4 th INTERNATIONAL

SEMINAR ON editors
Jorge Chávez
Fernando Valenzuela

ENVIROMENTAL
ISSUES IN MINING
4 th INTERNATIONAL SEMINAR
ON ENVIROMENTAL ISSUES IN
MINING

editors 
Jorge Chávez
Fernando Valenzuela

december 2-4
Lima, Peru
Copyright
© Gecamin, Chile. All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored
or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, by photocopying, recording or otherwise,
without the prior written permission from Gecamin.

Author’s disclaimer
Any views and opinions presented in the articles published
in these proceedings are solely those of the authors and do
not necessarily represent those of Gecamin. The authors take
full and exclusive responsibility for technical content, style,
language and accuracy of the information published herein.
This information is not intended nor implied to be a substitute
for professional advice. The editors are not responsible for
any damage to property or persons that may occur as a
result of use of the information contained in this volume.

I.S.B.N. 978-956-9393-41-9

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C ontent s

organizers
commit tees
foreword
preface
acknowledgements
proceedings sponsor

PLENARIES
Pierina Mine Closure: A Commitment of Environmental Sustainability
Percy Montoya, Humberto Núñez and Roger Broncano

Strategy for a Sustainable Mining: Necessary Changes for a Reliable Business Environment
Jorge Lagos

CHAPTER 1
Control and Monitoring of Atmospheric Contamination, Powders and
Air Qualit y
Novel Drilling and Blasting Design for Vibration, Noise and Dust Control for the Communities
Diego González, Ricardo González, Carolina Núñez, Francisco Olea, Carlos Muñoz, Stephen Jeric,
Juan Aravena and Manuel Gutiérrez

Integrating Air Quality Management Systems on a Territorial Base

Paul Maidstone

Data Sensitivity in Mine Emissions Inventory

Rosario López, Steve Lamming and Sandro Ludeña

Natural Dust Sources: Evaluating Particulate Matter Concentration Within and Outside Mines
and Its Effects Over Open Pit Mining Activities
Raúl Arasa, Albert Salvador, Anna Domingo-Dalmau and Martí De Riquer

CHAPTER 2
Energy and Environmental Issues
Utilizing Heat Pumps for Recovery of Geothermal Energy in Mineral Processing Water
Ian Ross, Gregory Ross and John Scott

Assessment of Hydra-Energetic Resources in Small-Scale Underground Mining

John Niño and Juan Salamanca

Use of Thermal Solar Energy in the Mining Industry

René Canello and Mariana Villegas

Towards a New Paradigm in Public Participation in Mining: The Case of Teck in Chile
Cesar Carbajal and Norberto Parra
CHAPTER 3
Environmental Design and Operation of Mining Activities Including
Closing Stages
Use of Sea Water on the Leaching of a Chalcopyrite Ore like an Environmental Contribution
María Taboada, Pía Hernández, Teófilo Graber and Rafael Quiroz

Environmental and Physical Hazards of Historic Magnesite Mining Sites in the Tshipise Magnesite
Field: A Conceptual Site Model (CSM) and Implications
Sphiwe Mhlongo and Francis Amponsah-Dacosta

CHAPTER 4
Geochemistry of Mining Environments
Geochemistry and Mineralogical Characterization of Aladino VI Abandoned Mine,
Puno Region, Peru
Sheyla Palomino, Mansour Edraki, Corinne Unger, Anna Condorhuaman, Franz Garcia, Magdie Ochoa,
Shianny Vasquez and Susana Orihuela

Heavy Metal Contamination of Soils in the Vicinity of Louis Moore Gold Mine, South Africa
Confidence Muzerengi

Benefits of Geochemical Characterization for AMD Prediction of Sulfide Waste Rock

Brenda Chan, Tao Xu and Ruiyong Wang

CHAPTER 5
Hazardous Wastes and Tailings Management
The Milluni Project: It Is Not Over When It Is Over
Agustín Cárdenas

