TEXTILE TESTING

AND
QUALITY MANAGEMENT

SHIVANGI
BHARGAVA
PG 3
TOPICS COVERED

1 – 3 Quality and Standards -

• Importance of quality and standards

• Quality parameters for fiber - natural and man made

• Quality for yarn and fabric

4 _ 9 Fabric testing -

• Fabric testing and its importance.

• Various textile resting methods for physical properties of fabric – tensile

strength, tearing strength, crease recovery, air permeability, abrasion
resistance, pilling, drape, stiffness, dimensional stability.

• Various textile testing methods for chemical properties of fabrics- colour

fastness to washing, rubbing, perspiration, light and water repellency.

• Fabric defects and quality standards ( IS, BIS, ASTM).

10 _ 12 Garment defects and quality control -

• Garment quality parameters.

• Garment defects during various stages of production and measures for

quality.

13 _ 15 Statistical quality control in Textile industry -

• Statistical quality control method for textiles.

• Quality control charts and acceptance sampling

• AQL and quality assurance

• ISO 9000
1 . Quality and Standards

WHAT ARE QUALITY AND STANDARDS OF TEXTILE?

Textile is the one of the major sector of Indian Industries, the scope of which is
increasing day by day. Textile has grown up to the peak of the consumer needs
which requires the assuredly, quality & sustainable characteristics to further meet
the competency in the market. In todays highly complex and changing
consumer marketplace, those in the soft-lines and textile industry, including
manufacturers, brands and retailers, need to be sure that the products they
deliver to market meet consumer expectations along with the required safety,
regulatory and government standards globally. Textile testing is the part of it,
which make the consumer sure in the respect of good quality, about the
products sold in the market. Good quality can be achieved either by meeting
the standard norms as devised by the buyer or passing the complete
parameters for further shipping out the goods to the end user.
Technical Parameters

These include the several testing parameters like performance, physical testing,
color fastness related tests etc; the details of which are given below:

• Technical outerwear testing including air permeability analysis, Hydrostatic

Head & antibacterial testing.

• Flammability testing for general wearing apparel, children's sleepwear

and home furnishings (rugs, carpets, blankets, mattress pads) including
NFPA (National Fire Protection Agency) 701 TM1, applies to single layer
fabrics & to multilayer curtain & drapery assemblies

• Toxicology testing for formaldehyde, lead content, carcinogenic dyes,

AZO dyes, nickel free & phthalates etc.

• Care label verification and development to demonstrate compliance

with the requirements of the Federal Trade Commission.

• Colourfastness testing for washing, crocking, light fastness, perspiration,

water, saliva, etc.

• Detailed fabric and garment construction analysis including fabric weight,

thread count, and yarn size

• Fibre composition and identification on specialty fibers such as modal

• Mechanical safety review on children's clothing to verify the product

meets the Consumer Product Safety Commission regulations for small
parts, sharp edges, sharp points, draw cords etc.

• Physical testing including tensile strength, tear strength, abrasion, pilling,

bursting strength etc.

• Trim testing for buttons, zippers, snaps, elastics, metal hardware, etc.

• Footwear & PPE (Personal Protective Equipment) testing for industry safety
gloves, industrial safety footwear & protective clothing etc.

• In addition to this, the third party labs also issue "Laboratory Summary
Information for Certificate of Compliance" helps the importer for issuing
 "General Certificate of Conformity (GCC)" & assure the products meets
CPSIA regulations & help in building the trust in US buyers.

Quality parameters for fiber – natural and man made

Quality for yarn :

WHAT IS YARN : Yarn a generic term for a continuous strand of textile fibers,
filaments, or material in a form suitable for knitting, weaving, or otherwise
intertwining to form a textile fabric. Yarn occurs in the following forms: (1) a
number of fibers twisted together (spun yarn); (2) a number of filaments laid
together without twist (a zero-twist yarn); (3) a number of filaments laid together
with a degree of twist; (4) a single filament with or without twist (a
monofilament); or (5) a narrow strip of material, such as paper, plastic film, or
metal foil, with or without twist, intended for use in a textile construction.

Parameters of Yarn are Mentioned below:

Yarn Appearance
1. Nep: A tightly tangled mass of unorganised fibre
2. Slub: An abruptly thickened place of yarn
3. Thick place: A yarn defect where the diameter is greater than the
adjoining segments and extending for 6 mm
4. Thin Place: A yarn segment where the diameter is 25% lesser than the
average diameter of yarn
5. Fuzz: Untangled fibers that protrude from the surface of the yarn
6. Bunch: A yarn segment not over 6 mm in length that shows abrupt
increase in diameter caused by more fibers matted in this particular place
7. Method: Yarn wound on hylam black boards wound for fixed wraps per
inch as per count compared with standard reference boards.

Grades: Above ‘A’ to below ‘D’ - The imperfections increase from Grade ‘A’and
the maximum in grade ‘D’. Average index of five boards of five graders.

Yarn Evenness :
Unevenness: Variation in the linear density of a continuous strand or of a portion
of as trand.
Apparatus: Uster–Evenness Tester
Principle: Difference in the capacitance variation. Lower the Count lower the
Imperfections. One km of yarn is run through two capacitance plated at
specific speed (fixed as per the count). The capacitance variation is integrated
and expressed as % unevenness (U%). The imperfections are counted and are
reported per kilometre.
Linear Density of Yarn :
Expression of the fineness of yarn
A number indicating the mass per unit Length or the length per unit mass of Yarn
Direct system: Denier, Tex (Weight Of Unit Length)
Indirect System (Units of Lengths) per (Units of weights)

Count Test :
1. Apparatus
Wrap reel
2. Balance
3. 120 yards of yarn / 100 meters of yarn wound in a wrap reel and weighed .
From the weight, the count is calculated.

