
100 057 045 143 200/50
116 150 150 146 330/30
174 291 295 201 140/30
130 295 305 95 270/40
76 140 140 56 140/20
187 207 214 218 070/40

PG 2/2 D 5-0
 ONE-IN-SIXTY RULE

It is quite often the case that, because of changes in the wind velocity, aircraft speed,
weather or other factors, an aircraft will be found to have strayed from its intended track.
In order to calculate the required change in heading necessary to bring the aircraft to its
planned destination a simple rule has been devised which provides a quick calculation
of this change in heading to be made.

The rule states that

FOR EVERY ONE MILE IN SIXTY THAT AN AIRCRAFT

IS OFF TRACK IT'S HEADING IS INCORRECT BY ONE
DEGREE (APPROX.)

Starting Planned
point 60 nm position

1° 1nm

Actual
position

If the aircraft is off track by 10 miles in 60 its heading is off by 10° (approx.). If it is off track
by 10 miles in 30 its heading is off by 20° and so on.

To find the number of degrees off track use the formula:

60 x distance off track

Degrees off track =
distance travelled

Alternatively if the number of degrees off track is known the distance off track can be
calculated by:

distance travelled x degrees off track

Distance off track =
60

PG 1/3 D 6-0

1
 EXAMPLE

After travelling 40 miles of a 160 mile journey an aircraft is found to be 4 nm south of

track. Find the change in heading required to bring it to its destination.

Graphically

40 120
4

After travelling 40 nm the distance off track is 4 miles. Applying the formula we have

60 x 4
Deg off Track = = 6°
40

Therefore to bring the plane back on a parallel track requires a northerly change in
heading of 6°.

To get the plane to it's destination we apply the rule again. In this case we are 4 nm off
track and we have to travel 120 nm.

60 x 4
Deg = = 2°
120

Therefore to bring the plane back on a parallel track a correction of 6° is required plus
2° to change the heading so as to reach it's destination - a total of 8° to the left.

PG 2/3 D 6-0

2
 ONE-IN-SIXTY RULE PROBLEMS

1. After travelling 90 miles an aircraft is found to be 6 miles off track. If the

destination is a further 45 miles find the alteration in heading to bring the aircraft
there.

2. After travelling 40 miles of a 160 mile journey an aircraft is found to be 9° off

track. What alteration in heading is required to bring the plane to its destination?

3. After travelling one quarter the distance between two places an aircraft is found
to be 6° off track. Find the alteration in heading required to bring the aircraft to its
destination.

4. B is 80 nm west of A. An aircraft leaves A for B travelling at a ground speed of

120 kts. After 30 minutes it is found to be 8 miles south of track. Find the heading
to bring the aircraft to B.

5. The track from A to B is 260(T) and the distance between them is 150 nm. After
travelling 90 miles from A on a heading of 265(T) an aircraft is found to be 6 nm
south of track. Find the new heading to bring the aircraft to B.

Answers 1 - 12°, 2 - 12°, 3 - 8°, 4 - 302°, 5 - 275° (T)

PG 3/3 D 6-0

3
 MAKING GOOD A RECIPROCAL TRACK

When it is intended to return to base along the same track as the outward journey
this track is called a Reciprocal. It is different by 180°. On the assumption that the
direction and speed of the wind has not changed, it is possible by means of a simple
rule to determine the heading which must be flown for the return journey.

The rule states

TO THE RECIPROCAL HEADING APPLY DOUBLE THE DRIFT IN THE OPPOSITE

DIRECTION.

On the sketch below the Track from A to B is 018°. From the wind velocity the Drift has
been calculated at 10° Port, therefore the Heading is 028°. The reciprocal Heading is
208° (028 + 180). Applying twice the Drift (20°) in the opposite direction gives the
heading of 188° (208 - 20) which must be flown to return to A.
 NAVIGATION

Section E Airspeed Indicator

Construction
Serviceability checks
Corrections

PG 1/1 E 0-0
 The Air Speed Indicator

The purpose of the Air Speed Indicator is to measure the speed of the aircraft as it
moves through the air. It measures the speed relative to the air. The measuring
instrument, illustrated below in a much simplified diagram, consists of the Pressure
Head and the Dashboard Instrument.