Growth of Selected Plant Species in Biosolids-Amended Mine Tailings

Hannah Alcantara, Augustine Doronila, Marc Nicolas, Stephen Ebbs and Spas Kolev

Linear Sweep Voltammetry as a Technique to Characterize Mining Wastes

Francisco Carranza, Pablo González, Rafael Romero, Nieves Iglesias and Manuel García

Review of Tailings Management in Chile: Lessons Learned, Incipient Progress of a Holistic

Management, and Future Challenges in Reducing Socio-Environmental Impacts
Carlos Cacciuttolo

Polymer Assessment for Dewatering and Filtration of Nickel Ore Tailings

Tatiana Gadelha and Sílvia França

CHAPTER 6
Legal Framework and Social Environmental Issues
Implementation of the Mine Closure Law in Chile: Learned Lessons and Opportunities
Eduardo Sanzana, Jorge Campos and Andrés López
The Challenges of Environmental Governance in Peru: The Global Environmental Certification
Roger Merino

Pilot Study for the Identification and Valuation of Ecosystem Services in a Private Area
Tania Correa, Alejandra Arochas, Viviana Maturana and Juan Pablo Rubilar

Comments on Supreme Decree 28, Establishing the Emission Norm for Copper
Smelters in Chile
Paulo Sepúlveda

CHAPTER 7
Management and Effluent Water Treatment
Advanced Process Treatment System for Tailings Ponds Water
Luiz Abrahão and Kashi Banerjee

The Use of Natural Polymers (Chitosan and Humic Acid) in the Red Mud Wastewater Treatment
Sílvia França, Pamela Loayza and Eduardo Brocchi

Comparison of Advanced and Conventional Technologies for Low Level Sulfate Reduction
from Mine Water
Kashi Banerjee, Hillary Kronebusch, Herve Buisson, Cristina Dambrosio and Carla Robinson

Treatment of Mining Tailings Containing Cyanide: Considerations when Selecting a

Treatment Process
Luiz Teixeira and Cristian Marquez

Oxygen Respiration Rates Measurements: A Valuable Field Test for Biological Wastewater
Treatment Plants Operation
Jorge Arrueste and Jorge Yoplac

Degradation of Thiocyanates from Goldmine Industry Effluents by Solid and Liquid Ferrate (VI)
Carolina Gonzalez-Merchan, Thomas Genty, Bruno Bussière, Robin Potvin, Marc Paquin, Mustapha
Benhammadi and Carmen Neculita

CHAPTER 8
Management of Acid Mine Drainage
Nanofiltration of Acid Mine Drainage from Copper Mining
Camila Bustos, Karen Ambiado, Rodrigo Bórquez and Alex Schwarz

Sludge Production in Active Treatment for Passivation Coatings and Inhibiting Acid Mine
Water Generation from Mining Residues
Manuel García, Miguel Mejias, Francisco Carranza and Alfonso Mazuelos

Comparative Efficiency of Calcite- and Dolomite-Based Dispersed Alkaline Substrate for the
Pre-Treatment of Highly Contaminated Acid Mine Drainage
Tsiverihasina Rakotonimaro, Carmen Neculita, Bruno Bussière and Gérald Zagury

Uptake of Pollutants from Mine Waters Using Magnetic Manganese Dioxide as Adsorbent
Fernando Valenzuela, Pablo González, Alejandro Briso, Carlos Basualto and Gonzalo Montes
Novel Adsorbents Based on Calcium Silicates Modified with Fe and Al to Remove As and
Sulphate from Acid Mining Drainages
Kamila Barrera, Fernando Valenzuela and Viviana Ide

Use of Manganese Oxide with Magnetic Properties to Remove Metallic Ions from Mine Waters
Alejandro Briso, Fernando Valenzuela and Pablo Gonzales

