BSNL MT Papers Satya

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Chapter 1 – Material & Components

 If all the atoms, molecules or ions at the lattice points are identical, the lattice is
called a Bravia’s lattice . Unit cell is the smallest component of the space lattice.
 Classification of Materials
 Types of Crystal lattice

 Types of Crystal Structure
SC – Simply Cubic ,BCC – Body Centered Cubic, FCC- Face Centered Cubic, HCP-
Hexagonal Close Packed
 Miller Indices
Miller indices form a notation system in crystallography for planes in crystal
(Bravais) lattices.In particular, a family of lattice planes is determined by three
integers x , y , and z , the Miller indices .

 Magnetism Terminology
 Classification of Magnetic Materials

 Hysteresis Loop
 Curie temperature ( T c ), or Curie point : is the temperature where a material's

permanent magnetism changes to induced magnetism. That means above Curie
temperature a ferromagnet becomes paramagnet while below it remains
ferromagnet.
 Curie's law for a paramagnetic material for T >Tc

 Curie-Weiss law
χ
the magnetic susceptibility; the influence of an applied magnetic field on a material
M the magnetic moments per unit volume
H the macroscopic magnetic field
B the magnetic field
C the material-specific Curie constant
 For Antiferromagnetic magnetic materials we use Neel temperature which is

similar to Curie temperature for Ferromagnetic Materials
 Below Neel Temperature - Antiferromagnetic

Above Neel Temperature - Para magnetic
 Superconductivity is a phenomenon of exactly zero electrical resistance and

expulsion of magnetic fields occurring in certain materials when cooled below a
characteristic critical temperature
 Characteristics of Superconductors
1. Zero Resistivity, i.e. Infinite Conductivity ( p= 0 for all T < TC): The d.c. (zero
frequency) electrical resistance of a superconductor at all temperatures below a
critical temperature Tc is practically zero
2. Meissner-Ochsenfeld Effect (B = 0 inside the superconductor) : The magnetic

inductance becomes zero inside the superconductor when it is cooled in a weak
external field. The effect is called the Meissner-Ochsenfeld effect
 Type I superconductors are sometimes called "soft" superconductors while the

Type II are "hard ", maintaining the superconducting state to higher temperatures
and magnetic fields.
 Type II superconductors show two critical magnetic field values, one at the onset
of a mixed superconducting and normal state, B c1 , and one where
superconductivity ceases, B c2 .

 Dielectric Constant
In an electric field, the charge density D is directly proportional to the applied field,
i.e
where is the dielectric constant or permittivity of the material placed between
the electrodes.
 Dielectric Loss
A dipole tends to align itself along the direction of applied electric field and for ac
fields tends to follow the field and be in a phase with it. However, the interaction of
this dipole with other dipoles in the medium prevents this and this leads to
dielectric loss. This loss appears as heat. This dielectric loss is connected with the
imaginary part of the dielectric constant.
The dielectric Loss is given by
 Ferroelectricity is the property of certain nonconducting crystals, or dielectrics,

that exhibit spontaneous electric polarization (separation of the centre of positive
and negative electric charge, making one side of the crystal positive and the
opposite side negative) that can be reversed in direction by the application of an
appropriate electric field.Ferroelectricity is named by analogy with
ferromagnetism.
 The group of dielectric materials called ferroelectrics exhibit spontaneous

polarization i.e., polarization in the absence of an electric field.
 Ferroelectric Curie Temperature:In most ferroelectric crystals, this non

polarized structure becomes stable if the crystal is heated above a critical
temperature, the ferroelectric Curie temperature (Tc); i.e. the crystal undergoes a
phase transition from the polarized phase (ferroelectric phase) into an
unpolarized phase (Paraelectric phase)
 Rochelle salt,Barium Titanate [BaTiO3] are examples of Ferroelectric Materials

 Dielectric Polarization :Dielectric polarization occurs when a dipole moment is
formed in an insulating material because of an externally applied electric field.
The polarization of a material is defined as the total dipole moment per unit
volume, and its equation is
is known as electronic polarizability

 Types of Dielectric Polarization
Electronic polarization
Ionic polarization
Orientation (dipolar) polarization
Space charge polarization
 The Clausius-Mossotti equation gives relationship between the electronic

permittivity and the dielectric constant
where is known as electronic polarizability,N is Avogadro's number,
 Piezoelectricity
Electricity, or electric polarity, resulting from the application of mechanical

pressure on a dielectric crystal is called piezoelectricity or pressure electricity.
 The phenomenon of generation of a voltage under mechanical stress is referred to

as the direct piezoelectric effect, and the mechanical strain produced in the crystal
under electric stress is called the converse piezoelectric effect.
 Electrostriction
This is a mechanical deformation which always accompanies polarization in a

dielectric. An electric field polarizes any material by inducing dipole moments. This
displacement of charges from their equilibrium positions alters the mechanical
dimensions of a solid; it causes electrostriction. However, mechanical stress
applied to a neutral material cannot induce dipole moments; i.e., electrostriction
has no inverse like piezoelectricity

Chapter 2 – Physical Electronics, Electronics Devices and ICs
 The atom is composed of a positively charged nucleus surrounded by negatively

charged electrons and the neutrons carry no charge.Protons and neutrons are the
constituents of a nucleus.
 [Imp] Atomic No (Z) : is equal to no of protons

Atomic Mass Number (A):is equal to total no of protons and neutrons
[A =Z +N].
 Atom as a whole is electrically neutral and therefore contains equal amount of positive
and negative charges.
 The basic unit of charge is the charge of the electron. The MKS unit of
charge is the coulomb. The electron has a charge of l .602 x l0-19 coulomb
and that of the electron mass is 9.109 x 10-31 kg.
 If an atom loses an electron, it becomes a positive ion with a net charge of+ 1. If it
gains an extra electron, it becomes a negative ion with a net charge of -1.
 Ionization potential: is the energy required to remove an electron from the outer orbit
of an atom. The size of the atom decreases considerably, as more and more electrons are
removed from the outer orbit.
 [New] Electron Affinity: is the work done by the system, when the extra electron is
attracted form infinity to the outer orbit of the neutral atom which results in increase
in the size of the atom.
 [New] Electro Negativity:is the tendency of an atom to attract electrons to itself during
the formation of bonds with other atoms
 Bond Energy (Eg):is the magnitude of energy released, when two atoms come together
from a large distance of separation to the equilibrium distance
 Ionic Bond : is formed between two oppositely charged ions, which are produced by the
transfer of electrons from one atom to another.Eg: NaCl
 Covalent bond: is formed by the sharing of electrons between neighboring

atoms.Eg:GaAs,Si,Ge etc
 Electron Volt (eV): unit of work or energy, is defined as follows:

1 eV=1.602 x l0 -19 J. If an electron falls through a potential of one volt, Its
kinetic energy will increase by the decrease in potential energy, or by 1 eV.
Kinetic energy (K.E) =(mv2)/2 .

Potential Energy (P.E) =qV

 [Imp] Thermal Voltage (VT ) : VT = kT/q where k =Boltzman constant ,q is

charge,T= Temp in Kelvin. VT =T/11600 .At T=0 K ,VT =0 .At T=300K ,
VT = 26 mV. Temp in Kelvin= Celsius+273
 Atomic concentration (n) : n=( A0 d/A) where A= atomic weight,

d=density, Ao=Avogadro number.
[Imp]nSI > nGE because atomic number of silicon is less than atomic number
of Germanium.
 Energy Band Theory Concepts of metals ,semiconductor and insulator
 The gap between the top of the valence band and bottom of the conduction band is called
'energy band gap' (Energy gap) or forbidden energy gap (Eg ) as no electrons can
occupy states in this gap.
 The lower band below energy gap is called Valence band consists of closely spaced
empty energy state . The upper band above the energy gap is called conduction band
consists of infinitely large number of closely filled energy states.
 At equilibrium spacing, the lowest conduction band energy is Ec and highest valence
band energy is Ev.
 Insulator: A very poor conductor of electricity,Energy Band gap (Eg) is large approx
(Eg=6eV) .Eg: Carbon,Diamond .
 [Imp] Insulator is a negative temperature coefficient of resistance . Ionic bonding

occurs in insulator
 Metal :An excellent conductor of electricity,Energy Band gap is zero (Eg=0).

Conductivity is high ,Resistance is low.Eg: All metals like Aluminium,Copper etc.
 [Imp] Metal is a positive temperature coefficient of resistance .
 Semiconductor : A substance whose conductivity lies between these insulator and

metal ,Energy Band gap is small (approx Eg=1 eV). Eg: Si,Ge .

 The energy Eg required to break such a covalent bond is about 0.72 eV for germanium
and 1.1 eV for silicon at room temperature.
 [Imp]For Si 1.) At 0K , Eg =0.785 .