P Atmospheric Pressure P+ Additional pressure caused by the airstream

The Pressure Head consists of the Static Head – an open tube mounted externally,
unaffected by the airstream, which measures the air pressure outside the aircraft –
and the Pitot Head which is an open ended tube mounted externally to the aircraft
but directed into the airstream and measures the pressure effect of the flow of air
over it.

The Dashboard Instrument consists of a sealed chamber which is connected to the

static head. Within the sealed chamber is a sensitive expansion chamber which is
connected to the pitot head and expands and contracts as the pressures effect of the
airstream varies. This expansion/contraction movement is magnified by a system of
levers which moves a pointer over a graduated scale. The scale indicates knots,
miles per hour or kilometres per hour.

PG 1/4 E 1-1
 Serviceability Checks for the Airspeed Indicator

1 Check that the pilot head is un-blocked

2 Check that the cover, if fitted, has been removed from the pitot head.

3 Check that the instrument glass is not cracked or loose

4 Check that the instrument glass is clean and the dial, needle and numerals
are clearly visible

5 Check that the instrument reads zero

6 When taxiing observe that the needle may move from zero especially when
travelling into wind.

Airspeed

Accuracy in the airspeed is important for navigation and so the airspeed read directly
from the instrument must adjusted for errors and non-standard conditions.

IAS Indicated airspeed is the aircraft airspeed as read directly from the
aircraft airspeed indicator.

RAS (CAS) Rectified airspeed (calibrated airspeed) is the IAS when corrected
for position and instrument errors. Position errors arise from the
inaccuracies in the installation of the instrument and also from the
angle of attack. Instrument errors are inherent in the instrument
itself. Position and instrument errors change with IAS. A chart for
converting IAS to RAS is usually provided with the aircraft manual.
A sample is attached.

TAS True Air Speed is the true speed of the aircraft relative to the air.
TAS is the RAS when corrected for the affects of atmospheric
conditions which are different from the International Standard
Atmosphere. RAS is corrected with reference to outside air
temperature and pressure altitude.

The conversion from RAS to TAS is usually done on the computer

as follows: In the lower right-hand window of the computer set the
Pressure Altitude, in thousands of feet, against the temperature.
Then read the TAS on the outer scale against the RAS on the inner
scale.

PG 2/4 E 1-1
 AIRSPEED CORRECTION

IAS (MPH) RAS (MPH)

50 58
60 66
70 75
80 83
90 92
100 100
110 109
120 117
130 125
140 134
150 142
160 150
170 159

CITABRIA

PG 3/4 E 1-1
 FINDING THE TRUE AIRSPEED (TAS)

Given the RAS, Pressure Altitude and Temperature

Find the TAS

In the lower right-hand window of the computer set the Pressure Altitude, in
thousands of feet, against the temperature. Then read the TAS on the outer scale
against the RAS on the inner scale.

RAS Pressure Temperature TAS TAS

(Kts) Altitude (ft) (oC) (Kts) (Kts)
100 3,000 +12 105
110 3,000 0 113
70 4,000 +12 75
180 5,000 -5 190
91 9,000 +2 105
170 10,000 -10 196
104 20,000 -30 141
164 6,000 +5 180
110 7,000 -9 120
72 3,000 +8 75

PG 4/4 E 1-1
 NAVIGATION

Section F Altimeter

Construction
Errors
Serviceability checks
Settings

PG 1/1 F 0-1
 Atmospheric Pressure

The atmosphere surrounding the earth contains a mixture of gasses which exert a
pressure. This pressure is greatest at the surface and decreases with altitude.
Temperature also decreases with altitude. The approximate variation is shown on
the diagram below.

We use the variation in pressure with height above the ground as a means of
determining altitude in an aircraft. However, the pressure also varies for
meteorological reasons and this fact must also be taken into account and
appropriate allowances made.

The unit of pressure used in aviation is the hecto-Pascal (hPa) (formerly the milibar
to which it is exactly equivalent). In the US the inch of mercury (’’ Hg) is the common
measure of atmospheric pressure. The standard atmospheric pressure is 1,013 hPa
or 29.92 ’’ Hg.

The instrument used for the determination of altitude is called the altimeter and is
essentially a sensitive barometer calibrated in feet rather than pressure units. It is
described in the following pages.

PG 1/5 F 1-1
 The Aneroid Altimeter

The purpose of the altimeter is to measure the height of the aircraft above the
ground or sea level. In construction it is a form of sensitive aneroid barometer which
registers height in feet rather than in pressure units. Modern instruments, properly
calibrated and installed, will indicate height to within 10 feet.