CHAPTER 9
Prediction, Evaluation and Mitigation of Environmental Impacts
Effect of Heavy Metals on Chemical and Biological Soil Indices in Conditions of
Environmentally Polluted Area Middle Spiš, Slovakia
Lenka Bobul’ská and Lenka Angelovičová

Changes of Landscape Structure Under the Influence of Long-Term Mining Activities

During Two Centuries
Lenka Angelovičová and Lenka Bobul’ská

Life Cycle Assessment of Iron Ore Production in Brazil: A Case Study

Giancarlo Lovón-Canchuman, Francisco Souza, Marcelo Guimarães and Lilian Elabras

Towards Net Positive Impact in Mining

Marcelo Zepeda, Rodrigo Sfeir, Andrés Vallone and Marcelo Olivares

Risk Based Environmental Management: Focusing on What Matters

Paul Maidstone

Monitoring and Follow-Up of High-Andean Wetlands and their Relation to the Mining Industry
Sebastian Rosa and Sergio Payacan

Quantification of Arsenic Species in Human Urine as Biological Indicators for

Occupational Exposure
Susana Stegen, Fabrizio Queirolo, Luis Muñoz, Macarena Meneses, Paola Pismante and
Oscar Andonie

Evaluation of the Effects of a Submarine Tailings Disposal System on the Benthic

Macroinvertebrate Assemblages at Chapaco Bay, Huasco, Chile
Marcelo Valdebenito, Jon Mendieta, Luis Caillaux and Domingo Lancellotti

Glacier Protection and Mining

Cedomir Marangunic

Risk Evaluation of Mining Waste Accidental Release into Bacanuchi and Sonora Rivers, Mexico
Heriberto Robles and Charles Wechsler

Multidisciplinary Investigations to Identify a Strategy of Mine Closure Environmentally and

Economically Sustainable: The Case Study of La Zanja Mine
Marco Greco, Magaly Tapia, Miguel Mendoza, David Arcos, Eduardo Ruiz, Alexandra Muñoz, Alfredo
Angulo, César Carrasco and Alfredo Gallardo

Programme of Adaptation to the Eco-Efficiency in Tantahuatay

César Carrasco and Alfredo Gallardo
C H A P T E R 10
Remediation of L ands and Biodiversit y
Propagation of Native Species for Closure
Elman Rondán and Branco Beltrán

Characterization of Biological Soil Crusts as a First Step for the Rehabilitation of Mine
Tailing Facilities
Claudia Ortiz, Marcela Wilkens, Alejandro Muñoz, Felipe Muñoz and Diego Fernández

Integrating Biodiversity into Mining Operations: Approaches and Key Elements

Felipe Ramírez

C H A P T E R 11
Sustainable Use of Water
Effect of Seawater on the Acid Consumption for Different Types of Ores
Pía Hernández, Cecilia Cerda, María Taboada, Teófilo Graber and Héctor Galleguillos

Life-Of-Mine Water Re-Use and Treatment Strategies

Tobias Rötting

Reduction of Irrigation Water in Mining Roads Using Dust Suppressants

Felipe Domínguez, Arnaldo Recabarren and Pablo Volta

Geomembrane Floating Covers in the Mining and Energy Sectors to Protect Water
Brian Fraser and Andrew Mills

editors
O RG AN I Z E R S

The Enviromine 2015 Seminar was organized by the Centre for Mined Land Rehabilitation,
Sustainable Minerals Institute, The University of Queensland, Australia; Universidad Nacional
de Ingeniería, Peru and Gecamin, Chile.