2.)At 300K, Eg =0.72 .
For Ge  1.) At 0K , Eg =1.21 .
2.)At 300K, Eg =1.1 .
i.e Eg is inversely proportional to Temperature
 [Imp] Current Density (J) : J= n qv= ρ V Where ρ= nq is the charge density, in coulombs
per cubic meter, and v is in meters per second.
Current Density (J) for semiconductor is as given below
Where n = magnitude of free electron (negative) concentration, p =

magnitude of hole (positive) concentration, σ =conductivity, 𝛆=electric field
and q=electron charge
 [Imp] Drift Velocity (Vd): The drift velocity v is in the direction opposite to that of the
electric field, and its magnitude is proportional to E. Thus Vd =μE where E is electric field
and where μ (m2 / V - s) is called the mobility of the electrons.
 [Imp] Conductivity (σ ) :is the conductivity of the substance in (ohm meter)-1 . σ =nqμ
Conductivity of a Semiconductor : σ = (n μn +p μp)q. As temperature increases,
conduction increase in intrinsic semiconductor
 Resistivity( ρ) is inversely proportional to the conductivity and is given by ρ=1/σ = 1/(

σ = n μn +p μp)
 Intrinsic concentration (ni ): For a pure (called intrinsic) semiconductor

n=p=ni
With increasing temperature, the density of hole – electron pair increases
And correspondingly, the conductivity increases.
Where A0 = material constant. T = temperature in degree Kelvin, E G0 = energy

gap at 0 K in eV, K = Boltzmann constant in eV/ K
ni = 2.5 × 1013 carries/ cm3 → Ge (at room temperature)
ni = 1.5 × 1010 carries/ cm3 → Si (at room temperature)
The intrinsic concentration (ni) varies with temperature in accordance with

the above relationship.
 [Imp] Mass Action law: For intrinsic material n = p = ni, we have the
important relationship , ni2 =np

 Fermi Level f(E): The probability of occupation f(E) of an energy level E by

electron is given by
The Fermi level can be defined as that level which has a 50% probability of
occupation by an electron at any temperature.
 Electron concentration (n) is proportional to f(E):
 Hole concentration (p) is proportional to f(E)
The above equations (for n and p) apply to both intrinsic and Extrinsic or
Impure semiconductors.
 [Imp] For Intrinsic Semiconductor: Fermi level in intrinsic semiconductor

is called Intrinsic Fermi level EF=EFi
[Imp] Fermi Level (EF) in an Intrinsic Semiconductor lies in the center of

the forbidden energy band.
[Imp] Fermi level (EF) in a semiconductor having impurities i.e extrinsic

Semiconductor is as given below
Variation n- type p – type Conduction
Doping increases EF goes up EF goes down Increases
Temperature EF goes down EF goes up Decreases

Increases
 [Imp] At extraordinary high temperatures extrinsic will behave as

intrinsic semiconductor.
 Charge Densities in a Semiconductor

Since the semiconductor is electrically neutral, the magnitude of the positive
charge density must be equal to that of the negative concentration
[Imp] N D + p =N A + n

For N type semiconductor, N A =0 and n>>p. Therefore N D ≈ n

For P type semiconductor, ND =0 and p>>n. Therefore N A ≈ n
 Mass action law for N type, n n p n = n i 2

p n = n i 2 / N D since (n n ≈ N D )
Mass action law for P type, n p p p = n i 2
n p = n i 2 / N A since (p p ≈ N A )
 Drift Current Density : Due to Electric field (E)
Drift current density Jn , due to free electrons is given by Jn = q n μn E (A/cm2)
Drift current density Jp, due to holes is given by Jp = q p μp E (A/cm2)
Where, n - Number of free electrons per cubic centimeter.
p - Number of holes per cubic centimeter
μn – Mobility of electrons in cm2 / Vs
μp – Mobility of holes in cm2 / Vs
E – Applied Electric filed Intensity in V /cm
q – Charge of an electron = 1.6 x 10-19 coulomb.
 Diffusion Current Density: Due to concentration gradient
Diffusion current density due to holes Jp is given by for electrons (n) and
holes (p) can be written as follows:
where: J n and J p = the diffusion current densities

q = electron charge
D n and D p = diffusion coefficients for electrons and holes
n and p = electron and hole concentrations
 Diffusion length for electrons :

Diffusion length for holes;
 Total Current: The total current in a semiconductor is the sum of both drift
and diffusion currents that is given by
In(total) =q n μn E A +

P-N Junction Diode

Diode permits the easy flow of current in one direction but restrains the flow in the opposite
direction.
 Forward Bias
 More majority carriers will be allowed to flow across the junction.
 The junction width decreases.
 The current flow is principally due to majority charge carriers and is large (mA).
 Reverse Bias
 The junction width will increase.
 Reverse bias current will be due to the minority carriers only
 Forward Currents
Io is reverse saturation current depends on temperature
[Imp]
Where Io1 (Io2) is the reverse saturation current at a temperature T 1 (T2).
Io doubles for every 10 0C rise in temperature
Where Eo is the energy at the junction of p-n diode
 The net charge must be zero across the depletion region will satisfy the condition
N A WP=N D W N
Where N A =acceptor concentration; N D =donor concentration; WP =width of the depletion
region in p-side; W N =width of the depletion region in n-side
Transition or Space Charge (or Depletion Region) Capacitance (Ct)
Forward bias condition, the width of the depletion region W decreases and Ct increases.
Reverse bias condition, width of depletion region W increases with reverse voltage and Ct
decreases
Diffusion (or Storage) Capacitance (Cd)

The capacitance that exists in a forward biased junction is called a diffusion or storage
capacitance (Cd),
where is the mean life time for holes and electrons.

CD >> CT

 Avalanche Breakdown due to avalanche multiplication above 6V

Zener Breakdown due to strong electric field below 6 V
 [Imp] The tunnel diode exhibits a negative resistance characteristic between the peak
current Ip and the minimum value Iv, called the valley current.
V-I Characteristics
Zener Diode Characteristics Tunnel Diode Characteristics
Photodiode: A photodiode is a semiconductor device that converts light into current. A small
amount of current is also produced when no light is present which is called dark current
Responsivity
 LED :Spontaneous Emission

LASER : Stimulated Emission
The color of the emitted light depends on the type of material used is given below:
1. GaAs: infrared radiation (invisible)
2. GaP: red or green light
3. GaAsP :red or yellow (amber) light.
 Applications of Diodes
Detectors (apd, pin photo diode) in optical communication circuits
Zener diodes in voltage regulators
Varactor diodes in tuning sections of radio and tv receivers
Light emitting diodes in digital displays
Laser diodes in optical communications
Tunnel diodes as a relaxation oscillator at microwave frequencies.

Bipolar Junction Theory
Important formula in BJT
Transistor Operation Regions
BE Junction BC Junction Region

Reverse Bias Reverse Bias Cut off
Forward Bias Forward Bias Saturation
Forward Bias Reverse Bias Forward Active
Reverse Bias Forward Bias Reverse Active
Early effect or punch-through, or reach-through or Base width Modulation : The increased

width of the collector-junction transition region with increased collector base junction voltage
(increase in VCB) is called base width modulation
ICBO where the subscripts CBO stand for ‘Collector to Base with emitter Open. I CBO doubles for
every 10 0C rise in temperature for Ge and 6 0C for Si.

JFET & MOSFET
The Field effect transistor is a voltage operated device. Whereas Bipolar junction transistor is a
current controlled device .
FET operation depends only on the flow of majority carriers ,therefore they are called uni polar
devices. BJT operation depends on both minority and majority carriers.
As FET has conduction through only majority carriers it is less noisy than BJT.
FETs are much easier to fabricate and are particularly suitable for ICs because they occupy less
space than BJTs.
FET & MOSFET - negative temperature coefficient at high current levels, it prevents the FET
from thermal breakdown.
BJT - positive temperature coefficient at high current levels which leads to thermal
breakdown.
A C Drain resistance(r d ) : r d =∆V ds/ ∆I d where V gs is held constant.

Trance Conductance (g m ): g m =∆I d/ ∆V ds
Amplification Factor (µ) : µ=∆V ds /∆V gs =g m r d when I d held constant
JFET Pinch-off voltage: As the Gate voltage ( -V GS ) is made more negative, the width of the
channel decreases until no more current flows between the Drain and the Source and the FET is
said to be “pinched-off” (similar to the cut-off region for a BJT). The voltage at which the channel
closes is called the “pinch-off voltage” , ( V P ).

JFET Drain current (I D ) is given by Shockley’s equation
MOSFET with negative gate bias voltage, it acts as depletion MOSFET while with positive gate
bias voltage it acts as an Enhancement MOSFET .
PARAMETER N-CHANNEL P-CHANNEL

Source / drain material N-Type P-Type
Threshold voltage V th negative doping dependent
Substrate material P-Type P-Type
Inversion layer carriers Electrons Holes
MOSFET Operating regions

TERMS BJT FET MOSFET

Device type Current controlled Voltage controlled Voltage Controlled
Current flow Bipolar Unipolar Unipolar
Not
Terminals Interchangeable Interchangeable
interchangeable
Operational Depletion mode Both Enhancement and Depletion
No modes
modes only modes
Input impedance Low High Very high
Output
Moderate Moderate Low
resistance
Operational
Low Moderate High
speed
Noise High Low Low
Thermal stability Low Better High
All circuit components and interconnections are formed on single thin wafer (substrate) is called
monolithic IC
In Photolithographic Process , the SiO2 layer is coated with a thin layer of a photosensitive
material called photoresist
Buried Layers :The function of this layer is to reduce the collector resistance of the transistor.