The sensitive part of the instrument consists of one or more thin, circular, sealed
metal capsules from which the air is partially evacuated before sealing. It is firmly
mounted on a strong base and its corrugated faces are held apart by a powerful leaf
spring.

As the aircraft altitude increases the decreasing atmospheric pressure, which is

detected through the static head, allows the spring to pull the faces of the capsule
further apart. This movement is greatly magnified by a system of levers and gearing
and ultimately to a needle - or a number of needles - moving over a dial graduated in
feet. The effect is reversed during a decrease in altitude where the atmospheric
pressure increases.

Because the atmospheric pressure varies considerably according to prevailing

weather conditions the instrument is fitted with an adjusting knob and subscale
which allows the instrument to be zeroed or adjusted to a particular pressure
reference.

The principle features of the instrument are shown on the drawings below.

SK Pressure setting knob

PG 2/5 F 1-1
The panel instrument face as presented to the pilot generally looks like this:

Altimeter Serviceability Checks

1 Check that the static vent is un-blocked

2 Check that the cover, if fitted, has been removed from the pitot head.

3 Check that the instrument glass is not cracked or loose

4 Check that the instrument glass is clean and the dial, needle and
numerals are clearly visible

5 The pressure setting knob must be adjusted to ensure that the

altimeter pointer adjusts accordingly.

6 When set at the appropriate sub-scale setting the instrument should

within the error range of +30 to -50 feet.

PG 3/5 F 1-1
Altimeter Errors

1 Position and These arise from inherent defects in the

Instrument Errors instrument itself and dynamic affects of air
movements associated with the position of the
static head of the instrument.

2 Barometric Error These arise from variations in atmospheric

pressure which occur all the time. The
instrument sub-scale must be set to the correct
reference atmospheric pressure. Also, increase
or decrease in pressure on route will cause the
instrument to under or over read.

3 Temperature Error When the atmospheric temperature varies from

that of the ISA then density variation will cause
the instrument to under or over read depending
on whether the temperature is above or below
the ISA for that altitude. This error can be
calculated using the navigational computer.

4 Lag Error At high rates of descent the instrument altitude

reading will tend to be higher than the actual
and it will take several seconds for the
instrument to settle at the correct reading

Altimeter Corrections

The altimeter is designed to give accurate results in Standard Atmospheric

Conditions (ISA). These are:

Sea level temperature +15 C

Sea level pressure 1,013.25 hPa
Lapse rate 2 C/1,000 ft
Air density 1.225 kg/m3

If these conditions do not prevail then a correction must be applied.

To find the true altitude:

On the left hand window of the computer set the pressure

altitude against the outside temperature and read the true
altitude on the outer scale against the indicated altitude
on the inner scale.

PG 4/5 F 1-1
Altimeter Setting

When the subscale of the instrument is adjusted the main scale also changes (by
about 30 ft per Pa). Since one of the principal function of the altimeter is to maintain
clearance between aircraft it is clear therefore that the subscale must be set to a
figure which is common to all aircraft in the vicinity. There are three standard
settings for the subscale and these are:-

QNH The barometric pressure which when set on the

altimeter sub-scale results in elevation above mean sea
level (AMSL) being indicated on the altimeter.

QFE The barometric pressure which when set on the

altimeter sub-scale results in height above the station
being indicated on the altimeter.

Pressure Altitude When the barometric pressure of 1013 hPa is set on the
(QNE) altimeter sub-scale the altimeter indicates pressure
altitude.

In addition:

Flight Level Flight level is pressure altitude expressed in hundreds

of feet. For example FL 245 means 24,500 ft with the
altimeter sub-scale set at 1013 hPa.