Centre for Mined Land Rehabilitation, Sustainable Minerals Institute, University of

Queensland, Australia
The University of Queensland has a rich history of world class education and research associated
with the minerals industry. The Sustainable Minerals Institute (SMI) is building on this very
strong base to expand and diversify minerals-related research and postgraduate education
within the broad context of sustainable development.
Since its founding in 2001, SMI has embarked on the task of working with the industry to
understand and implement the principles of sustainable development. Over the last six years,
SMI has steadily built expertise related to sustainable development and it has engaged widely
with the industry on a very diverse range of challenges with a sustainability focus.
The keys to SMI are the diversity of skills within the Institute and the capability to link these
skills in novel ways. People with backgrounds in technical, environmental and social disciplines
make up SMI. It is this blend of skills which allows SMI to make significant contributions to
the advancement of sustainable development within the industry.
The SMI research themes are mining, mineral processing, environment, risk and safety,
social responsibility, water, sustainable development and specialized research.
SMI today possesses a diverse range of skills relevant to the challenges of the Australian and
International Minerals industry. SMI and its Centres has within the one organization the capacity
to engage effectively with the industry from geology to mining, processing and disposal, with
over-arching skills in risk and safety, environment, social responsibility and water.
The Centre for Mined Land Rehabilitation (CMLR) was established in 1993 and was a founding
Centre of the Sustainable Minerals Institute (SMI) in 2001. CMLR addresses the minerals
industry’s environmental challenges with quality science and translates research outcomes
into practices that lead to continual improvement of rehabilitation and the protection of
environmental values. The Centre’s focus is preventing, minimizing and remediating mining
environmental impacts by providing research, education and professional development in the
sustainability area.
For more information, visit www.cmlr.uq.edu.au
Universidad Nacional de Ingeniería
La Universidad Nacional de Ingeniería (UNI) is an educational institution founded in 1876
by the Polish engineer Eduardo de Habich. The University was first known as the Escuela
Especial de Construcciones Civiles y de Minas del Perú, traditionally known as the Escuela
de Ingeniero and later evolved into a university in 1955.The University produces the most
important engineers, architects, and scientists in Peru.
The University was founded specializing in mining and civil engineering responding
directly to the country’s needs. Its formative purposes are in line with searching for social
justice and defending liberty. The scientific and technologic culture that UNI supports tends to
satisfy the basic needs of the Peruvian people. The institution respects biological and cultural
diversity and seeks to ensure the renewable richness and environmental conditions required
for society’s -both present and future- survival and development.
The university is a community which is open to knowledge and ideas that are discussed and
developed worldwide as long as they do not infringe upon human rights, peace and wellbeing.
In the current circumstances of Peru and the world, it is pertinent to strategically reinforce
its purposes and continuously adjust to the changes and challenges of our society.
For more information, visit www.uni.edu.pe