Single Thread Strength Testing :

Force Required to break a single strand of yarn of unit length
Apparatus - Single thread Strength Tester
RKM %Elongation

Lea Stength Testing :

Lea Breaking Strength
The Force required to break one lea
Unit –pounds
Count Strength Product
Apparatus –Lea Tester

Principles Of Tensile Testing :

Constant Rate of Loading: The Rate of change of Load is constant – Uster
Dynamite
Constant rate of Traverse: The pulling clamp moves at a constant rate – Lea –
Pendulum tester
Constant rate of Extension: Rate Of change of Specimen length is constant –
Stamata
Twist Testing :
Direction Twist
S –Twist: When Held in vertical position, the spiral confirm in slope to the central
position of the letter ‘S’
Z –Twist: When Held in vertical position, the spiral confirm in slope to the central
position of the letter ‘Z’

No of Turns (Twists) per Unit length

Single Twist
Double Twist
Twist Multiplier
Apparatus:
Twist Tester
Direct Method
Indirect Method
Quality for fabric :

As a garment importer touring your supplier’s factory, you likely have one thing
on your mind: the anticipation of customer satisfaction as they buy an item from
your product line.

But there’s a problem.

The “quality” fabric from your supplier doesn’t meet your standards. In fact, it
has a lot of problems. Fabric inspection reveals countless defects ranging from
drop stitches to color shading variation.

The scale of defects makes it clear the garment manufacturer will have to cut
around the issues to use the fabric, wasting material in the process.

The 4-point system is the industry standard for evaluating fabric quality in the
inspection industry. This system assigns penalty points to a roll of fabric according
to defect size, quality and significance.

But you must understand the different types of fabric defects to look for before
you can use the 4-point system. Read on or click the links below to jump to
different sections to learn more about each of these fabric defects.

• Horizontal lines • Holes

• Shade variation • Defective selvage

• Dirt/stains • Snags

• Uneven dyeing • Thick place/thin place

• Drop stitches • Bowing and skewing

• Misprinting • Needle lines

• Crease marks • Coarse pick

• Barre • Coarse end

• Neps/knots • Broken pick

• Abrasion marks • Broken end

• Splicing • Missing end

• Filling bar
1. Horizontal lines

This fabric defect is defined by irregular lines that run from side to side. Horizontal
lines are generally caused by:

• Faults in the bobbin (the barrel used to hold yarn in place)

• Irregular thread tension

Causes and prevention of horizontal lines

Preventing the appearance of horizontal lines in fabric is quite

straightforward. Regularly replace the bobbin and frequently check thread

tension and positioning.

2. Shade variation

One of the more obvious visual defects that can be found on raw textiles, shade
variation is defined by a difference in depth of shade and color from roll to roll
or piece to piece. Shade variation in fabric is caused by:

• Mixing of fabrics used in production

• Variations in the production process with regard to time and

speed

• Improper cutting, bundling and/or numbering

• Unequal fabric stretching

Causes and prevention of shade variation

Using the same base material and set of parameters for each production lot
can effectively prevent shade variation.

When visiting a factory that manufactures raw textiles, it’s critical to ensure
workers are only combining garments of the same color and not taking shortcuts
when cutting and bundling. Properly numbering textile types prevents mistakenly
combining cuts that vary in shade.

3. Dirt/stains

Stains are fairly common among dyed textiles and are defined as spots or
patches of differing color.

Textiles are never truly safe from stains because they can

occur anytime during or after production if they’re not kept

in an area with adequate protection.

Causes and prevention of dirt/stains

• Manufacturer can prevent stains during production by regularly cleaning

production machines and equipment to ensure no random oils, grease or
dyes make their way onto the textile.

• Wrapping the finished rolls of fabric in plastic and storing them in a

separate area away from the dying area can help avoid post-production
stains.

4 Dyeing/printing/dye marks

• Ensuring there are no initial problems with the base fabric prior to stitching
can help prevent dye marks. Any issues missed will be present in later
production processes.

• Other preventative measures include maintaining the correct pH level,

using an appropriate dying agent and using a backup power generator
to ensure production machines don’t shut down during use.
5. Drop stitches

One of the most common quality issues found in raw textiles, drop stitches are
holes or missed stitches that appear randomly in the fabric. Drop stitches are
typically caused by:

5 Causes and prevention of drop stitching

• Checking the yarn carrier and any other machines to verify they’re set to
the right tension during production can prevent drop stitches. You can
minimize the occurrence of drop stitching in your fabric or textile by
regulating the yarn feed rate.

• Resetting the pattern chain can fix this issue

6. Misprinting, off printing or absence of printing

• Misprint defects are only relevant to printed fabrics. Misprint is when the
print of the fabric does not match your specified design. This is usually
displayed in one of the following ways:

• Colors and/or patterns are completely or partially missing

• Colors and patterns are incorrectly positioned relative to each other

Causes and prevention of misprinting

Misprints are most often the result of:

• Wrong dyeing recipe

• Wrong levelling agent

• Incorrect dye combinations in lots

• Improper scouring of grey fabric

• Implementing uniform dyeing, levelling and scouring processes can help

prevent misprinting.
7. Crease marks

• A crease mark is a visible deformation in fabric. A crease mark differs from

a crease streak, as it’s unlikely to appear for an entire roll. Rather, it
appears in just one spot on the fabric.

• If final pressing cannot restore fabric to the original condition, a crease

mark will be left on the final product. Discoloration can also be a problem
associated with this fabric defect.

Causes and prevention of crease mark

Crease marks often happen when fabric passes through squeeze rollers in the
dyeing process. Creasing is inevitable as fabric is fed through machines in rope
form. But if properly handled, crease marks should not be permanent.

Crease marks can be caused by:

Inadequate preparation, relaxation or bulking of fabric

Poor quality of fabric: a tight construction, high twist yarns or dense weight

Poor suitability of machine: not moving folds properly

Incorrect loading of fabric into machine, resulting in twisted or knotted rope

Excessively rapid heating or cooling rates

Along with rectifying these issues, using anti-crease agents during the scouring
process prior to dyeing can help prevent crease marks.

8. Barre

A barre is an unintentional, repetitive visual pattern of continuous bars and

stripes.

Barre will typically appear as a horizontal streak of light or dark bars running the
width of the fabric. The bars must appear in a repetitive pattern to be
considered barre. Barre is typically found parallel to the filling of woven fabric or
to the courses of circular knit fabric. Barre is usually not detected until after the
processing of fabric at the end of production.
Causes and prevention of barre

Barre is a result of physical, optical or dye differences in yarns or geometric

differences in fabric structure. Any combination of these differences can cause
this fabric defect.

Like many fabric defects, it’s easier to prevent barre than to try and rectify it
after production. Consistency in raw material organization and labelling can
help prevent mix-ups leading to barre, as well as continual equipment
maintenance. Following a First In First Out (FIFO) inventory system can help
ensure consistent material flow and usage.