Chapter 3 - Signals and Systems

 Important Formula

Continuous-time Frequency Fourier Transform Pairs [f domain]

Continuous-time Pulsation Fourier Transform Pairs [ω domain]

Discrete Time Fourier Transform (DTFT) Pairs

z-Transform Pairs

Convolution property
Initial Value Theorem
If X(z) is expressed as ratio of polynomials P(z) and Q(z), order of P(z) should be less than that of Q(z) for initial value
theorem to be applied to X(z).
Final Value Theorem
Necessary condition for applying final value theorem is that poles of (1-z-1) X(z) should be strictly inside the unit cycle
Properties of ROC
(1) ROC of X(z) consists of a ring in the z-plane centered about the origin.
(2) ROC does not contain any poles, but is bounded by poles.
(3) If x[n] is a finite duration sequence, then ROC is the entire z plane except possibly z = 0 or z= ∞ .
(4) If x1 [n] is a right sided sequence, then ROC extends outward from the outermost pole to possibly including z= ∞
. As casual sequences are right sided, ROC of those sequences is outside a circle.
(5) If x2 [n] is a left sided sequence, the ROC extends inward, from the innermost non-zero pole to possibly including
z = 0. As anti-causal sequences are left sided, ROC of those sequences is inside a circle.
(6) If x3 [n] is two sided sequence, the ROC will consist of a ring in the z plane bounded on the interior and exterior
by a pole.
A LTI system can be characterized for causality, stability and memoryless properties based on ROC of the system function,
H(z).
1. If ROC includes unit circle, then system is stable.
2. If ROC is outside a circle, then system is causal.
3. If ROC is inside a circle, then system is anti-causal.
4. If ROC is all z, then system is memoryless.
5. If ROC is strictly a ring, then system is non-causal.
Finding Inverse Z.T. given X(z) and ROC
1. By Inspection and Partial Fraction

Given X(z) in rational form, split it into partial fractions and based on ROC, find x[n] by inspection.
2. By Division
Given X(z) in rational form, perform the division based on the condition that x[n] is causal or anti-causal and find X(z) in
expansion form.
3. By Power Series Expansion

Given X(z) in a standard form, find the expansion of X(z), then x[n]

Laplace Transform Pairs
Initial Value Theorem

If f(t) and its derivative f t are Laplace transformable, then
This theorem does not apply to the rational function F(s) in which the order of numerator polynomial is equal to or
greater than the order of denominator polynomial.

Final Value Theorem

If f(t) and its derivative f (t) are Laplace transformable, then
For applying final value theorem, it is required that all the poles of be in the left half of s plane (strictly) i.e. poles on
jw axis also not allowed
Laplace transform of the periodic function

If f(t) is periodic function with period T, then

Chapter 4 - Network Theory
 A network in which R, L, C can be separated electrically is called lumped network

A network in which elements R, L, C can not be separated is called distributed
network .Examples: Transmission line is example of distributed network
 Kirchoff ’s Current Law (KCL):The algebraic sum of currents at a node in an

electrical circuit is equal to zero. Conservation of Charge.
 Kirchoff ’s Voltage Law (KVL):In any closed loop electrical circuit, the algebraic
sum of voltage drops across all the circuit elements is equal to EMF rise in the
same. Conservation of Energy
 Series and Parallel Circuits
A.Resistor
Resistor in Series

 Resistor in Parallel
B. Inductor
Inductor in Series
Inductor in Parallel
C. Capacitor
Capacitor in Series
Capacitor in Parallel

 Voltage Division and Current Division Rules
1.Voltage Divider
2.Current Division Rule
 Delta to Star Network Transformation

 Star to Delta Transformation
 Source Transformation
 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
The theorem states that the power transfer by a source to a load is maximum in a
network when the load resistance is equal to the internal resistance of the source.
 The number of trees for a given graph = (n)n-2
 Rank of graph = (n -1)

where, n =Number of nodes.
 Number of twigs =Number of KCL equation =(n - 1)

Number of loops = Number of links
 Total number of branch [B]= (n -1) + L where, L = Number of links

 Number of Tree in Graph = Det [ (A) (A)T ]
Where [A] = Reduced incident Matrix

[A]T = Transpose of A
 Number of fundamental cut sets of a graph = Number of twiqs = (n -1)

Number of rows of the matrix = Number of fundamental cut sets
Number of columns = Number of branches.
Number of KCL equation = Number of fundamental cut set.
Number of fundamental tie sets for a graph= Number of links= Number of KVL
(mesh equation) = b - (n - 1)
 Initial & Steady state conditions for Inductor and Capacitor
A.Intial Conditions [t = 0]
Inductor [L] acts as open circuit while Capacitor [C] acts as short circuit
B. Steady State: [t = ∞]
Inductor [L] acts as short circuit while Capacitor [C] acts as open circuit
 Capacitor does'nt allow sudden change of voltage while Inductor does’nt allow
sudden change of current
 Time Constant : For an RL circuit,  = L/R

Time Constant : For an RL circuit,  = RC
 In a first-order RL circuit the step response of the current through the inductor is
of the form:

 In a first-order RC circuit the step response of the voltage across the capacitor is of
the form:

 Two Port Network Parameters

 Conditions for Symmetry and Reciprocity of Two port Network
 Magnetically Coupled circuits

Chapter 5 – Electromagnetic Wave Theory

 Gradient ,Divergence and Curl in Co-ordinate Systems

 Transformation of Co-ordinate Systems

 Physical Constants
 Coulomb’s Law: The mathematical expression of Coulomb ’s law is
 Electric Field Intensity: It is defined as force per unit charge, and its unit is
newton/coulomb (or) volt/meter. The electric field starts at a positive charge and
ends at a negative charge.
 Faraday’s Law
Statement: The electromotive force around a closed path is equal to the negative
of rate of change of magnetic flux enclosed by that path
Emf = - N (dΦ/dt)

 Lenz Law
Statement: When an emf is generated by a change in magnetic flux according to

Faraday's Law, the polarity of the induced emf is such that it produces a current
whose magnetic field opposes the change which produces it.
 Ampere’s Circuital Law

Statement: " The line integral of resultant magnetic field along a closed plane
curve is equal to μ0 time the total current crossing the area bounded by the closed
curve provided the electric field inside the loop remains constant"
where μ0 is the permeability of free space and I is the net current enclosed by the
loop
 Magnetic Flux Density (B)
The Magnetic Flux Density (B) is related to the Magnetic Field (H) by
The magnetic flux density is measured in Webers per square meter [Wb/m^2],
which is equivalent to Teslas [T]
 Lorentz Force Equation
The Lorentz Force Equation ties the force due to an external electric field E and an
external magnetic flux density B on a charged particle moving at velocity v
 Stokes Theorem
Statement: Integration of any vector around a closed path is always equal to the
integration of curl of that vector throughout the surface enclosed by that path
Stokes Theorem – Relation between Line Integral and Surface Integral

Divergence Theorem – Relation between Surface integral and Volume Integral

A. Static Field
1. Point Form
2. Integral Form

B.Time Varying Field
Point and Integral Form
 Electromagnetic wave : An Electromagnetic wave consist of both electric and

magnetic field.The electromagnetic wave consist of three components related to
X,Y and Z direction
 Uniform Plane Wave: For the plane wave, if the amplitude is constant over the
plane surface than it is called uniform plane wave. But for Uniform Plane wave ,out
of 3 components (X,Y & Z Direction ) only one component is present and remaining
two components are zero.
 Standard form of wave equation:

The wave equation in the standard differential form for u is given by:
Where c is velocity of wave and given by
 Wave or Intrinsic Impedance (n)

Wave impedance is the ratio between electric fields and magnetic fields of a
propagating wave. It is the impedance of the medium that the wave propagates in.
n = E/H

 Wave impedance for Free Space
 Plane Wave in a Dielectric medium
 Considering an electromagnetic wave propagating in z-direction, electric and

magnetic fields associated with this wave to be entirely transverse to Z – direction.
Hence it is referred to as TEM.
 When electric fields are transverse to z – direction, EM wave is said to be TE wave

When magnetic field are transverse to z – direction,EM wave is said to be TM wave.
 Uniform Plane waves in Different Medium.

1. Free Space or Perfect Dielectric [σ =0]
2. Lossy Dielectric  [σ ≠ 0]
3. Lossless Dielectric [ σ =0 or σ << w ε ]
4. Good Conductor  [σ ≈ ∞ or σ >> w ε ]
 Skin depth is defined as the depth in which EM wave can penetrate the medium

 Reflection & Transmission in Uniform Plane waves

a.Reflection Coeffecient [Γ]
b.Transmission Coeffecient
 Brewster Angle [ B]
Brewster's angle (also known as the polarization angle) is an angle of incidence at
which light with a particular polarization is perfectly transmitted through a
transparent dielectric surface, with no reflection.
Where, μ2 is the refractive index of the reflecting surface and μ 1 is the refractive
index of the surrounding medium.
 Polarization :Polarization is defined as orientation of electric field vector [E]
 Types of Polarization
1.Linear Polarization: The wave is said to be linearly polarized if phase angle

between two waves is 0 or 180
2.Circular Polarization: Circularly polarized light consists of two perpendicular

electromagnetic plane waves of equal amplitude and 90° difference in phase
3.Elliptical Polarization :Elliptically polarized light consists of two perpendicular

waves of unequal amplitude which differ in phase by 90°
 Poynting Theorem
Statement: “The rate of energy transfer (per unit volume) from a region of space
equals the rate of work done on a charge distribution plus the energy flux leaving
that region.