Density Altitude Density altitude is pressure altitude corrected for non

standard temperature atmospheric conditions

PG 5/5 F 1-1
 NAVIGATION

Section G Calculations

Conversion between Units

Rate Calculations

PG 1/1 G 0-0
 UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

Altitude Feet
Distance Nautical miles
Speed Knots
Visibility Kilometres
Time Hours : minutes UTC
Fuel Litres (gallons)
Temperature Degrees Celsius C
Weight Pound, kilogram

1 nautical mile = 6080 feet = 1852 metres

1 statute mile = 5280 feet = 1609 metres

1 kilometre = 3281 feet

1 metre = 3.281 feet

1 inch = 2.54 centimetres

1 knot = 1.152 miles/hr = 1.853 kilometres/hr

1 imperial gallon = 4.546 litres

1 US gallon = 3.785 litres

1 imperial gallon = 1.2 US gallons

1 kilogram = 2.205 pounds

1 pound = 0.454 kilograms

33 nautical miles = 38 statute miles = 61 kilometres

(approximately)
PG 1/2 G 1-1
 CONVERSION OF UNITS OF MEASURE

Conversion between nautical miles (nm), statute miles (st m) and kilometres
(km)

Convert Into Answer Answer

91 st m nm 79
172 st m nm 149.5
177 nm st m 204
50 nm st m 57.5
75 st m km 120
59 st m km 95
149.5 nm km 276
80 nm km 148
65 km st m 40.5
485 km nm 262

Conversion between imperial gallons (imp gal), US gallons (US Gal) and litres

Conversion between pounds (lbs) and kilograms (kg)

Convert Into Answer Answer

20 imp gal US gal 24
30 imp gal US gal 36
28 imp gal litres 127
20 US gal imp gal 16.5
36 US gal imp gal 30
19 US gal imp gal 15.8
147 litres imp gals 32.3
234 litres US gals 61.8
1600 lbs kg 726
2800 lbs kg 1270
1100 kg lbs 2425
90 kg lbs 198

PG 2/2 G 1-1
 DETERMINATION OF GROUNDSPEED

Calculator
Given the distance travelled and the elapsed time determine the
groundspeed
Divide the distance travelled by the time in minutes then multiply the
result by 60.

Computer
Set the time in h:m on the time inner scale against the distance
travelled on the outer scale. Read the speed in knots on the outer
scale opposite “60 Rate” mark.
Note: 1 Be careful with the position of the decimal point!
2 Use the normal numerical inner scale for times less than
1 hour

Distance Time Groundspeed Groundspeed

(nm) (hrs:mins) (kts) (kts)
67 0:42 96
195 3:00 65
117 1:13 96
675 4:30 150
275 2:30 110
133 0:42 190
80 0:54 89
56 0:14 240
73 0:51 86
60 0:40 90

PG 1/4 G 2-1
 DETERMINATION OF DISTANCE TRAVELLED

Calculator

Given the groundspeed and the elapsed time determine the distance
travelled
Multiply the groundspeed by the time in minutes and divide the result
by 60.

Computer
Set the “60 Rate” mark on the inner scale against the groundspeed on
the outer scale. Opposite the time in h:m on the inner time scale read
the distance on the outer scale.

See notes on page 1

Groundspeed Time Distance Distance

(kts) (hrs:mins) (nm) (nm)
75 2:40 200
95 0:35 55
115 2:45 316
190 1:55 364
300 3:25 1025
310 3:50 1188
90 1:45 158
100 2:20 233
120 1:15 150
150 2:55 438
200 0:55 183

PG 2/4 G 2-1
 CALCULATION OF ENDURANCE

Given the usable fuel (gallons) and the fuel consumption (gallons per hour -
GPH). Calculate the endurance in hours and minutes.

Calculator

Divide the usable fuel by the fuel consumption, multiply the result by
60 which gives the answer in minutes. Convert the minutes to hours
and minutes.

Calculator

Set The “60 Rate” mark against the fuel consumption on the outer
scale and then opposite the usable fuel on the outer scale read the h:m
on the inner time scale.

See notes on page 1

Usable fuel Consumption Endurance Endurance

(gals) GPH hrs:mins hrs:mins
30 7.5 4:00
25 6.3 3:58
18.5 4.7 3:56
28 7.2 3:53
32 6.9 4:38
43 8.2 5:15
19 3.9 4:52
58 12.5 4:38
24 6.8 3:32
17.5 4.2 4:10

PG 3/4 G 2-1
 DETERMINATION OF JOURNEY TIME

Given the distance travelled and the groundspeed, determine the journey time.

Calculator

Divide the distance travelled by the groundspeed and multiply the

result by 60 to get the journey time in minutes.

Computer

Set the “60 Rate” mark against the ground speed on the outer scale
and opposite the distance on the outer scale read the time in minutes
or h:m on the inner scale.