9. Neps/knots

Neps are small, tightly tangled knot-like masses of unorganized fibers that form a
pinhead shape. These knots are usually comprised of dead or immature fibers.

• Neps can be categorized into three types:

• Biological: Found in raw materials, these neps contain foreign material

such as seed coat fragments, leaf or stem materials. The manufacturer
can usually remove them through wet processing.

• Mechanical: Found in ginned lint, card web, yams and cloth, these neps
are largely a result of mechanical processing.

• White speck neps: Generally not visible until dyeing, white speck neps
contain immature clusters of fibers and are considered the most severe
type of neps.

Causes and prevention of neps

Neps are caused when spools of yarn are tied together. This might be a result of:
Accumulation of fly and fluff on machinery
Poor lint cleaning
Poor carding and incomplete removal of neps before processing
To prevent neps and knots, ensure proper maintenance and cleaning of
machinery and roller clearers. Neps can be removed through combing before
processing, so early detection of neps is critical to preventing neps in finished
fabrics.
10. Abrasion marks

An abrasion mark is a discoloured area damaged by friction or rubbing.

Abrasion marks are sometimes also referred to as chafe marks or bruised places.

Causes and prevention of abrasion marks

• Chafing or impact with a hard or rough surface usually causes abrasion

marks. For instance, scratches on the breast beam of the loom might
cause chafing.

• Abrasion resistance is the ability of a fabric to withstand surface wear and

• rubbing. Fibre, yarn and fabric properties and finishing processes are the
main factors that determine abrasion resistance.

• Using fabrics that are more abrasion resistant can help reduce abrasion
marks. Nylon is generally regarded as having the best abrasion resistance,
followed by polyester.

11. Splicing

• Splicing is the overlapping of the cut ends of two pieces of fabric (the end
of one length of fabric and the beginning of another) to ensure
continuous spreading. Splicing is necessary as one roll of fabric finishes
and the next is taken into use.

• But these overlapping ends of fabric produce a waste material in

manufacturing. Splicing losses can vary up to five percent of total fabric
usage. Importers can ensure greater manufacturing efficiency by
minimizing splicing in their fabric.

• Many importers assign four penalty points under the 4-point system for
each splice found during fabric inspection.
Causes and prevention of splicing

• The position of the splice in a roll of fabric often depends on the overall
fabric quality. Splicing is often used to compensate for other fabric
defects, like stains or holes, by removing these from the final roll.

• So improving overall fabric quality and preventing other fabric defects

can often help to minimize splicing losses.

• Setting a maximum length tolerance for splicing in each roll of fabric with
your supplier can help to clarify your expectations (e.g. no more than one
splice every 30 meters). Be sure to consult your supplier on this tolerance
before production to ensure it is achievable.

12. Holes

A hole is an imperfection where one or more yarns are sufficiently damaged to

create an opening in the fabric.

Holes are typically treated as a major defect in the fabric and are assigned
either two or four penalty points during fabric inspection, depending on their
size.

Causes and prevention of hole

• Holes are usually caused by an accidental cut or tear to the fabric.

Broken needles or rough mechanical parts are common culprits for fabric
tearing during manufacturing.

• Prevent future holes by ensuring your supplier has procedures in place to

regularly check needles and machinery prior to production.
13. Defective selvage (cut, waved or creased)

Selvage is the densely woven edge of a piece of fabric. Most often used in
reference to woven fabrics, the selvage is supposed to keep the fabric from
unravelling or fraying.

Selvage can be defective in a number of ways, including cut, waved or

creased. Cut selvage might also be referred to as broken selvage or ripped
selvage.

Causes and prevention of defective selvage

• There are two main culprits for defective selvage:

• An incorrect loom adjustment during weaving

• Improper edge construction

• Correctly adjusting the loom and properly constructing the edges of the
fabric should prevent this defect.

14. Snags

A snag is a part of the yarn that is accidentally pulled or plucked from the
surface. Usually it appears as a large loop of yarn above the surface of the
fabric. In warp knits, the snag occurs in the wale direction. In weft knits, the snag
occurs in the course direction.

Causes and prevention of snag

In the case of continuous filament yarns, snagging is typically caused

by mechanical strain during knitting. Sharp points and objects can cause the
fabric snag at any time. Inspect the fabric contact points on all the processing
machines to identify and fix any sharp points.

Some fabrics are more prone to snagging than others due to their composition.
You can conduct a mace snag test to determine a fabric’s resistance to
snagging. During this test, a miniature mace (a spiked ball) will track randomly
across a fabric sample to predict actual wear and snagging.
15. Thick place/thin place

These are unintentional changes in fabric appearance as compared to

adjacent construction. IF the thick or thin place is more than one inch wide, it is
typically classified as a major defect in fabric inspection.

A thick place will appear as a small area of more closely spaced yarns or by a
congregation of thick yarns. A thin place is the opposite, as the fabric will
appear to have loosely spaced yarns or a congregation of thin yarns.

Causes and prevention of thick place/thin place

Main causes of thick and thin places include:

• Irregular let-off

• Incorrect setting of holding and releasing pawls on the ratchet wheel of

take-up motion

• Gears of take-up motion not meshing properly

• Gear wheel teeth worn out or broken

• Ensuring proper training of factory personnel to set the let-off and/or take-
up motion properly can help prevent this fabric defect.

16. Bowing and skewing

Bowing is a condition in woven textiles where filling yarns are displaced from a
line perpendicular to the selvages and lie in an arc across the width of the
fabric. Bowing appears as rows of courses or yarn-dyed stripes forming a bow
shaped curvature along the fabric width.

Skewing is a similar condition in which filling yarns are angularly displaced from a
line perpendicular to the edge or side of the fabric.

Bowing and skewing affects striped or patterned fabric quality more than for
solid colour fabrics, as the greater contrast in patterns makes the distortion more
prominent.
Causes and prevention of bowing and skewing

• Bowing and skewing can be caused by an uneven distribution of

tension across the fabric width during dyeing or finishing processes.
Improper stretching during scouring, dyeing or finishing might also cause
bowing or skewing.

• Correcting the tension settings on processing machines should rectify

these defects. You can also ask your supplier to fix bowing and skewing
found during fabric inspection by reprocessing the fabric through a
compactor or straightening machine.