 Poynting Theorem Final Derived Equation
 Transmission Lines
Transmission line in differential form is given by
 Characteristic impedance is defined as the ratio of the magnitude of the forward

traveling voltage wave to the magnitude of the forward traveling current wave:

 Voltage Reflection Coefficient
The ratio of the reflected voltage amplitude to that of the forward voltage
amplitude is the Voltage Reflection Coefficient .
 Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR)
Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR) or standing wave ratio is a measure of how
well matched a transmission line is to a load.
 Input Impedance (Z in )
Input Impedance (Z in ) of a transmission line of length L and attached to load

(antenna) with impedance Z A is given by
 Characteristic Impedance (Z 0 ) for Short Circuit and Open Circuit Transmission Line
 Lowest order TE wave in rectangular guides is therefore the TE10 wave. This wave
which has the lowest cut-off frequency is called the dominant wave.Smallest mode
is TM11

 Cut-off frequency (fc) :For each waveguide mode there is a definite lower
frequency limit. This is known as the cut-off frequency. Below this frequency no
signals can propagate along the waveguide. As a result the waveguide can be seen
as a high pass filter.
 The formula for the cutoff frequency of a rectangular cross sectioned waveguide is
given by:
 The cutoff frequency for a waveguide with a circular cross section of radius a is
given by
Phase Velocity (Vp) > Group Velocity (Vg)

Chapter 6 - Analog Electronic Circuit

 The device which converts alternating AC (bidirectional) voltage to pulsating DC
(Unidirectional) voltage is called rectifier.
 Clampers

 h parameter Model
Common Common Common

Definitions
Base Emitter Collector
Input Impedance with

Output Short Circuit
Reverse Voltage Ratio

Input Open Circuit
Forward Current Gain

Output Short Circuit
Output Admittance
Input Open Circuit

 DC Biasing-BJTs
VBE: decreases about 7.5 mV per degree Celsius (0 oC) increase temperature.
ICO (reverse saturation current): doubles in value for every 100 oC increase in
temperature.
IC = f (ICO, VBE ,β)


 Small Signal Analysis of BJT

 DC Biasing-FET & MOSFET


Common-Emitter Common-Base (CB) Common-Collector

Parameters
(CE) Amplifier Amplifier (CC) Amplifier
Current gain (AI) hfe hfb ≈ 1 hfc
Voltage gain (AV) 1
Input resistance
hie hib hic + hfcRL
(Ri)
Output
resistance (Ro)

 Small Signal Model Of FET


 Types of amplifiers
1. Voltage amplifier
2. Current amplifier
3. Trans conductance amplifier
4. Trans resistance amplifier
Parameter/Type of Voltage Current Transconductance Transresistance

amplifier amplifier amplifier
amplifier amplifier
Input resistance Infinite Zero Infinite Zero
Output resistance Zero Infinite Infinite Zero
Transfer
VO=Av Vi IO=Ai Ii IO = GmVi Vo=RmIs
Characteristic
 Types of Feedback
Positive Feedback: If feedback from output to input is given in such in a way that
the introduction of feedback in the amplifier increases the overall gain, then the
feedback is termed as positive feedback.
Negative Feedback: If feedback from output to input is given in such in a way that
the introduction of feedback in the amplifier decreases the overall gain, then the
feedback is termed as negative feedback.
 De-sensitivity factor
Desensitivity factor is defined as the factor with which the feedback desensitizes
the gain. It is also called as return difference.
Desensitivity factor = (dAf/Af)/(dA/A) = 1/(1+A*β)
Where Af is gain with feedback

A is gain without feedback
β is feedback factor.

 Effect of feedback topologies on input and output resistance
Feedback topology/
Voltage series Current series Current shunt Voltage shunt
Parameter
Increases Increases Decreases Decreases

Input resistance
Rif = Ri*(1+A*β) Rif = Ri*(1+A*β) Rif = Ri/(1+A*β) Rif = Ri*(1+A*β)
Decreases Increases Increases Decreases
Output resistance
Rof = Rof = Rof = Rof =
Ro/(1+A*β) Ro*(1+A*β) Ro*(1+A*β) Ro/(1+A*β)
 An ideal op amp circuit would have infinite input impedance, zero output
impedance and an infinite voltage gain.
 Differential Amplifier
 Inverting Amplifier
The output is obtained by multiplying the input by a fixed or constant gain, set by
the input resistor(R1 ) and feedback resistor ( Rf) this output also being inverted
from the input.
 Non-Inverting Amplifier

 Gain bandwidth product of op-amp remains constant whether it is open

loop or feedback amplifier. If gain is decreased, bandwidth increases and vice-
versa.
 Common-Mode Rejection Ratio

Chapter 7 –Digital Electronic Circuit
 Don’t care values or unused states in BCD code are 1010, 1011, 1100, 1101, 1110,
1111.
Don’t care values or unused state in excess – 3 codes are 0000, 0001, 0010, 1101,
1110,1111
 Binary-to-Gray conversion
 Gray-to-Binary conversion
 In signed binary numbers,MSB is always sign bit and the remaining bits are used
for magnitude. For positive and negative binary number, the sign is respectively ‘0’
and ‘1’.
Negative numbers can be represented in one of three possible ways.
Signed – magnitude representation.
Signed – 1’s complement representation.
Signed – 2’s complement representation.
 The range of binary integer number of n-bits using signed 1’s complement form is
given by +(2n-1 – 1) to –(2n-1 – 1),which includes both types of zero’s i.e., +0 and -0.

 The range of integer binary numbers of n-bits length by using signed 2’s
complement representation is given by + (2n-1 – 1) to – 2n-1 which includes only
one type of zero i.e. + 0.
 NAND and NOR gates are called Universal gates because, by using only NAND gates
or by using only NOR gates we can realize any gate or any circuit.
 Boolean properties
 Duality principle: It states that every algebraic expression deducible from theorems
of Boolean algebra remains valid if the operators and identify elements are
interchanged .To get dual of an algebraic function, we simply exchange AND with
OR and exchange 1 with 0.
 Maxterm is the compliment of its corresponding minterm and vice versa.

Sum of all the minterms of a given Boolean function is equal to 1.
Product of all the maxterms of a given Boolean function is equal to 0

 Gray code sequence is used in K – map so that any two adjacent cells will differ
by only one bit.
 Logic Gates

 The minimum number of NAND gates required to realize X – OR gate is four.

The minimum number of NOR gates required to realize X – OR gate is five.
 A bubbled NAND gate is equivalent to OR gate

A bubbled NOR gate is equivalent to AND gate
A bubbled AND gate is equivalent to NOR gate
A bubbled OR gate is equivalent to NAND gate
 Combinational Digital Circuits: In these circuits “the outputs at any instant of

time depends on the inputs present at that instant only.” For the design of
Combinational digital circuits, basic gates (AND, OR, NOT) or universal
gates (NAND, NOR) are used. Examples for combinational digital circuits are adder,
decoder etc.
 Sequential Digital Circuits: The outputs at any instant of time not only depend on
the present inputs but also on the previous inputs or outputs. For the design of
these circuits in addition to gates we need one more element called flip-flop.
Examples for sequential digital circuits are Registers, Shift register, Counters etc
 Half Adder: A combinational circuit that performs the addition of two bits is called
a halfadder.
Sum = X ⊕ Y = XY’ + X’ Y Carry = XY
 Half Subtractor: It is a Combinational circuit that subtracts two bits and produces
their difference.
Diff. = X ⊕ Y = XY’ + X’Y Borrow = X’ Y
Half adder can be converted into half subtractor with an additional inverter.
 Full Adder: It performs sum of three bits (two significant bits and a previous
carry) and generates sum and carry.
Sum=X⊕ Y⊕Z Carry = XY + YZ + ZX
Full adder can be implemented by using two half adders and an OR gate.
 Full subtractor: It subtracts one bit from the other by taking pervious borrow into
account and generates difference and borrow.
Diff.=X⊕ Y⊕Z Borrow = X’Y + YZ + ZX’
Full subtractor can be implemented by using two half- subtractors and an OR gate.
 Multiplexers (MUX):It selects binary information from one of many input lines
and directs it to a single output line
There are 2 input lines where ‘n’ is the select lines i/p then n = log 2 M
2 : 1 MUX Y=S̅ I0 + SI1
4 : 1 MUX

 Decoder is a combinational circuit that converts binary information from ‘n’ input
lines to a maximum of 2n unique output lines.
 Encoder is a combinational circuit which has many inputs and many outputs
It is used to convert other codes to binary such as octal to binary, hexadecimal to
binary etc.
 The disadvantage of S-R flip-flop is S=1, R=1 output cannot be determined. This can
be eliminated in J-K flip-flop
 Race around problem is present in the J-K flip flop, when both J=K=1.
Toggling the output more than one time during the clock pulse is called Race
around Problem.
 The race around problem in J-K flip-flop can be eliminated by using edge triggered
flip-flop or master slave J-K flip flop or by the clock signal whose pulse width is
less than or equal to the propagation delay of flip-flop.
 Master-slave flip-flop is a cascading of two J-K flip-flops .Positive or direct clock

pulses are applied to master and these are inverted and applied to the slave flip-
flop.
 D-Flip-Flop: It is also called a Delay flip-flop. By connecting an inverter in between