Gecamin
Empowering professional development for sustainable mining
Gecamin is a Chilean company with 17 years of experience organizing technical and international
conferences for the mining industry. Our conferences aim to inform and inspire professionals
from all over the world, fostering the exchange of best practices and innovative experiences.
Over 21,000 professionals have attended our events and have been trained in areas
fundamental to the mining industry. These areas include: Geology and Mining, Mineral
Processing, Hydrometallurgy, Sustainability and Environment, Water and Energy, Maintenance
and Automation, and Human Capital.
Gecamin seeks to contribute to the sustainable development of the mining industry
by openly addressing its most pressing concerns and by offering a platform for knowledge
exchange that aims at identifying the most sustainable solutions.
In 2014, Gecamin organized 11 conferences and 12 courses, with a total of 922 technical
presentations, gathering 2,947 delegates from 54 countries. Additionally, a total of 734
delegates from mining sites attended, and a book with the proceedings was published for
each conference.
Learn more about Gecamin conferences by visiting
www.gecamin.com
CO M M I T T E E S
Executive Committee
Chair
Alejandro Hermoza, Vice President of Social and
Environmental Affairs, Compañía de Minas
Buenaventura, Peru
Co-Chair
David Mulligan, Director and Professor, Centre for Mined
Land Rehabilitation, Sustainable Minerals Institute, The
University of Queensland, Australia
Past President
Jorge Chávez, Senior Environmental Consultant, Peru
Executive Director
Carlos Barahona, General Manager, Gecamin, Chile
T echnic a l Coordin ator
Fernando Valenzuela, Professor, Universidad de Chile
Semin a r Coordin ators
Siria Rosales, Gecamin, Chile
Olga Jallo, Gecamin, Peru
Directing Members
Julio Bonelli, Professor, Universidad Nacional de
Ingeniería, Peru
Igor Gonzalez, Director and Chief Operating Officer,
Compañía de Minas Buenaventura, Peru
Ricardo Morel, Social Strategy Consultant,
Independent, Peru
Jacques Wiertz, Professor, Universidad de Chile
Advisory Committee
Pablo Alonso, Coromining, Argentina • Celedonio Aranda,
Compañía Minera Antamina, Peru • Jorge Arrueste,
Fluor Mining and Metals, Canada • Carlos Barrantes,
Amec Foster Wheeler, Peru • Sthiven Candiotti, Catalin
a Huanca Sociedad Minera, Peru • Miguel Ego-Aguirre,
Ego Aguirre & Smuda, Peru • Roberto Flores, Hatch, Peru •
Alfredo Gallardo, Compañía de Minas Buenaventura, Peru •
Martín Hamann, Schlumberger Water Services, Chile •
Ilk ka Kojo, Outotec, F in land • R inaldo Mancín,
IBRAM, Chile • Roberto Manrique, Compañía Minera
Antamina, Peru • Cristián Márquez, Quimtia, Peru •
A nton io Me ndo z a, M i ne r a L a s B a mb a s, P e r u •
Raymond Philippe, MWH Global, Chile • Gabriel Pinto,
Compañía Minera Barrick, Peru • Eduardo Pizarro, Lex
Ambiental, Chile • Eduardo Ruiz, Amphos 21, Peru •
Felipe Sabando del Castillo, Tippmann & Sabando
Compliance TYSC, Chile • Sat Sansar, Mayco Consultores,
Chile • Carlos Tamayo, Barrick Pueblo Viejo, Dominic
Republic • Martin Williams, Schlumberger Water Services,
United Kingdom.
Technical Committee
Alejandra Acuña, Golder Associates, Chile • Osvaldo Aduvire,
SVS Ingenieros, Peru • Abdullah Al-Farraj, King Saud University,
Saudi Arabia • Ilia Alomia, Enyatec, Ecuador • Fanny Aravena,
WorleyParsons, Chile • David Arcos, Amphos 21, Spain •
Gonzalo Asencio, Gisma, Chile • Henry Aubert, MWH, Peru •
Eduardo Balladares, Universidad de Concepción, Chile •
Katty Barzola, DHI, Peru • Carlos Cacciuttolo, Delfing, Chile •
Agustín Cárdenas, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés,
Bolivia • Robinson Constanzo, Pontificia Universidad
Católica de Valparaíso, Chile • Thales Crivelli, Samarco
Mineração, Brazil • Jorge de la Cruz, Minera La Arena, Peru •
Ernesto de la Torre, Escuela Politécnica Nacional Quito, Ecuador •
Karin de Rycker, SVS Ingenieros, Peru • Mansour Edraki,
SMI CMLR, Australia • Omar Gaete, Independent Consultant,
Chile • Marco Greco, Amphos 21, Peru • Nawshad Haque,
CSIRO Mineral Resources, Australia • Giovanna Huaney,
Minera Las Bambas, Peru • Ahamd Khodadadi, Tarbiat
Modares University, Iran • Gonzalo Montes, Universidad
de Chile • Keith Mountjoy, Klohn Crippen Berger, Peru •
Stephen Northey, Monash University, Australia • Claudia Ortiz,
Ambiotek, Chile • Julio César Ortiz, Ricolfe, Argentina • Sergio
Payacan, GHD, Chile • José Pérez-Donoso, Universidad Andrés
Bello, Chile • Fabrizio Queirolo, Universidad Católica del Norte,
Chile • Angélica Ramírez, JRamon del Peru • Heriberto Robles, EDITORS
Enviro-Tox Services, USA • Jaime Rocha, Universidad Mayor Fernando Valenzuela, Universidad de Chile • Jorge Chávez,
de San Andrés, Bolivia • Carlos Rodríguez, Compañía Senior Environmental Consultant, Peru.
de Minas Buenaventura, Peru • Sebastián Rosa, GHD,
Chile • Sian Rudall, Schlumberger Water Services, Chile •
Susana Stegen, Universidad Católica del Norte, Chile •
Kathia Tabra, Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú • Mauricio
Torem, Pontifícia Universidade Católica de Rio de Janeiro, Brazil •
Víctor Valdebenito, Minera Los Pelambres, Peru.