17. Needle lines

Needle lines appear in weft knit fabrics, and appear as prominent vertical
streaks or lines in the fabric.

Causes and prevention of needle lines

Defective needles are a direct cause for needle lines. Needle latches, hooks or
stems might be:

• Mixed

• New

• Dirty or contaminated with lint

• Bent

• Worn

If needle lines occur individually, you’ll likely only need to trace the needle line
to the associated defective needle and replace it to prevent further needle
lines. If needle lines appear in a band, you’ll likely need to replace multiple
defective needles.

An improper dial or cylinder condition with the machine might also cause
needle lines. Verify that your supplier has established and maintained proper
maintenance and cleaning policies to prevent future issues with needles and
equipment.
18. Coarse pick

A coarse pick is where the filling yarn used in the fabric is unusually large in
diameter. This defect is also known as coarse filling or thick filling.

Coarse pick is usually classified as a major defect during fabric inspection.

Causes and prevention of coarse pick

Probable causes for coarse pick include:

• Lashing of broken end with adjoining end at roving frame

• Disturbed weight of back-top rollers at roving frame and ring frame cause
the material to slip under the back-top roller and crease a coarse yarn

19. Coarse end

Coarse end appears in fabric with warp yarn.

Also known as heavy end, this is when the warp end is larger than normal in
diameter, even sometimes double in size. The opposite is a fine end, when the
warp end is smaller in diameter than normal.
The diameter of the yarn is too large, irregular or contains foreign material,
which inhibits a smooth, even fabric.

Causes and prevention of coarse end

• Coarse end is caused when two bobbins of roving (wool that has been
run through a mill on a carding machine) are running together during
spinning. The process of running two bobbins together during spinning is
commonly referred to as doubling and is used to remove variations in
thickness.

• To prevent coarse ends, ensure there are no knots, irregularities or foreign

materials in the roving prior to doubling
20. Broken pick

This defect appears as a broken filling yarn in the fabric weaving. It appears as a
sharp discontinuity in the weave pattern over the pick length.

Causes and prevention of broken pick

• A broken pick is the result of a break or cut in filling yarn, which results in
the insertion of a partial pick in the fabric. This can happen after weft
break, weft exhaustion or a faulty weft fork mechanism. Correcting weft
stop motion will ensure broken picks are detected before they’re inserted
into the fabric.

• Ensuring weaving personnel are trained to identify and replace a broken

pick during production can also help prevent the appearance of this
defect in the finished goods

21. Broken end

A broken end appears as a broken, untied warp end of a fabric. The yarn is
usually broken during weaving or finishing. Broken ends appear as equidistant
horizontal lines along the fabric width.

Causes and prevention of broken end

• This defect is caused by yarn breakage. When the yarn breaks during
weaving or finishing and is then woven into fabric the result is a broken
end.

• Some possible causes for broken ends include:

• Poor preparation

• Weak or irregular yarn

• Excessive warp tension

22. Missing end/end out

This defect will appear in fabric as a fine warp-way crack until the weaver
rectifies it.

A missing end typically appears at the selvage of the fabric. Missing end is also
known as “end out” and is typically classified as a major defect during fabric
inspection.

Causes and prevention of missing end

• A missing end occurs when an extra piece of filling yarn is jerked into the
fabric by the shuttle. This happens when a warp yarn is broken or missing
during weaving.

Your fabric may end up with missing ends if a weaver improperly draws broken
ends in place or the warp stop motion isn’t properly functioning. Weaving should
stop immediately when a yarn breaks to prevent introducing missing ends into
the fabric.

23. Filling bar

A filling bar, also known as a weft bar, is a visual band or bar across the full width
of fabric. The area will contain less than the normal number of picks, appearing
different from the rest of the fabric.

Causes and prevention of filling bar

There are three main causes of a filling bar:

• Defective spinning processes that lead to a variation in the count of weft

yarn

• Mixing of different counts or different twist yarns

• Faulty take up motion on the looms

Ensure your supplier has proper controls and organizational processes to

eliminate mix-ups and segregate yarn to prevent this fabric defect. In addition,
ensure proper operation of spinning and loom machinery to eliminate
mechanical causes
Conclusion

Whether you’re using fabric to produce inexpensive, promotional t-shirts or high-

end furniture upholstery, a clear understanding of the various types of fabric
defects will help you prevent them. Learning how to identify various fabric
defects and their causes can help you ensure fabric quality meets your
standards.

Prior to production, consider setting a defect tolerance for fabric quality issues in
a QC checklist. Establishing a mutually agreed upon system for identifying and
classifying fabric defects can limit potential disputes with your supplier down the
line.

If you’re tired of dealing with quality complaints and product returns, consider
relying on a third-party inspection company for fabric inspection. Investing the
time and effort to rectify issues and prevent future fabric defects will ensure your
product meets company and customer standards.

Editor’s note: This post was originally published in April 2016 and has been
updated for freshness, accuracy, and comprehensiveness.
FABRIC TESTING
Textile Testing | Importance of Testing in Textiles

Testing is a valuable aid for textile production, distribution, and consumption.

Person engaged in textiles testing authority, should be a part scientist, as well as,
a part statistician, part technologist, part diplomat in management and floor
level.

Principle importance of textile testing ;

1. To ensure the product quality
2. To control the manufacturing process
3. For customer satisfaction and retention
4. Good reputation (brand image) among consumers

Testing importantly supports the personnel involved in the textile supply chain,
from the textile fiber to the end product. The testing of textile products aids
persons involved in the running of the production line.

During testing, the discrepancy of the product, for example, its strength,
maturity, waste percentage (for fibers), aerial density, and weave design (for
fabrics), is properly measured. Thus the selection of the proper raw material is an
important factor. Standards of control should be maintained to reduce waste,
minimize price, and so on. Faulty machine parts or improper maintenance of the
machines can be easily detected with the help of textile testing. Improved, less
costly, and faster protocols can be developed by researchers with the aid of
testing. The efficiency and quality of the product can also be enhanced with
the help of regular and periodic testing.

Customer satisfaction and loyalty can also be won by producing according to

customer specification in good time. In short, testing is an essential pivot to the
whole textile product supply chain.