J and K input terminals. D flip-flop is obtained.
 T Flip-flop: J K flip-flop can be converted into T- Flip-flop by connecting J and K

input terminals to a common point. If T=1, then Qn+1 = Qn’ . This unit changes state
of the output with each clock pulse and hence it acts as a toggle switch.
 Conversion of Flip Flops

 Ring Counter: Shift register can be used as ring counter when Q 0 output terminal
is connected to serial input terminal.An n-bit ring counter can have “n” different
output states. It can count n-clock pulses.
 Twisted Ring counter: It is also called Johnson’s Ring counter. It is formed when
Qo’ output terminal is connected to the serial input terminal of the shift register.
An n-bit twisted ring counter can have maximum of 2n different output states.
 Synchronous counters are also called parallel counters. In this type clock pulses
are applied simultaneously to all the flip – flops
Asynchronous counters are also called ripple or serial counter. In this type of
counters the output of one flip – flop is connected to the clock input of next flip –
flop and soon.
 Types of DACs
1. Binary weighted resistor type of DAC and
2. R – 2 R ladder type of DAC
The advantage of R – 2R ladder type of DAC over Binary weighted type of DAC
1. Better linearity and
2. It requires only two different types of resistors with values R and 2R.
 The percentage resolution of n – bit DAC is given by
 Types of ADC’s
Simultaneous ADC or parallel comparator of Flash type of ADC
Counter type ADC or pulse width type of ADC
Integrator type of ADC or single slope of ADC
Dual slope integrator ADC
Successive approximation type ADC
 Flash type of ADC is the faster type of ADC, An n – bit Flash type ADC requires 2n -1
comparators.
 Dual slope ADC is more accurate.
 Noise Margin: “It is the limit of a noise voltage which may be present without
impairing the proper operation of the circuit’
 Figure of Merit: The product of propagation delay time and power dissipation.
 Saturation Logic: A form of logic gates in which one output state is the saturation
voltage level of the transistor. Example: RTL, DTL, TTL.

Unsaturated Logic or Current Mode Logic: A form of logic with transistors

operated outside the saturation region. Example: CML or ECL.
 Passive Pull- up: In a bipolar logic circuit, a resistance used in the collector circuit
of the output transistor is known as passive pull-up.
Active Pull-up: In a bipolar logic circuit, a BJT and diode circuit used in the
collector circuit of the output transistor instead of is known as active pull-up. This
facility is available is TTL family.The advantages of active pull- up over passive-
pull up are increased speed of operation and reduced power dissipation.
 In TTL logic gate family, three different types of output type configurations are
available: they are open collector output type, Totem-pole output type and tri-state
output type.
 The advantages of open-collector output are wired-logic can be performed and

loads other than the normal gates can be used.
 The tri- state logic devices are used in bus oriented systems.
 If any input of TTL circuit is left floating, it will function as if it is connected to logic
1 level.
If any unused input terminal of a MOS gate is left unconnected, a large voltage may
get induced at the unconnected input which may damage the gate.
 Comparison of Different Logic Gate families
 Gates with open collector output can be used for wired AND operation
 Open emitter output is available in ECL. Wired – OR operation is possible with ECL
circuits.
 Semiconductor Memory:The capacity of a memory IC is represented by 2 m, where

‘2 ’ represents number of memory locations available and ‘m’ represents number of
bits stored in each memory location. Example:- 210 x 8 = 1024 x 8

Chapter 8 – Control System

 The transfer function of a control system is defined as the ration of the Laplace
transform of the output variable to Laplace transform of the input variable
assuming all initial conditions to be zero.
 Block Diagram Reduction Rules

 Signal Flow Graph from Block Diagram
 Mason's Gain Formula
The overall transmittance or gain of signal flow graph of control system is given by
Mason’s Gain Formula and as per the formula the overall transmittance is
Where, Pk is the forward path transmittance of kth in path from a specified input is
known to an output node.
Δ is the graph determinant which involves closed loop transmittance and mutual
interactions between non-touching loops.

Δ = 1 - (sum of all individual loop transmittances) + (sum of loop transmittance

products of all possible pair of non-touching loops) - (sum of loop transmittance
products of all possible triplets of non-touching loops) + (……) - (……)
Δ k is the factor associated with the concerned path and involves all closed loop in
the graph which are isolated from the forward path under consideration.
 The time response of a control system is divided into two parts namely, transient
and steady state response.
 Time Response of Second Order Control System
 Based on roots of characteristic equation, following can be highlighted.

The real part of the roots denotes the damping
Imaginary part denotes the damped frequency of oscillation
Sustained oscillations are observed if the roots are lying on imaginary axis (jw
axis).
As damping increases, system becomes less oscillatory and more sluggish.

 Transfer Function of Second Order Control System
 Rise Time
In order to derive the expression for the rise time we have to equate the expression
for c(t) = 1. From the above we have
 Peak Time
On differentiating the expression of c(t) we can obtain the expression for peak
time. dc(t)/ dt = 0 we have expression for peak time,
Maximum overshoot
The maximum overshoot will occur at peak time tp hence on putting the valye of
peak time we will get maximum overshoot as

 Settling Time : Settling time is given by the expression
 Steady state error
The steady state error is difference between the actual output and the desired
output hence at time tending to infinity the steady state error is zero.
 The type indicates the number of poles at the origin and the order indicates the
total number of poles.
The type of the system determines steady state response and the order of the
system determines transient response.
 Static Error Co-efficient
There are three static error co-efficient
Position error constant - Kp

Velocity error constant - Kv
Acceleration error constant - Ka

 Any system is said to be a stable system, if the output of the system is bounded for
a bounded input (stability in BIBO sense) and also in the absence of the input,
output should tend to zero (asymptotic stability).
 Stability of any system depends only on the location of poles but not on the
location of zeros.
If the poles are located in left side of s-plane, then the system is stable.
If any of the poles is located in right half of s-plane, then the system is unstable.
If the repeated roots are located on imaginary axis including the origin, the system
is unstable.
When non-repeated roots are located on imaginary axis, then the system is
marginally stable.
As a pole approaches origin, stability decreases.
The pole which is closest to the origin is called dominant pole.
 Routh-Hurwitz Criterion
The Routh-Hurwitz criterion represents a method of determining the location of
poles of polynomial with constant real coefficient with respect to the left half and
the right half of the splane.
 Effect of adding Poles and Zeroes in Root Locus
1.Effect of adding poles on the shape of root locus

The complex part of root locus has tendency to shift towards right side.
The range of K for which system is stable decreases that is system becomes
relatively less stable.
The addition of is some what equivalent to applying integral control to system.
2.Effect of adding zero on the shape of root locus

Complex part of root locus has a tendency to shift towards left side
The range of K for which system is stable, increases that is system becomes
relatively more stable.
Adding zero is somewhat equivalent to applying derivative control.

 Gain Margin and Phase Margin
 Gain Crossover Frequency & Phase Crossover Frequency
 Stability Conditions of Bode Plots
Stable System: 1.Gain cross over frequency < phase cross-over frequency
2.G.M. and P.M. both are positive
b.Unstable systems: 1.Gain cross over frequency> phase cross-over frequency

2.G.M. and P.M. both are negative
c.Marginally stable systems: 1.Gain cross over frequency = Phase cross-over

frequency.2.G.M. and P.M. both are zero
 Nyquist stability criterion

Nyquist Stability Criteria is based on Cauchy’s Principle of Argument. It implies
that encirclement of (- 1 + j0) point must be equal to number of right half plane
poles (open loop) in anticlockwise direction
N=Z-P
N =Number of encirclement of (- 1 +j0) point in clockwise direction.
Z =Number of closed loop poise on the right half of S-plane.
P =Number of poles (open pole) on the right half of S-plane.
 For system to be stable Z must be zero i.e. N = - P.

Case 1:- N = 0 (no encirclement), so Z = P = 0 & Z = P. If N = 0, P must be zero
therefore system is stable.
Case 2:- N > 0 (clockwise encirclement), so P = 0 , Z ≠0 & Z > P .For both cases
system is unstable.
Case 3 :- N < 0 (counterclockwise encirclement), so Z = 0, P ≠0 & P > Z .System is
stable.
 Phase Lead Compensator and Phase Lag Compensator
 Phase Lag – Lead Compensator:A compensator having the characteristics of lag –

lead network is called a lag – lead compensator.A lag – lead compensator improves
both transient and steady state response.Bandwidth of the system is increased.
 State Transition Matrix
 Kalman Test for Controllability
 Kalman Test for Observability

Chapter 9 – Communication System
 Modulation is defined as “the process in which some characteristic parameter of a

high frequency carrier is varied linearly with the amplitude of the message signal”.
 Modulator converts (1) low frequency signal to a high frequency signal, (2) a wide
band signal into narrowband signal, (3) a baseband signal into band pass signal
 Need for Modulation

1. To reduce the antenna height.
2. For multiplexing of signals.
3. To reduce noise and interference.
 Typical frequency range for audio and video signals

Voice ----------- 300 – 3.5KHz
Audio ----------- 20Hz – 20KHz
Video ----------- 0 – 4.5 MHz
 Amplitude Modulation (AM)

In A.M. the amplitude of the carrier is varied linearly with the amplitude of
message signal.

 Power Calculations of AM
 An overmodulated signal can’t be demodulated a square law demodulator and

envelope detector.