See notes on page 1

Distance Groundspeed Time Time

(nm) (kts) (mins) (mins)
95 78 73
48 117 25
90 132 41
13.5 101 8
40 98 25
133 190 42
80 94 51
200 129 93
42 63 40
162 113 86

PG 4/4 G 2-1
 NAVIGATION

Section H Exercises

Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Exercise 3

PG 1/1 H 0-1
 PPL EXAMINATION SAMPLE QUESTIONS 1

NAVIGATION

Refer to the Ireland 1:500,000 Chart

Q1 The distance from Coonagh (EICN) to Hacketstown

(EIHN) is
A 80 nm
B 78 nm
C 142 km
D 92 sm

Q2 The distance from Sligo (EISG) to Trim (EITM) is

A 147 km
B 77 nm
C 90 sm
D 76 nm

Q3 Which town is located at co-ordinates 52:32N

008:15W
A Tipperary
B Limerick Junct
C Oola
D Hospital

Q4 The distance (nm) between 54:39.7N 006:12.6W and

54:24.1N 007:38.8W is
A 50
B 52
C 53
D 54

Q5 The distance (nm) between 52:54.5N 008:55.4W and

53:54.0N 008:55.9W is
A 64
B 62
C 60
D 58

PG 1/3 H 1-1
Q6 The track from 53:40.6N 007:19.3W to 52:43.5N
008:52.9W is
A 235
B 045
C 225
D 209

Q7 The activity being undertaken in the vicinity of 52:32

N 006:21W is
A Ballooning
B Parachuting
C Hang gliding
D Gliding

Q8 The activity being undertaken in the vicinity of

52:39N 007:17W is
A Glider
launching
B Ballooning
C Parachuting
D Hang gliding

Q9 The symbol centred 2 nm NE of Shannon Airport

means
A NDB
B VOR/DME
C VOR
D Neither

Q10 The co-ordinates of Cork Airport are

A 52:10N 008:29W
B 52:50N 008:33W
C 51:52N 008:33W
D 51:50N 008:29W

PG 2/3 H 1-1
 Answers

1 B
2 C
3 C
4 B
5 C
6 C
7 A
8 A
9 B
10 D

PG 3/3 H 1-1
 FLIGHT PLANNING SAMPLE 2

It is planned to carry out a flight under VFR from Coonagh (EICN) to overhead
Abbeyshrule (EIAB) to overhead Galway Airport (EICM) and returning to Coonagh.
Using the ICAO 1:500,000 chart of Ireland and the data given on page 4, complete
the flight plan and answer the following questions.

Q1 The track from EIAB to EICM is A 250

B 258
C 262
D 264

Q2 The safety altitude on the EICN to EIAB leg is A 4000 ft

B 3000 ft
C 2500 ft
D 2000 ft

Q3 The distance from EICN to EIAB is A 69 nm

B 67 nm
C 120 km
D 73 sm

Q4 The heading (T) from EIAB to EICM is A 265

B 258
C 255
D 256

Q5 The heading (C) from EICM to EICN is A 189

B 360
C 180
D 183

Q6 The planned time overhead EICM is A 12:00

B 12:10
C 11:41
D 11:45

Q7 The ETA in EICN is A 12:10

B 12:15
C 12:20
D 12:05

PG 1/6 H 2-1
Q8 After climbing to flight altitude from Coonagh the
altimeter sub-scale should be set at A QFE at EICN
B 1013 hPa
C QNH
D 1000 mbar

Q9 If it were required to make a precautionary landing at Birr - A 07

runway headings 18/36 and 07/25 with a reported surface B 18
wind of 100o/20 kts - what runway should be used if the C 25
maximum crosswind limit is 14 kts and the runway is too D 36
short to accept a tailwind.

Q10 On route from EIAB to EICM you are found to be overhead

Mountbellew (30 nm out, 20 nm to go). Determine the new
heading (c) to EICM
A 245
B 265
C 257
D 250

Q11 When overhead EICM and turning

onto the heading for EICN you
should
A Turn through the required heading
before rolling out
B Turn onto the required heading
neglecting turning errors
C Roll out before the required
heading
D Neither of the above

Q12 The minimum fuel for the flight (including 20 minutes run-
up, taxi and take off as well as 1 hour reserve) is
A 20 gals
B 12 gals
C 18 gals
D 100 litres

PG 2/6 H 2-1
Q13 When passing Gort at 3,100 ft, ATC request that you
change heading so as to pass overhead EINN at 1,500 ft -
descent to start 10 nm out. To comply, your rate of
descent (assuming 75 kts groundspeed) should be
A 300 ft/min
B 200 ft/min
C 250 ft/min
D 150 ft/min