The cycle of testing starts with the arrival of raw material and continues up to
delivery of the final product. The production of the required end quality is
impossible if the raw material is incorrect. The textile product supply chain
comprises different processes, which include the raw material (natural or man-
made fiber), yarn manufacturing, fabric manufacturing, textile processing, and
apparel and home furnishing manufacturing. It also includes some industrial
products, like ropes, cords, and conveyer belts. All the aforementioned
processes are performed in separate units or in a single unit if the establishment
is a vertical production unit.

So the raw material for a spinning unit is fiber, for a weaving unit is yarn, for a
textile processing unit is greige fabric, and so on. “Raw material” is a relative
term that depends upon the further process for which it is used. Its testing is an
important step, as improper raw material or low grade raw material will not yield
the required quality of the end product. The testing of raw material is also
performed to verify whether the incoming material accords with the trade
agreement. Its consignment is therefore accepted or rejected on the basis of
test results. The agreed specifications should be realistic so that the incoming
raw material properties can meet the required level easily.

Production monitoring involves the testing of production line samples, which is

termed “quality control.” Its purpose is to sustain certain definite properties of
the end product within acceptable tolerance limits as per the agreement
between the producer and the consumer. A product that does not meet the
already agreed specification or the required quality will be termed a “fail.”

The proper testing protocol as well as proper monitoring are also required. The
sampling techniques in use should also be selected properly, since the wrong
selection could lead to serious problems. At the same time, the statistical tool
employed is also an important factor. The collection of data is one thing, but its
proper evaluation and interpretation, and the action taken on the basis of it, is
an important fact rin quality control.

Textile testing is vital to identify the particular cause of that fault so that it can be
avoided in future consignments. It will also help to rectify the running process
and enable it to run more smoothly so that the final product accords with the
customer’s requirement. It also helps to isolate the faulty part or machine so as
to resolve any dispute between the supplier and the producer.
Testing methods (sources of testing standards):
Testing is done primarily to test the quality and there are different ways to carry
out a test. Sometimes, different principles and instruments may be employed to
test a single criterion. Hence it is important to standardize the testing methods or
procedures. Various national and international organizations have established
standards for textile testing. Some of the organizations involved in developing
textile testing standards are as follows:
 AATCC - American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists
 ASTM - American Society for Testing and Materials
 ANSI - American National Standards Institute
 ISO - International Organization for Standardization
 BSI - British Standards Institute

AATCC-Founded as the American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists

(AATCC), the Association continues to evolve to meet the needs of those in the
ever-changing textile, apparel, and materials industries. AATCC has served
textile professionals since 1921. Today, the Association provides test method
development, quality control materials, education, and professional networking
for a global audience.

ASTM- Over 12,000 ASTM standards operate globally. Defined and set by us, they
improve the lives of millions every day. Combined with our innovative business
services, they enhance performance and help everyone have confidence in
the things they buy and use.

ANSI -The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) is a private, not-for-profit

organization dedicated to supporting the U.S. voluntary standards and
conformity assessment system and strengthening its impact, both domestically
and internationally.

ISO - International Standards make things work. They give world-class

specifications for products, services and systems, to ensure quality, safety and
efficiency. They are instrumental in facilitating international trade.

BSI- BSI is the business standards company that helps organizations make
excellence a habit – all over the world.
FABRIC TESTING PARAMETERS

 Count
 Composition
 Thread Density ( EPI & PPI )
 Overall Width & Useable Width
 GSM & GLM
 Cover Factors
 Crimp of The Yarn
 Tear Strength
 Tensile Strength
 Shrinkage Or Dimensional Stability
 Stiffness or Bending Rigidity
 Rubbing Fastness ( Dry & Wet )
 Seam Slippage & Seam Strength
 Air Permeability
 DP Rating
 Crease Resistance
 Crocking Fastness
 Skew & Bow
 Pilling
 Absorbency
 pH
 Fastness –
1. Water Fastness
2. Light Fastness
3. Washing Fastness
4. Colour Fastness
5. Perspiration Fastness ( Acidic & Alkaline)
6. Stain
7. Whiteness Index ( CIE ) and Tint
8. Light Fastness to Perspiration
9. Saliva Fastness
10. Fastness to Chlorine
11. Fastness to Sea Water
Fabric Defect Depictions

Fabric defect due to the hole

Fabric defect due to stain

Float defect in the fabric

Fabric weft yarn defect

Fabric warp yarn defect

Double pick defect in the fabric

Double end defect in the fabric

Insufficient weft density defect in the fabric

Excessive weft density defect in the fabric

Fabric broken pick defect

Broken end defect in the fabric

GARMENTS DEFECTS AND QUALITY
CONTROL
Defining garment defects in a QC checklist

A quality control checklist—sometimes called an inspection criteria sheet (ICS)—

is a vital document for inspection and consistent quality of any product,
including garments. Your QC checklist for garments should outline dimensional
tolerances for the product, any on-site tests you require during inspection and
packaging specifications.

Another very important detail to include is a list of known quality defects for the
product and how to classify them, typically as “critical”, “major” or “minor”.

Critical defects for garments

A critical defect is one that presents a safety hazard to the user, might cause
property damage or otherwise harm the end user of the product.

A single critical defect found in a single garment typically results in the importer’s
rejection of the entire order. Major reasons for such swift dismissal of an order
containing a critical defect are that it:

 Puts consumers at risk of bodily harm

 Threatens the reputation of distributors throughout the supply chain, and
 Exposes the brand to liability and unnecessary costs in the event of a
product recall.

Garment orders are more likely to fail inspection due to mold, another critical
defect that’s relatively common. A large portion of international garment
production takes place in countries like Indonesia, Vietnam and others in
Southeast Asia. Humid climates typical of that region make the garments there
more vulnerable to mold during packaging and storage. Mold can spoil an
entire order of garments if the factory doesn’t take action to prevent it.
Major defects for garments
Major defects are those which don’t pose a threat to the safety of the user, but
don’t meet the importer’s specifications or golden sample. These defects
typically lower the value or usability of the product, hurt salability and can lead
to customer returns.

Factory workers may be able to reasonably repair or rework the defective

garments. Other times, the factory cannot easily remedy major defects, and the
importer may ask their supplier to cover the loss or manufacture replacement
pieces. Some brands may also accept imperfect garments and offer discounts
through special distribution channels, such as factory outlet stores and other
retailers.