 DSBSC
To increase the modulation efficiency, the carrier is suppressed and only the
sidebands are transmitted.
Power required to transmit a DSB wave is very less compared to AM, but the
bandwidth is same as AM.
 Single Sideband (SSB) Modulation

In order to reduce the bandwidth and power required to transmit the signal only
one sideband is transmitted (either USB or LSB).

 Quadrature null effect is absent in the case of SSB, which is a major advantage
over DSB
 Vestigial Sideband (VSB) Modulation

This is mainly used for the transmission of video signal. Power required to
transmit a VSB signal is same as SSB (ideal) but BW is more.
B.W = W + fv
 Angle Modulation is defined as the process in which the angle of the carrier (either
frequency or phase) is varied linearly according to the message signal and is called
respectively FM and PM.
 Phase Modulation: Changing the phase according to the message signal is called
Phase Modulation.
 The total power is independent of modulation index. AM takes more power

compared to FM for the same message and carrier.

 Generation of WBFM signal

1. Direct Method
2. Indirect Method (or) Armstrong Method
Direct Method: A voltage controlled oscillator is used to generate FM signal.

Indirect Method: In this method, NBFM signal is converted into WBFM signal.
 Image Frequency: fsi=fs+2IF

 Image section can be suppressed using a tuned circuit. Image frequency should be
removed before the mixer stage.
 Sampling Theorem: It states that “if the highest frequency in the signal spectrum is
B, the signal can be reconstructed from its samples, taken at a rate not less than 2B
samples per second”.

 Figure of Merit
 Pulse Digital Communications: There are four types of pulse digital communication
techniques. 1.PCM 2. DPCM 3. DM 4. ADM

 DPCM (Differential Pulse Code Modulation):

In place of sampled value, the difference between present sample and its predicted
value is sent.So compare to PCM, for same SNR, BW of the system can be reduced
or for same BW SNR can be improved.
 Delta Modulation (DM):

The message is sampled at very high frequency compared to NR. Here the
difference between present and previous sample is found and sent in the form of
only one bit. In DM system, bit rate is equal to sampling rate.
Slope overload error slope overload error occurs when the step size is very low.
Granular Noise: It occurs when the step size is high.
 Adaptive Delta Modulation (ADM): ADM involves additional hardware designed

to provide variable step size, thereby reducing slope-overload effects without
increasing the granular noise.
 Bandwidth required for ASK = PSK < FSK

ASK and FSK can be demodulated non-coherently but not PSK
Advantage of DPSK over PSK is, DPSK can be non-coherently demodulated.
 Matched filter impulse response : h (t) = s(T - t)

 Probability of Error
So, PSK is preferred compared to ASK and FSK because it has less Pe.

Chapter 10 – Microwave Engineeering

 Microwaves refer to the electromagnetic rays with frequencies between 300MHz
and 300GHz in the electromagnetic spectrum
Microwave Bands

Cavity Resonator
A microwave cavity or radio frequency (RF) cavity is a special type of resonator,
consisting of a closed (or largely closed) metal structure that confines electromagnetic
fields in the microwave region of the spectrum
Resonant Frequency of Rectangular Cavity Resonator
where is the wavenumber, with , , being the mode numbers and , , being the
corresponding dimensions; c is the speed of light in vacuum; and and are relative
permeability and permittivity of the cavity filling respectively.
Note: The dominant mode is TE101 for a>b<d

TEmn0 ,TM00p modes does not exist inside the resonator
Cylindrical cavity resonator
Resonant Frequency of Cylindrical Cavity Resonator
The resonance frequencies are different for TE and TM modes.
TE modes
TM modes
Here, denotes the -th zero of the -th Bessel function, and denotes the -th
zero of the derivative of the -th Bessel function.

Note: 1.TM110 is the dominant mode if 2 a >d and TE111 is dominant when d>2a
2. TEn0q ,TMn0q modes does not exist inside the resonator
Quality Factor
Quality factor is measure of frequency selectivity of a resonant and anti-resonant circuit
S Parameter matrix
S Parameters and their Meanings

1.E-Type Tee (Series tee) Junction
E-plane tee is a waveguide tee in which axis of side arm is parallel to the E field of main
waveguide
For E plane Tee : S13 = - S23
S Matrix of E-Type Tee Junction
2.H-type Tee Junction
An H-plane tee is a waveguide tee in which the axis of the side arm is shunting the E-field
or parallel to H field of the main waveguide.
For H plane Tee : S13 = S23
3.Magic Tee waveguide junction: The magic Tee waveguide junction is effectively a
combination of the E-type and H-type waveguide junctions. Commonly used in Radar
Communication and SSB receiver
S Matrix of Magic Tee Junction
S Matrix of Hybrid Ring Junction

S Matrix of Direction Coupler
S Matrix of Circulator
Isolators
Circulators and isolators, both are non-reciprocal transmission devices that use the
property of Faraday rotation in the ferrite material. Ferrite is a family of MeO.Fe203
where Me is a divalent iron metal.
Isolator is used to isolate one component from reflections of other components in

transmission line
Transferred Electron Devices [TED]
 TED’s are semiconductor devices with no junctions and gates.

 They are fabricated from compound semiconductors like GaAs, InP, CdTe etc.
 TED’s operate with hot electrons whose energy is much greater than the thermal
energy.
Gunn diode is used as local oscillator covering the microwave frequency range of 1 to
100GHz. By means of the transferred electron mechanism, Gunn Diode has the negative
resistance characteristic
Advantages of Gunn Diode
1.Low noise
2.High frequency operation
3.Medium RF Power

Ridley – Watkins – Hilsum (RWH) Theory
Two concepts related with RWH Theory.

1.Differential negative resistance
2.Two valley model
1.Differential negative resistance

 Fundamental concept of RWH Theory.
 Developed in bulk solid state III-V compound when a voltage is applied
 Differential negative resistance make the sample electrically unstable.
 Drift velocity of electrons decrease when electric field excess certain value
2.Two valley model
 The energy difference between two valleys must be several times larger than the
thermal energy (KT~0.0259eV)
 The energy difference between the valleys must be smaller than the bandgap
energy (Eg)
 Electron in lower valley must have a higher mobility and smaller effective mass
than that of in upper valley
Gunn Diode Modes of Operation
1.Gunn Oscillation Mode

 (f x L) = 107 cm/s and (n x L) > 1012 /cm2
 Cyclic formation of High field domain
 Frequency of oscillation = vdom/Leff
There are three domain modes for Gunn oscillation modes.

a. Transit time domain mode - (Gunn mode)
Efficiency below 10%
b. Delayed domain mode
Also called Inhibited mode

Efficiency: 20%

c.Quenched domain mode
If bias field drops below Es, domain collapses before it reaches anode. The domain can
be quenched before it is collected
Efficiency : 13%
2.Stable Amplification Mode

(f x L) = 107 cm/s and 1011/cm2 < (n x L) >1012/cm2
3.LSA Oscillation Mode
 Limited Space charge Accumulation Mode (LSA)

 Most Important mode for Gunn oscillator.
 Domain is not allowed to form.
 Efficiency : 20%
4.Bias-circuit Mode
(f x L) is small. L is very small. When E=E th current falls as Gunn oscillation begins, leads
to oscillation in bias circuit (1KHz to 100MHz)
Disadvantages of Conventional Tubes
Conventional tubes cannot work at frequencies greater than 1 GHz due to following
effects
1.Lead inductance
2. Inter-electrode capacitance
3.Transit angle effects
4.Gain–bandwidth product limitations

 Types of Linear Beam Tubes
 Velocity modulation mechanism takes place in Klystron. Klystrons are

resonant structures and hence narrow-band devices
 The problem of frequency tuning of a two-cavity klystron can be solved

using a special klystron structure, called reflex klystron.
 Travelling Wave Tube [TWT] are non-resonant structures and hence

wideband devices. A TWT incorporates a slow-wave structure within it,
through which a wave propagates with a velocity almost equal to that of the
electrons in the beam. As a result, the interaction time between the travelling
RF field and the electrons in TWTs is much larger than that in a klystron
and lasts over the entire length of the circuit.
 TWT mainly consists of slow wave structure to reduce the velocity of

electron beam and to match with that of field in order to improve
interaction
 Crossed field Tubes [M type] :-In crossed field tubes dc magnetic field and dc
electrical field are perpendicular to each other while in linear field tubes they
are parallel to each other.
 In cross field tubes,the dc magnetic field plays a direct role in the RF interaction
process

 Classification of Crossed field tubes
 Magnetron oscillator are generally operated in π mode of operation which is

dominant mode
 Rising Sun Magnetron:A multicavity magnetron in which resonators having two

different resonant frequencies are arranged alternately for the purpose of mode
separation; the cavities appear as alternating long and short radial slots around the
perimeter of the anode structure, resembling the rays of the sun.
 Microwave Measurements
Bolometer: Low power measurement

VSWR meter : Reflection coefficient ,SWR measurement, wavelength and
frequency measurement
Wavemeter : Frequency Measurement

Chapter 11 – Computer Engineering
 RAM is volatile, i.e. data stored in it is lost when we switch off the computer or if
there is a power failure.
 ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The memory from which we can only read but
cannot write on it. This type of memory is non-volatile. The information is stored
permanently in such memories during manufacture.
 ROM, stores such instructions that are required to start a computer. This operation
is referred to as bootstrap.
 Types of ROM
1.MROM (Masked ROM)