Editorial Committee

REVIEWERS
Osvaldo Aduvire, SVS Ingenieros, Peru • Abdullah Al-
Farraj, King Saud University, Saudi Arabia • Sílvia França,
C E T E M , Brazil • Lenka Angelovičová, University of
Prešov, Slovakia • Raúl Arasa, Meteosim, Spain • Eduardo
Balladares, Universidad de Concepción, Chile • Carlos
Basualto, Universidad de Chile • Lenka Bobuľská, University
of Prešov, Slovakia • Carlos Cacciuttolo, Universidad de Chile •
Agustín Cárdenas, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés,
Bolivia • Jesús Casas, Process Consulting, Chile • Jorge
Chávez, Senior Environmental Consultant, Peru • Thales
Crivelli, Samarco Mineração, Brazil • Karin de Rycker, SVS
Ingenieros, Peru • Omar Gaete, Independent Consultant,
Chile • Marco Greco, Amphos 21, Peru • Nawshad Haque,
CSIRO Mineral Resources, Australia • Ahmad Khodadadi,
Tarbiat Modares University, Iran • Paul Maidstone, Codelco,
Chile • Jose Margarida da Silva, Universidad Federal de Ouro
Preto, Brazil • Confidence Muzerengi, University of Venda,
South Africa • Sebastián Rosa, GHD, Chile • Tobias Rotting,
Schlumberger, United Kingdom • Eduardo Sanzana, Codelco,
Chile • John Scott, Laurentian University, Canada • Susana
Stegen, Universidad Católica del Norte, Chile • Kathia Tabra,
Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú • Fernando Torres,
Universidad Católica del Norte, Chile • Víctor Valdebenito,
Minera Los Pelambres, Chile • Fernando Valenzuela, Gecamin,
Chile • Jacques Wiertz, Universidad de Chile.
F O RE WO RD

It is with great pleasure that I invite you to attend the 4th International Seminar on
Environmental Issues in Mining – Enviromine 2015, which will be held from December
2-4 2015, in Lima, Peru.
This seminar aims to create a forum where we can share experiences as well as
discuss in depth and evaluate the environmental challenges facing our industry and the
opportunities identified by research and work from professionals from around the world.
Environmental management in the mining industry has been gaining greater
importance in response, primarily, to two factors. Firstly, the challenges our planet
faces in terms of climate change and, secondly, the increasingly demanding regulations
and standards set by governments.
If we add to this the drop in mineral prices globally, we are encouraged to ensure that
mining companies devote greater efforts to environmental research in order to achieve
more efficient processes as a critical competitive factor.
However, it is also important to stress that mining investment is an activity that can be
developed in remote Andean regions in a competitive and sustainable way, providing many
opportunities in terms of employment, infrastructure, social development and education.
Mining company activities generate initiatives that contribute to the development of
our countries. This is why events such as Enviromine 2015 create strong expectations
as they bring together the business world, governmental institutions and academia to
address important issues including the management of water resources and solid waste,
monitoring of air quality, afforestation and reforestation, participatory management and
remediation and closure of liabilities.
Finally, I would like to encourage entrepreneurs, mining professionals, researchers,
representatives of academia, consultants, government representatives and the general
public interested in environmental management and mining to attend this and the
subsequent versions of this seminar.
Let’s ensure that, during Enviromine 2015, we present the most relevant scientific
and professional progress thus contributing to strengthening the competitiveness of the
mining industry and its contribution to building sustainable and prosperous countries.
All the best,