An example of major defects you may find in garments is incorrect colors or

designs on the product. These are sometimes acceptable when the garments
still have proper dimensions. While using the wrong colors or designs is not
desirable, the clothes can usually be sold if they’re still proportionate and match
standard size categories (e.g. S, M, L and XL).

Issues with sizing out of tolerances or incorrect stitching are often considered
major defects that would result in the importer rejecting an order of garments. If
the clothes don’t fit correctly or tear or fall apart easily, these products are likely
to be returned by customers and tarnish the image of the brand on the label.
Minor defects for garments

Minor defects found in relatively small quantities typically don’t affect the
salability of a product and aren’t normally identified by the customer. But
they’re still issues outside of the standard the importer and supplier have agreed
upon.

Minor garment defects can take many forms and include issues such as:

 Misprinting of “Made in Chins” instead of “Made in China” on a shipping

carton
 Untrimmed threads, missing stitches or uneven stitching on a garment
 Minor variation in shading between garment pieces
 Variation of care label quality or content

Minor defects also include dirt and other materials on the surface of a garment
that can be easily washed off. Such defects found in isolation are typically
accepted by the importer. It’s when these defects are found in numbers outside
the acceptable quality limit that they lead to failing product inspection.

Acceptable quality limits for garment inspection

Some relatively large, high-end garment brands insist on inspecting every piece
of clothing in every order they import. But for most importers, 100-percent
inspection is too costly and impractical. By relying on the internationally-
recognized AQL standard, importers are able to get a reasonable look at a
random sample of an order to check conformance to their standards.

AQL stands for acceptable quality limits and dictates how many random pieces
to inspect based on lot size. It also determines the maximum number of critical,
major and minor defects within that random sample that can be found without
the order failing product inspection. This number comes from how strict the
importer’s quality expectations are.

A garment importer might set a relatively low AQL for major defects like
incorrect dimensions but a high AQL for minor defects like untrimmed threads.
Importers can adjust these tolerances based on their unique circumstances and
customer expectations. Brands known for flawless, stylish garments are likely to
choose a more strict AQL tolerance, whereas someone buying promotional
shirts might choose a more lenient one.

There are certain quality related problems in garment manufacturing that

should not be over looked:
 Sewing defects - Like open seams, wrong stitching techniques used, same
colour garment, but usage of different colour threads on the garment, miss out
of stitches in between, creasing of the garment, erroneous thread tension and
raw edges are some sewing defects that could occur so should be taken care
of.
 Colour defects - Colour defects that could occur are difference of the colour of
final produced garment to the sample shown, accessories used are of wrong
colour combination and mismatching of dye amongst the pieces.
 Sizing defects - Wrong gradation of sizes, difference in measurement of a
garment part from other, for example- sleeves of XL size but body of L size. Such
defects do not occur has to be seen too.
 Garment defects - During manufacturing process defects could occur like faulty
zippers, irregular hemming, loose buttons, raw edges, improper button holes,
uneven parts, inappropriate trimming, and difference in fabric colours.

Various defects in garments:

1. Broken buttons

2. Broken snaps
3. Broken stitching

4. Dropped stitches

5. Exposed notches

6. Holes
7. Inoperative zipper

8. Misaligned buttons and holes

9. Missing buttons
10. Needle cuts

11. Open seams

12. Pulled / loose yarn

13. Stain
Section wise Garments Quality Check Points
1. Cutting quality Check Points
2. Sewing Quality Check Points
3. Washing Quality Check Points
4. Finishing Quality Check Points

Cutting Process Quality Check Point

1. Fabric upside down: Make sure the fabric is not upside down.
2. Fabric Skewing: A maximum skewing of 2 cm for the chest of 60 cm is
acceptable, but not more. This defect can be solved by re-setting of the
fabric at the fabric mill.
3. Relaxation: Before cutting, knitted, elasticized woven fabrics should be
suitably relaxed for around 12~24 hours or more, depending on the type of
fabric. Relaxation is mandatory for stretch fabrics.
4. The height of cutting pile: The higher the pile on the cutting table, the
more chance the cut pieces are unequal in size. This can lead to size
specification & fitting problems. Make sure the height is suitable for the type
of fabric (usually 2~3 inches and never more than 5 inches).
5. Numbering and bundling: Make sure the different parts are properly
numbered to avoid shading and that this numbering can be easily removed
after sewing is complete.
6. Storing: Make sure the different parts are properly stored, for example,
rolled, and not folded.

Sewing Process Quality Check Point

1. Critical operations: Check all critical operations repeatedly (like the

sewing of the neck- seam, armhole, cuff, placket etc.), so the operator gets
the clear input of what is required and how to make it correctly before large
quantities of garments are finished.
2. Attaching label should be correct as per the size of 100% garments
3. Checking bonding strength of interlining in the fusing process.
4. Seam allowance: check operators repeatedly on this point to make sure
they use the correct seam allowance.
5. Numbering: Make sure the sewing operatives keep parts with the same
number together to avoid shading.
6. Confirm Garments styling construction and measurement is correct as per
approved sample
Washing Process Quality Check Point
1. Washing method: normal wash, stone wash, sand wash or enzyme wash.
2. Bleaching method: stone bleach, garment bleach
3. Any special process. E.g. over-dye after the washing process
4. The color tone of the blue yarn
5. The whiteness of the white yarn
6. Resultant color tone: bluer or yellowish
7. Rubbing effect: contrast on the blue yarn and white yarn
8. Evenness on the blue and white parts
9. Hand-feel
10. Record the identification of the sealed sample, quality standards on the
final inspection report to ensure QC check the bulk according to the correct
standards.
11. Tick and sign all quality standards as an indication of proper QC checking.
12. QC should not release the shipment if they find the following major faults.
13. Color out of the approved shade band.
14. Fabric flaws and washing marks in excess of 1″ on the garment zone
above the knee.
15. Fabric flaws and washing marks in excess of 3″ on any part of the
garment.