2.PROM (Programmable Read only Memory)
3.EPROM(Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)
4.EEPROM(Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)
 RAM is of two types

1.Static RAM (SRAM)
2.Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
 Transistors do not require power to prevent leakage, so SRAM need not have to
be refreshed on a regular basis. DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually
refreshed in order to maintain the data

 Because of the extra space in the matrix, SRAM uses more chips than DRAM for
the same amount of storage space, thus making the manufacturing costs higher. So
SRAM is used as cache memory and has very fast access.
 Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can speed up
CPU. It acts as a buffer between the CPU and main memory.Cache memory is faster
than main memory.It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.
 Operating System (or shortly OS) primarily provides services for running
applications on a computer system.
 Assembler:A program which translates an assembly language program into a

machine language program is called an assembler.
If an assembler which runs on a computer and produces the machine codes for the
same computer then it is called self assembler or resident assembler.
If an assembler that runs on a computer and produces the machine codes for other
computer then it is called Cross Assembler.
 Compiler :It is a program which translates a high level language program into a
machine language program. A compiler is more intelligent than an assembler.
 An interpreter is a program which translates statements of a program into

machine code. It translates only one statement of the program at a time
 Loader:Loader is a program that loads machine codes of a program into the

system memory
 Data section stores global and static variables, allocated and initialized prior to
executing main.
 Heap is used for dynamic memory allocation, and is managed via calls to new,
delete, malloc, free, etc.
 Stack is used for local variables. Space on the stack is reserved for local variables
when they are declared ( at function entrance or elsewhere, depending on the
language ), and the space is freed up when the variables go out of scope.

 Thread is a basic unit of CPU utilization, consisting of a program counter, a stack,

and a set of registers,
 Preemptive Scheduling
Tasks are usually assigned with priorities. At times it is necessary to run a certain
task that has a higher priority before another task although it is running.
Therefore, the running task is interrupted for some time and resumed later when
the priority task has finished its execution. This is called preemptive scheduling.
 Non-Preemptive scheduling
When a process enters the state of running, the state of that process is not deleted
from the scheduler until it finishes its service time.
 Deadlock
In an operating system, a deadlock is a situation which occurs when a process or

thread enters a waiting state because a resource requested is being held by
another waiting process, which in turn is waiting for another resource held by
another waiting process
 Four conditions that are necessary to achieve deadlock
1.Mutual Exclusion
2.Hold and Wait
3.No preemption
4.Circular Wait
 RAID originally stood for Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks, The general idea
behind RAID is to employ a group of hard drives together with some form of
duplication, either to increase reliability or to speed up operations.
 Direct Memory Access

For devices that transfer large quantities of data ( such as disk controllers ), it is
wasteful to tie up the CPU transferring data in and out of registers one byte at a
time.Instead this work can be off-loaded to a special processor, known as the
Direct Memory Access, DMA, Controller. The DMA controller handles the data
transfer, and then interrupts the CPU when the transfer is complete.

 Fragmentation
As processes are loaded and removed from memory, the free memory space is
broken into little pieces. It happens after sometimes that processes can not be
allocated to memory blocks considering their small size and memory blocks
remains unused. This problem is known as Fragmentation.
 Paging
External fragmentation is avoided by using paging technique. Paging is a technique
in which physical memory is broken into blocks of the same size called pages (size
is power of 2, between 512 bytes and 8192 bytes). When a process is to be
executed, it's corresponding pages are loaded into any available memory frames
 Paging Features
Transparent to programmer (system allocates memory)
No separate protection
No separate compiling
No shared code
 Segmentation
Segmentation is a technique to break memory into logical pieces where each piece
represents a group of related information. Unlike paging, segment are having
varying sizes and thus eliminates internal fragmentation
 Segmentation Features
Involves programmer (allocates memory to specific function inside code)
Separate compiling
Separate protection
Shared code
 Virtual memory is a technique that allows the execution of processes which are
not completely available in memory. The main visible advantage of this scheme is
that programs can be larger than physical memory. Virtual memory is the
separation of user logical memory from physical memory
 Virtual memory is commonly implemented by demand paging. It can also be

implemented in a segmentation system. Demand segmentation can also be used to
provide virtual memory.

 LRU Page Replacement
The prediction behind LRU, the Least Recently Used, algorithm is that the page that
has not been used in the longest time is the one that will not be used again in the
near future
 Least frequently Used (LFU) algorithm
Page with the smallest count is the one which will be selected for replacement.
 Classification Data Structures
A.Linear Data Structures : A data structure is said to be linear if its elements form
a sequence or a linear list. Eg:Arrays, linked lists, stacks, and queues
B.Hierarchical Data Structures: Non linear data structure are called Hierarchical
Data Structures. Eg: Trees, graphs, heaps etc.
 Methods of traversing a tree
Inorder Traversal – (Left Sub Tree, Root, Right Sub Tree)

Preorder Traversal –(Root , Left Sub Tree, Right Sub Tree)
Postorder Traversal - (Left Sub Tree, Right Sub Tree, Root)
 A spanning tree of a graph is just a subgraph that contains all the vertices and is a
tree. A graph may have many spanning trees; for instance the complete graph on
four vertices .
 Sorting Algorithms
Sort Average Best Worst Space Stability Remarks
Always use a
Bubble
O(n^2) O(n^2) O(n^2) Constant Stable modified bubble
sort
sort
Modified Stops after

Bubble O(n^2) O(n) O(n^2) Constant Stable reaching a sorted
sort array
Even a perfectly
Selection sorted input
O(n^2) O(n^2) O(n^2) Constant Stable
Sort requires scanning
the entire array

In the best case

(already sorted),
Insertion
O(n^2) O(n) O(n^2) Constant Stable every insert
Sort
requires constant
time
By using input
array as storage for
Heap Sort O(n*log(n)) O(n*log(n)) O(n*log(n)) Constant Instable the heap, it is
possible to achieve
constant space
On arrays, merge
sort requires O(n)
Merge space; on linked
O(n*log(n)) O(n*log(n)) O(n*log(n)) Depends Stable
Sort lists, merge sort
requires constant
space
Randomly picking a
pivot value (or
shuffling the array
prior to sorting)
Quicksort O(n*log(n)) O(n*log(n)) O(n^2) Constant Stable can help avoid
worst case
scenarios such as a
perfectly sorted
array.

Chapter 12 – Power Electronics
 The thyristor or silicon controlled rectifier, SCR is a device that is widely used for
controlling or switching power and often high voltage AC or DC circuits.
 The thyristor has three basic states:
Reverse blocking: In this mode or state the thyristor blocks the current in the
same way as that of a reverse biased diode.
Forward blocking: In this mode or state the thyristor operation is such that it
blocks forward current conduction that would normally be carried by a forward
biased diode.
Forward conducting: In this mode the thyristor has been triggered into
conduction. It will remain conducting until the forward current drops below a
threshold value known as the "holding current."
 Turning off thyristor : Once the thyristor has self-latched into its “ON” state and
passing a current, it can only be turned “OFF” again by either removing the supply
voltage and therefore the Anode (I A ) current completely, or by reducing its Anode
to Cathode current by some external means (the opening of a switch for example)
to below a value commonly called the “minimum holding current”, I H .
 For a thyristor to conduct in the first place, its Anode current, which is also its load
current, I L must be greater than its holding current value. That is I L > I H .
 The DIAC is a full-wave or bi-directional semiconductor switch that can be turned

on in both forward and reverse polarities. The DIAC gains its name from the
contraction of the words DI ode A lternating C urrent. The DIAC is widely used to
assist even triggering of a TRIAC when used in AC switches. DIACs are mainly used
in dimmer applications and also in starter circuits for florescent lamps.
 The DIAC is essentially a diode that conducts after a 'break-over' voltage,

designated VBO, is exceeded. When the device exceeds this break-over voltage, it
enters the region of negative dynamic resistance.
 Holding Current: The diode remains in its conduction state until the current through it
drops below what is termed the holding current.Below the holding current, the DIAC
reverts to its high-resistance (non-conducting) state.
 TRIAC is a three terminal semiconductor device for controlling current. It gains its
name from the term TRI ode for A lternating C urrent. It is effectively a development of

the SCR or thyristor, but unlike the thyristor which is only able to conduct in one
direction, the TRIAC is a bidirectional device.
 Unijunction Transistor has the name of a transistor, its switching characteristics are
very different from those of a conventional bipolar or field effect transistor as it can
not be used to amplify a signal but instead is used as a ON-OFF switching
transistor.UJT’s have unidirectional conductivity and negative impedance
characteristics acting more like a variable voltage divider during breakdown.
 Unijunction Transistor R B1 Voltage
 For a unijunction transistor, the resistive ratio of R B1 to R BB shown above is called

the intrinsic stand-off ratio and is given the Greek symbol: η (eta).
 The most common application of a unijunction transistor is as a triggering device

for SCR’s and Triacs but other UJT applications include sawtoothed generators,
simple oscillators, phase control, and timing circuits. The simplest of all UJT
circuits is the Relaxation Oscillator producing non-sinusoidal waveforms.
 Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor also called an IGBT for short, is something of a
cross between a conventional Bipolar Junction Transistor , (BJT) and a Field Effect
Transistor , (MOSFET) making it ideal as a semiconductor switching device.
 The main advantages of using the Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor over other
types of transistor devices are its high voltage capability, low ON-resistance,
ease of drive, relatively fast switching speeds and combined with zero gate
drive current makes it a good choice for moderate speed, high voltage
applications such as in pulse-width modulated (PWM), variable speed control,
switch-mode power supplies or solar powered DC-AC inverter and frequency
converter applications operating in the hundreds of kilohertz range.
 Chopper is a basically static power electronics device which converts fixed dc

voltage / power to variable dc voltage or power. It is nothing but a high speed
switch which connects and disconnects the load from source at a high rate to get
variable or chopped voltage at the output
 Devices used in Chopper

Low power application : GTO, IGBT, Power BJT, Power MOSFET etc.
High power application : Thyristor or SCR.