Alejandro Hermoza
Chair
ENVIROMINE 2015 • 4th International Seminar on
Environmental Issues in Mining
P RE FAC E

Enviromine 2015, held from December 2-4, 2015 at the Marriott Hotel in Lima, Peru, is
the 4th International Seminar on Environmental Issues in Mining initiated in 2009 by
Gecamin. This is the first time that this seminar is held in Peru, which is a clear indicator
of how relevant this country is for the development of mining activity in the world.
Unquestionably, for mining companies it is a great challenge to comply with the
growing expectations from local and national communities that require environmental
protection and that demand clearer environmental regulations. In this sense, and as
a response to these worries, mining companies not only have to comply with existing
regulations and laws, but also must design and operate their works in accordance with
increasingly demanding standards based on continuous improvement management.
Obviously, transparency and dialogue are key for an adequate relationship with the
communities to maintain the social license to operate sustainably, assuring in this way
the viability of the mining activity.
The organization of the 4th International Seminar on Environmental Issues in Mining,
Enviromine in Peru has represented a huge effort and enthusiast dedication for all of
us involved in the Seminar; however, it has also meant a valuable opportunity to know
and work with all the researchers and professionals from different countries that have
selflessly collaborated with us. Enviromine 2015 provides an opportunity to learn about
innovations and developments, enabling the mining industry to operate in a sustainable
manner with economic benefits. This book contains 55 articles written by delegates from 18
different countries. Relevant themes such as Mining Waste and Hazardous Management,
Water Management and Effluent Treatment, Prediction and Mitigation of Environmental
Impact, Remediation and Rehabilitation of Valuable Areas, among others, predominate
in this Seminar that supports clean mining from design to closure.
The Seminar was organized in accordance with the standards required for this
renowned meeting. I would like to thank all the professionals from different countries
who collaborated with us. Thank you to Authors and their organizations for submitting
papers and to all the technical reviewers for their valuable time correcting the articles
and contributing to enhance the quality of this book and the Seminar through their
valuable comments. I would also like to thank Gecamin personnel for their efforts and
enthusiasm in making Enviromine 2015 a success.
This book will be of interest to the international mining environmental community
highly engaged to comply with the spirit of this version of the Seminar, “Managing the
Mine Environment from Design to Post-Closure”. Finally, I expect all seminar delegates
had a pleasant stay in Lima and enjoyed their participation in Enviromine 2105.

Fernando Valenzuela
Technical Coordinator
ENVIROMINE 2015 • 4th International Seminar on
Environmental Issues in Mining
AC KN OW L E D G E M E N T S

The Executive Committee acknowledges with gratitude the efforts of all the authors for
contributing a large variety of high quality, detailed and innovative papers to the technical
program. We also would like to thank the reviewers, the employees from Gecamin, and all
those involved in the creation of these proceedings for their assistance. The support of the
Organizing, Advisory and Technical Committees has been greatly appreciated, as has been
the support of the Enviromine 2015 Chair, Co-Chair and the Chairs of the technical sessions.
The Executive Committee also wishes to thank the following sponsors (as of October
21, 2015 in the order in which they were confirmed) for their generous support:
Gold: DHI - FloSolutions, Amphos 21, Grupo Same, AMEC Foster Wheeler
Silver: Liplata
Social: Orica
Proceedings: Compañía de Minas Buenaventura
Institutional Partners: Sociedad Nacional de Minería (SONAMI), Chile; Consejo
Minero, Chile; Servicio Nacional de Geología y Minería (SERNAGEOMIN), Chile;
Instituto de Ingenieros de Minas del Perú (IIMP); the Brazilian Mining Association
(IBRAM); and Consejo Peruano de Construcción Sostenible (GBC), Peru.
Media Partners: Engineering and Mining Journal, USA; Revista Energiminas, Peru;
Revista Tecnología Minera, Peru; Proveedor Minero, Peru; Panorama Minero, Argentina;
RETEMA, Spain.
Finally, we would like to thank all the delegates who attended the seminar and
exchanged their valuable knowledge and expertise, thus contributing to the great success
of this fourth edition of the International Seminar on Environmental Issues in Mining,
Enviromine 2015. We are looking forward to seeing you all again during the next version
of Enviromine, in the year 2017.