Finishing Process Quality Check Point

1. Button attaching and button
2. Pressing
3. Full Garments quality check
4. Packing and carton

Final Inspection Quality Check Points

After completing carton, Garments buyer QC does a Final quality inspection,
evaluate final product quality. Final Audit or inspection is the most important
factor for a garments factory. Final Audit is the final judgment of product quality
from the buyer, the inspection calibrates overall garments factory quality
controlling. Without passing final inspection, garments cannot be shipped. A
final inspection report is the quality certificate from garments buyer what give a
certificate of a factory about their finished product quality that allows or reject
to ship garments. There are specific quality checking points of a finished
garments final audit, here I have given these in below.
Quality Inspection Criteria’s are of Final Audit
1. Workmanship
2. Appearance
3. Measurement/Fittings
4. Materials
5. Accessories
6. Finishing/Packing
STATISTICAL QUALITY CONTROL
QUALITY CONTROL:

Quality control (QC) is a procedure or set of procedures intended to ensure that a manufactured
product or performed service adheres to a defined set of quality criteria or meets the
requirements of the client or customer.

Statistical Quality Control (S.Q.C)

It is the application of statistical tools in the manufacturing process for the purpose of quality
control. In SQC technique attempt is made to seek out systematic causes of variation as soon as
they occur so that the actual variation may be supposed to be due to the guaranteed random
causes.
Statistical quality control refers to the use of statistical methods in the monitoring and
maintaining of the quality of products and services.
Objective of Statistical Quality Control
Quality Control is very important for a every company. Quality control includes service quality
given to customer, company management leadership, commitment of management, continuous
improvement, fast response, actions based on facts, employee participation and a quality driven
culture.
The main objectives of the quality control module are to control of material reception, internal
rejections, clients, claims, providers and evaluations of the same corrective actions are related to
their follow-up. These systems and methods guide all quality activities. The development and
use of performance indicators is linked, directly or indirectly, to customer requirements and
satisfaction, and to management.
Function of Statistical Quality Control (S.Q.C):

1. Evaluation of quality standards of incoming material, product process and finished goods.
2. Judging the conformity of the process to establish standards taking suitable action , when
deviation are noted.
3. Evaluation of optimum quality, obtainable under given condition.
4. Improvement of quality and productivity by process control and experimentation.
Main purpose of Statistical Quality Control (S.Q.C):
The main purpose of Statistical Quality Control (S.Q.C) is to divide statistical method for
separating allowable variation from preventable variation.

The Significance of Statistical Quality Control (S.Q.C) in the Textile Industry:

1. The expected quality of product can be produced and hence customers satisfaction can be
achieved which brings higher profit.
2. It is very easy to separate allowable variation from the preventable variation by this.
3. It ensures an early detection of faults in process and hence minimum wastage.
4. With its help one can easily defect the impact of chance in production process in the change
in quality.
5. It ensures overall co-ordination.
6. It can be use in the interpretation control char

Basic Categories of Statistical Quality Control (S.Q.C):

All the tools of SQC are helpful in evaluating the quality of services. SQC uses different tools to
analyze quality problem.

1. Descriptive Statistics
2. Statistical Process Control (SPC)
3. Acceptance Sampling
1. Descriptive Statistics:
Descriptive Statistics involves describing quality characteristics and relationships.

Types of Descriptive Statistics

Descriptive statistics are broken down into two categories. Measures of central
tendency and measures of variability (spread).

Arithmetic Mean -- Average

Median Value -- Middle Value
Mode – Most Frequent Value
Rage – Difference between Highest & Lowest Value
Mean Range – Average of Ranges
Percentage – Accepted Value within 100
Percentage Range – Percentage of Mean Range on Mean
Deviation – Deviation of Data from the Mean (d)

Mean Deviation – Mean or Average of the Deviation [( d1+d2…)/Total Data

Analyze]
Variance – Ʃ(x-ẋ)² / (n-1)
The Sum of the squares of the Deviations of the Observations from their Mean,
divided by the total number of the Observation (n) Or by (n-1) which is called
degree of freedom of the Variance.
b) Standard Deviation (σ - Sigma ) -- √ [ Ʃ(x-ẋ)² / (n-1) ]
Standard Deviation is the square route of the mean of the squares of the
deviations of the observations from their mean
c)Coefficient of Variation ( CV% ) -- (σ/ẋ) x 100
The expression of standard deviation as a percentage of the mean is called
Coefficient of Variation, CV% or V
2. Statistical Process Control (SPC):
Statistical process control (SPC) is a method of quality control which employs statistical
methods to monitor and control a process. This helps to ensure that the process operates
efficiently, producing more specification-conforming products with less waste (rework or scrap).
SPC can be applied to any process where the "conforming product" (product meeting
specifications) output can be measured. Key tools used in SPC include run charts, control charts,
a focus on continuous improvement, and the design of experiments. An example of a process
where SPC is applied is manufacturing lines.
SPC must be practiced in 2 phases: The first phase is the initial establishment of the process, and
the second phase is the regular production use of the process. In the second phase, a decision of
the period to be examined must be made, depending upon the change in 5M&E conditions (Man,
Machine, Material, Method, Movement, Environment) and wear rate of parts used in the
manufacturing process (machine parts, jigs, and fixtures).
An advantage of SPC over other methods of quality control, such as "inspection", is that it
emphasizes early detection and prevention of problems, rather than the correction of problems
after they have occurred.
In addition to reducing waste, SPC can lead to a reduction in the time required to produce the
product. SPC makes it less likely the finished product will need to be reworked or scrapped.

3. Acceptance Sampling:
Acceptance sampling is a statistical measure used in quality control. It allows a company to
determine the quality of a batch of products by selecting a specified number for testing. The
quality of this designated sample will be viewed as the quality level for the entire group of
products.

A company cannot test every one of its products. There may simply be too high a volume or
number of them to inspect at a reasonable cost or within a reasonable time frame. Or effective
testing might result in the destruction of the product or making it unfit for sale in some way.

Acceptance sampling solves these problems by testing a representative sample of the product for
defects. The process involves first, determining the size of a product lot to be tested, then the
number of products to be sampled, and finally the number of defects acceptable within the
sample batch.

Products are chosen at random for sampling. The procedure usually occurs at the manufacturing
site—the plant or factory—and just before the products are to be transported. This process allows
a company to measure the quality of a batch with a specified degree of statistical certainty
without having to test every single unit. Based on the results—how many of the predetermined
number of samples pass or fail the testing—the company decides whether to accept or reject the
entire lot.
 Quality Control Chart and AQL
A quality control chart is a graphic that depicts whether sampled products or processes are
meeting their intended specifications and, if not, the degree by which they vary from those
specifications. When each chart analysis a specific attribute of the product it is called a univariate
chart. When a chart measures variances in several product attributes, it is called a multivariate
chart. Randomly selected products are tested for the given attribute or attributes the chart is
tracking.