Chapter 13 :Electronic Measurement and Instruments
 Set of criteria defined for the measurements, which are used to measure the
quantities,which are slowly varying with time or almost constant, i,e do not vary
with time, are called static characteristics
 When the quantity under measurement changes rapidly with time, the relation
existing between input and output are generally expressed with the help of
differential equations and are called dynamic characteristics
 Accuracy: It is the degree of closeness with which the instrument reading

approaches the true value of the quantity.
 Static error: It is the difference between the measured value and true value of the
quantity
 Sensitivity denotes the smallest change in the measured variable to which the
instrument responds.

 Types of Errors
o Gross errors –human error
o Systematic errors –instrument error
o Random errors
 Analog instruments are classified as

a) Indicating b) Recording c) Integrating Instruments.
 Methods to produce damping torque.

Air friction damping
Fluid friction damping
Eddy current damping
 DC Voltmeter
The ratio of full range DC voltage that is to be measured, V and the DC voltage drop
across the galvanometer, Vm is known as multiplying factor , m.
Value of series multiplier resistance Rse is given by
 DC Ammeter
Value of Shunt resistance Rsh is
 Measurement of Voltage and Current

1. Analog Ammeter and Voltmeters
2. Moving coil instruments
(i) Permanent magnet type [PMMC ] – DC only,Eddy current damping ,θ∝I –
linear relationship
(ii) Dynamometer type - θ∝I1I2
3. Moving iron instruments –AC and DC , θ∝I2 – square law response ,
4. Electrostatic Instruments - θ∝V2
5. Rectifier instruments
6. Induction instruments
7. Thermal instruments -θ∝I2
(i) Hot - wire type
(ii) Thermocouple type
(iii) Bolometer

 Wheatstone’s Bridge - Measurement of Unkown Resistance
The bridge will be balanced when
 Maxwell's Bridge -Measurement of Unkown Inductance & Resistance

 Hay’s Bridge - Measurement of Unkown Inductance & Resistance
 Schering Bridge -Measurement of Unkown Capacitance & Resistance
 Wien’s Bridge –Measurement of frequency
 Desauty bridge ,Schering Bridge – Measurement of Unkown Capacitance
 Transducer converts one form of energy into another form of energy. The
transducer, which converts non-electrical form of energy into electrical form of
energy is known as electrical transducer .
 Active transducer is a transducer, which converts the non-electrical quantity into

an electrical quantity.It is also called self-generating transducer, since it doesn’t
require any external power supply.
 Examples of active transducers.
Piezo Electric Transducer

Photo Electric Transducer
Thermo Electric Transducer
 An active transducer is said to be piezo electric transducer , when it produces an

electrical quantity which is equivalent to the pressure input. The following three
substances exhibit piezo electric effect.
1. Quartz
2. Rochelle salts
3. Tourmaline
 Photo Electric Transducer

An active transducer is said to be photo electric transducer, when it produces an
electrical quantity which is equivalent to the illumination of light input.
 Thermo Electric Transducer

An active transducer is said to be thermo electric transducer , when it produces
an electrical quantity which is equivalent to temperature input. The following two
transducers are the examples of thermo electric transducers.
1.Thermistor Transducer

2.Thermocouple Transducer
 Thermistor Transducer
The resistor, which depends on temperature is called thermal resistor. In short, it
is called Thermistor . The temperature coefficient of thermistor is negative. That
means, as temperature increases, the resistance of thermistor decreases.
The advantage of Thermistor transducer is that it will produce a fast and stable
response.
 Thermocouple Transducer
Thermocouple transducer produces an output voltage for a corresponding change
of temperature at the input. If two wires of different metals are joined together in
order to create two junctions, then that entire configuration is called
Thermocouple .That means, thermocouple generates an emf, whenever there is a
temperature difference between the two junctions.
 Passive Transducers
The transducer, which can’t produce the electrical quantities such as voltage and
current is known as passive transducer . But, it produces the variation in one of
passive elements like resistor (R), inductor (L) and capacitor (C). Passive
transducer requires external power supply.
 Examples of passive transducers.
Resistive Transducer
Inductive Transducer
Capacitive Transducer
 Oscilloscope is an electronic equipment, which displays a voltage waveform.

Among the oscilloscopes, Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) is the basic one and it
displays a time varying signal or waveform.
 Measurements by using CRO
Measurement of Amplitude
Measurement of Time Period
Measurement of Frequency
 Lissajous Figures
Lissajous figure is the pattern which is displayed on the screen, when sinusoidal
signals are applied to both horizontal & vertical deflection plates of CRO. These
patterns will vary based on the amplitudes, frequencies and phase differences of
the sinusoidal signals, which are applied to both horizontal & vertical deflection
plates of CRO.

 If the Lissajous figure is a straight line with an inclination of 45 with positive x-

axis, then the phase difference between the two sinusoidal signals will be 0∘. That
means, there is no phase difference between those two sinusoidal signals.
 If the Lissajous figure is a straight line with an inclination of 135∘ with positive x-
axis, then the phase difference between the two sinusoidal signals will
be 180∘ That means, those two sinusoidal signals are out of phase.
 If the Lissajous figure is in circular shape , then the phase difference between the
two sinusoidal signals will be 90∘ or 270∘.
 Types of CRO Probes
Passive Probes
Active Probes
 Measurement of Displacement – LVDT [Linear Variable Differential

Transformer]

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ExamKart Last Day Revision Guide Mail :examkartindia@gmail.

Last Day Revision Guide

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Many have Joined ,What are you waiting

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Chapter 1 – Material & Components

 Types of Crystal lattice

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 Types of Crystal Structure

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 Classification of Magnetic Materials

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 Curie temperature ( T c ), or Curie point : is the temperature where a material's

 Curie's law for a paramagnetic material for T >Tc

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 For Antiferromagnetic magnetic materials we use Neel temperature which is

 Below Neel Temperature - Antiferromagnetic

 Superconductivity is a phenomenon of exactly zero electrical resistance and

2. Meissner-Ochsenfeld Effect (B = 0 inside the superconductor) : The magnetic

 Type I superconductors are sometimes called "soft" superconductors while the

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The dielectric Loss is given by

 Ferroelectricity is the property of certain nonconducting crystals, or dielectrics,

 The group of dielectric materials called ferroelectrics exhibit spontaneous

 Ferroelectric Curie Temperature:In most ferroelectric crystals, this non

 Rochelle salt,Barium Titanate [BaTiO3] are examples of Ferroelectric Materials

is known as electronic polarizability

 Types of Dielectric Polarization

 The Clausius-Mossotti equation gives relationship between the electronic

where is known as electronic polarizability,N is Avogadro's number,

Electricity, or electric polarity, resulting from the application of mechanical

 The phenomenon of generation of a voltage under mechanical stress is referred to

This is a mechanical deformation which always accompanies polarization in a

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Chapter 2 – Physical Electronics, Electronics Devices and ICs

 The atom is composed of a positively charged nucleus surrounded by negatively

 [Imp] Atomic No (Z) : is equal to no of protons

 Covalent bond: is formed by the sharing of electrons between neighboring

 Electron Volt (eV): unit of work or energy, is defined as follows:

Kinetic energy (K.E) =(mv2)/2 .

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 [Imp] Thermal Voltage (VT ) : VT = kT/q where k =Boltzman constant ,q is

 Atomic concentration (n) : n=( A0 d/A) where A= atomic weight,

 Energy Band Theory Concepts of metals ,semiconductor and insulator

 [Imp] Insulator is a negative temperature coefficient of resistance . Ionic bonding

 Metal :An excellent conductor of electricity,Energy Band gap is zero (Eg=0).

 [Imp] Metal is a positive temperature coefficient of resistance .

 Semiconductor : A substance whose conductivity lies between these insulator and

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 [Imp]For Si 1.) At 0K , Eg =0.785 .

i.e Eg is inversely proportional to Temperature

Where n = magnitude of free electron (negative) concentration, p =

 Resistivity( ρ) is inversely proportional to the conductivity and is given by ρ=1/σ = 1/(

 Intrinsic concentration (ni ): For a pure (called intrinsic) semiconductor

Where A0 = material constant. T = temperature in degree Kelvin, E G0 = energy

The intrinsic concentration (ni) varies with temperature in accordance with

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 Fermi Level f(E): The probability of occupation f(E) of an energy level E by

 Electron concentration (n) is proportional to f(E):

 Hole concentration (p) is proportional to f(E)

 [Imp] For Intrinsic Semiconductor: Fermi level in intrinsic semiconductor

[Imp] Fermi Level (EF) in an Intrinsic Semiconductor lies in the center of

[Imp] Fermi level (EF) in a semiconductor having impurities i.e extrinsic