Q14 The new heading (c) from Gort to EINN should be

A 200
B 203
C 213
D 210

PG 3/6 H 2-1
 FLIGHT PLAN

Time From To Wind (W/V) Track Head(T) Head(C) GS (kts) Dist (nm) Time ETA
10:00 EICN EIAB 270/15
EIAB EICM 280/20
EICM EICN 280/20
Totals

Compass Deviation Card

For Heading Steer
Compass
000 357
045 045
090 092
135 138
180 183
225 227
270 269
315 312
360 357

Note: Fuel carried is 26 gals

Plan with the following

Altitude: 4,000 ft Cruise IAS: 72 kts
Fuel burn rate: 25 l/hr Temperature -5 C

PG 4/6 H 2-1
 Answers

1 8
2 9
3 10
4 11
5 12
6 13
7 14

PG 5/6 H 2-1
 FLIGHT PLAN

Time From To Wind (W/V) Track Head(T) Head(C) GS (kts) Dist(nm) Time ETA
10:00 EICN EIAB 270/15 033 023 028 83 67 48 10:48
10:48 EIAB EICM 280/20 250 258 263 56 49 53 11:41
11:41 EICM EICN 280/20 166 180 189 81 39 29 12:10
Totals 155 130

Compass Deviation Card

For Steer T V M D C
Heading Compass
000 357 023 6W 029 -1 028
045 045 258 6W 264 -1 263
090 092 180 6W 186 +3 189
135 138 203 6W 209 +2 211
180 183
225 227
270 269
315 312
360 357

PG 6/6 H 2-1
 FLIGHT PLANNING 3

It is planned to carry out a VFR cross country flight from Coonagh (EICN) to Kilkenny
(EIKL) to Abbeyshrule (EIAB) and returning to Coonagh.

The flight plan is prepared using the following data:

Compass Deviation Card

For Heading Steer Wind forecast : 130/24
Compass
000 357 Altitude: 4,000 ft
045 045 Fuel burn rate: 5.5 imp g/hr
090 092 Temperature -5 C
135 138 Cruise IAS: 72 kts
180 183
225 227
270 269
315 312
360 357

Complete the flight plan attached and answer the following questions

1 The TAS is

A 70 kts
B 75 kts
C 72 kts
D 78 kts

2 The Ireland 1:500,000 ICAO chart is based on the following

A Lambert Conformal Conic projection

o o
B Mercator projection with standard parallels at 51 N and 55 N
C Geodetic Datum WGS 84
D Transverse Mercator projection

3 After take off from EICN ATC specify “not above 1,000 ft until advised”. P 9 is
on your flight path. In this circumstance you may

A Traverse P9 as your flight plan has been filed and accepted

B Traverse P9 as you are following the instructions of ATC
C Fly above 2000 ft
D Not traverse P9

4 A track line drawn on the Ireland 1:500,000 ICAO chart equates to

A A rhumb line
B An agonic line
C A great circle
D An isogonal
PG 1/8 H 3-1
5 MEFs represent

A Safety altitudes within areas of one half of one degree of latitude and
longitude
B The maximum heights AMSL within areas of one half of one degree
of latitude and longitude
C Answer A but inclusive of an allowance for unknown obstacles
D Answer B but inclusive of an allowance for unknown obstacles

6 The Track from EICN to EIKL is

A 099
B 271
C 091
D 279

7 The Heading (C) from EICN to EIKL is

A 110
B 283
C 099
D 101

8 The distance from EIKL to EIAB is

A 60 nm
B 62 nm
C 64 nm
D 58 nm

9 The planned time to overhead EIAB is

A 11:38
B 11:33
C 11:25
D 11:31

10 The Heading (T) from EIAB to EICN is

A 195
B 200
C 198
D 207

11 The groundspeed between EIKL and EIAB is

A 91 kts
B 94 kts
C 89 kts
D 98 kts

PG 2/8 H 3-1
12 The minimum fuel for the flight, to next nearest gallon, (including 20 minutes
run up, taxi and take off as well as 1 hour reserve) is