A common form of the quality control chart is the X-Bar Chart, where the y-axis on the chart
tracks the degree to which the variance of the tested attribute is acceptable. The x-axis tracks the
samples tested. Analyzing the pattern of variance depicted by a quality control chart can help
determine if defects are occurring randomly or systematically.

A quality control chart can also be univariate or multivariate, meaning that it can show whether a
product or process deviates from one or from more than one desired result.
The “AQL tables” are statistical tools at the disposal of buyers (for product inspections). They
help determine two key elements: According A.Q.L (Accepted quality load) table major defects
is less than minor defects then shipment PASS and minor defects is less than major defects then
shipment FAIL.

1- Single stage – sample plan.

2- Double stage – sample plan

1- Single stage –Dictates certain number of piece (n) should be drawn and that number
(n) defined mainly on the size of batch.

In single stage – 100pc shipment and n pc approximately like 8pc in A.Q.L

table

2- Double stage- The inspection or world stately taking similar number of sample (n) and
it number or defect in n is above certain are

1. How many samples should be inspected?

2. Where is the limit between acceptability and refusal, when it comes to defective
products? Inspection level. Different inspection

Inspection level. Different inspection levels will command different number of samples
to inspect. In this article, we will stick to the so-called ‘level II” under “normal severity”.

The AQL level appropriate for your market. If your customers accept very few defects,
you might want to set a lower AQL for both major and minor defects. There are basically
tables. That’s you which ‘code letter’ to use. Then, the code letter will give you the
sample size and the maximum numbers of defects that can be accepted.
Quality Assurance:

The process that ensure production quality meets the requirements of customers This is an
approach that aims to achieve quality by organizing every process to get the product ‘right first
time’ and prevent mistakes ever happening. This is also known as a ‘zero defects’ approach.
Quality assurance is used to deliver the quality product to the client according to his
requirements and budget. It makes sure that the software developed without any defects the
primary focus of QA is on facilitation, training, audits and QA reviews, thereby ensuring defect
free products. In quality assurance, there is more emphasis on ‘self-checking’, rather than
checking by inspectors.

Importance of Quality Assurance:

Quality assurance is a system companies use to review products, and the production system, to
ensure consistent, quality results. Manufacturing organization, as well as service industries, can
employ quality assurance technique. A quality assurance system can help your company identify
weakness and inconsistencies in the service or production method.

Scrap Reduction:

Quality assurance systems identify areas that results in scrap, or products that don’t meet
company specifications. When the company reduces its number of defective production, it
experiences scraps reduction. Scraps reduction results in savings; identification of defects early
in the production process decreases the cost to the company, because fewer man- hours and
materials have been used.

Time Efficiency:

a quality assurance team can reduce the amount of inspections required in a manufacturing
organization. The quality assurance team is separate from the production group, and can
therefore be objective in identifying time- wasting areas during production. They also ensure that
production workers don’t use valuable production time to inspect or evaluate the production
system.

Increased Customer Satisfaction:

The quality assurance system improves the quality of products and services, which increases
customer satisfaction. Customer satisfaction leads to repeat business, customer referrals,
increased sales and profits. A quality assurance system eliminates defective products and
continuously evaluates the process to improve products and services. Quality assurance can
results in a consistently reliability in the end product results in customer satisfaction and brand
loyalty. Companies’ reliability in the end product results in customer satisfaction and brand
loyalty. 21 Companies with reliable quality gain a favourable reputation in the industry.
Improved employee morale

Employee morale is higher in a company using a quality assurance system, since the
organization is more likely to run well, and actively seeks methods for improvement, according
to the national institute of accounts. Management involves employee in the process of quality
improvement. Employee becomes stakeholders in the organization and its success. Improved
employee morale results in less absenteeism and turnover among workers.

Types of quality assurance (program):

In our industry of import-export of handicrafts we have mainly used two types of quality
assurance program i.e. ~

I. Internal QA program
II. II. External QA program

Developing quality assurance plan: QA planes are developed in accordance with work
done in the industry. In a industry likes us (Moradabad handicrafts) where a single firm
exports wide variety of products, The quality assurance plan has two programs

1. Quality Control program

a. Purchasing control
b. Production process control (fabrication, polishing, finishing, lacquering etc.)
c. Material identification
d. Shipment and storage
e. Inspection and test
f. Quality records and information feedback
g. Non- conforming material
h. Corrective action

2. Quality Assurance Manual

a. Organization, authority and responsibility
b. Design and development control

c. Document control and QA records

d. Vendor and subcontractor qualification e. Inspection and test program

 ISO 9000

ISO 9000 is a family of standards for quality management. It is maintained by the International
Organization for Standardization and is administered by the accreditation and certification
bodies. ISO 9000 addresses quality management standards as to what an organization needs to
fulfill. It assesses the organizations ability to meet customer and regulatory requirements, quality
management system, and provides guidelines for performance improvement. It is one of the
renowned international standards that have been implemented by countless companies in more
than 150 countries.

ISO standards aim at:

 A set of procedures to cover all key processes in the business.

 Monitor the process and ensure its effectiveness.
 Quality requirements of customers.
 Checking outputs for defects, and taking corrective actions in appropriate places.
 Applicable regulatory requirements to enhance customer satisfaction.
 Achieve continuous improvement of performance.

ISO 9000 standards are based on eight quality management principles which can be used to
improve the performance of an organization.

1.Customer Focus: Organization should strive to understand current and future customer needs,
meet customer requirement and exceed customer expectations.

2. Leadership: Leaders establish an organization purpose and direction. They should create and
maintain the internal environment in which employees work towards business objective.

3. People Involvement: People are the essence of the company and should be involved at all
levels.

4. Process Approach: The required result is achieved more efficiently when activities and
related resources are managed as a process.

5. System Approach to Management: Identifying, understanding and managing inter-related

processes as a system contributes to the organization effectiveness and efficiency.

6. Continual Improvement: Continual improvement of the company overall performance

should be a permanent objective.

7. Factual approach to decision making: Effective decisions are based on the analysis of data
and information.