A 23 Imp gals
B 20 Imp gals
C 22 Imp gals
D 16 Imp gals

13 Given the following conditions what is the maximum payload which can be
carried

Basic empty weight (inc. unusable fuel and oil) 1,796 lbs
Minimum fuel (Q 12) specific gravity = 0.72
Pilot’s weight 175 lbs
Maximum take off weight authorised 2,320 lbs

A 191 lbs
B 197 lbs
C 185 lbs
D 181 lbs

14 The safety altitude on the EIKL/EIAB leg is

A 1,000 metres
B 2,800 ft
C 2,700 ft
D 2,600 ft

15 The elevation of EIAB is

A 190 feet
B 799 metres
C 122.6 metres
D 122.6 feet

16 What activities are undertaken in the vicinity of Clonbullogue (53:15 N 007:07

W)

A Hang gliding and parachuting

B Parachuting and aerobatics
C Ballooning and gliding
D Ballooning and parachuting.

17 On route from EICN to EIKL you are found to be overhead Urlingford (40 nm
out, 10 nm to go). Determine the new Heading(C) to EIKL.

A 146
B 124
C 142
D 088
PG 3/8 H 3-1
18 Calculate the new ground speed for the leg from Urlingford to EIKL

A 52 kts
B 54 kts
C 50 kts
D 48 kts

19 The symbol marked P8 on the chart at Port Laoise means

A Do not fly within a radius of 5000 ft of Port Laoise

B ATC clearance must be obtained before overflying Port
Laoise
C Overflying Port Laoise is permitted but only under 5000 ft
AMSL
D Do not fly within a 2 nm radius and lower than 5,000 ft AMSL
of Port Laoise

20 Which of the following most correctly describes the symbol shown 5 nm

east of Tullamore

A A lighted obstacle 972 ft tall

B A lighted obstacle rising to 2144 ft AMSL
C A lighted obstacle at 972 ft elevation and 1172 ft tall
D A lighted obstacle 972 ft tall and 1172 ft AMSL

21 What is the planned flight time from EIAB to EICN

A 56 min
B 59 min
C 52 min
D 39 min

22 If it were required to make a precautionary landing at Birr - runway

headings 18/36 and 07/25 with a reported surface wind of 100o/20 kts -
what runway should be used if the maximum crosswind limit is 14 kts and
the runways are too short to allow landing with a tailwind.

A 07
B 18
C 25
D 36

23 The length of the main runway at Birr is

A 250 m
B 460 m
C 12,295 ft
D 5,000 ft

PG 4/8 H 3-1
24 When overhead EIAB and turning onto the heading for EICN you
should

A Turn through the required heading before rolling out

B Turn onto the required heading neglecting turning errors
C Roll out before the required heading
D Neither of the above

25 The dashed red line shown between Kilkenny, Ballyragggart,

Abbeyleix, Port Laoise and Mountmellick is

A A high voltage power cable

B A disused railway line
C Part of an Isogonal
D A roadway under construction

26 The time taken from EIKL to Durrow is measured at 8 minutes. The

actual ground speed is therefore

A 94
B 88
C 90
D 96

27 In order to stay on track between EIAB and EICN it is found

necessary to alter the Heading (C) to 210 . The ground speed has
been calculated at 66 kts. The wind W/V is now

A 140/20
B 140/16
C 145/19
D 145/16

28 The runway at EIKL is

A Asphalt
B Tarmac
C Grass
D Compacted earth

PG 5/8 H 3-1
 FLIGHT PLAN

Time From To Wind (W/V) Track Head(T) Head(C) GS (kts) Dist (nm) Time ETA
10:00 EICN EIKL 130/24
EIKL EIAB 130/24
EIAB EICN 130/24
Totals

PG 6/8 H 3-1
 FLIGHT PLAN

Time From To Wind (W/V) Track Head(T) Head(C) GS (kts) Dist (nm) Time ETA
10:00 EICN EIKL 130/24 091 103 110 55 51 56 min 10:56
10:56 EIKL EIAB 130/24 348 359 001 94 58 37 min 11:33
11:33 EIAB EICN 130/24 214 195 203 68 67 59 min 12:32
Totals 176 2h32m

PG 7/8 H 3-1
1 B 15 A
2 A 16 D
3 D 17 C
4 C 18 B
5 D 19 D
6 C 20 D
7 A 21 B
8 D 22 A
9 B 23 B
10 A 24 A
11 B 25 B
12 C 26 D
13 A 27 C
14 B 28 C

PG 8/8 H 3-1