Executive Committee
ENVIROMINE 2015 • 4th International Seminar on
Environmental Issues in Mining
P RO C E E D I N G S S P O N S O R

We proudly acknowledge Cía. de Minas Buenaventura as the Proceedings Sponsor of the

4th International Seminar on Environmental Issues in Mining.
PLENARIES
Pierina Mine Closure: A Commitment of
Environmental Sustainability
Percy Montoya, Humberto Núñez and Roger Broncano
Pierina Mine, Barrick Misquichilca, Peru

ABSTRACT
The Pierina gold mine, operated by Minera Barrick Misquichilca (MBM), a Peruvian subsidiary of
Barrick Gold, is located 10 km. south from the city of Huaraz, in the jurisdiction of Jangas and
Independencia districts, on the eastern flank of the Cordillera Negra, a mountain range with peaks
that reach 5,000 meters above sea level (m.a.s.l.). The altitudes of the mine facilities range between
3,800 and 4,200 m.a.s.l.
The mine is an open pit operation, consisting of an open pit, a valley-fill heap leach facility, a waste
rock facility, a Merrill-Crowe processing plant, and ancillary mine infrastructure. The project
construction started in 1996 and production began in 1998; current life of mine plan will extend
mine operations until completion of secondary leaching estimated to occur between 2018 and 2019.
Currently, Pierina is into the progressive or concurrent reclamation phase.
Pierina will be one of the first mine sites implementing a mine closure in Peru under an EIS-
approved plan and under the mine closure legislation. The goal at Pierina is to mitigate
environmental and social impacts, and once closure and reclamation activities are completed, leave
behind a rehabilitated land. MBM is committed to develop and implement a successful mine
closure, and lead a pioneer project to achieve environmental sustainability.

1
INTRODUCTION
The Pierina mine closure was initially developed as a conceptual design plan which was part of the
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) filed by the company in 1997. A few years later, in
August 2006, a feasibility-level closure plan for the Pierina mining unit was developed and filed. It
was approved in July 2009. Since that date, it has been revised and updated in order to optimize
the closure process, and the last update was approved in December 2014.
Generally speaking, closure activities are aimed at achieving the physical, geochemical, biological
and hydrological stability of mine facilities which will remain at the site after mine closure. In this
way, the Pierina mine closure plan becomes an environmental management instrument which
guarantees the recovery of impacted areas and the treatment of water during the closure and post-
closure stages.

The objectives set for the Pierina mine closure include (Golder Peru, 2014):
 Complying with the environmental laws in force in the country, adopting
environmental prevention criteria;
 Taking measures or carrying out activities to achieve sustainable land use in ways which
are consistent, as far as possible, with future uses;
 Revegetating soils, wherever possible, until they become self-sustaining.
 Adopting water control measures to protect the quality of water in receiving bodies.
 Contributing to environmental protection by implementing and applying techniques
and technology, prioritizing prevention.
 Implementing controls and/or taking measures in order for components or facilities that
will remain at the site after closure to show a stable behavior in the short, medium and
long term.
 Designing the main closure works, which should be capable of being adapted to
operational changes, in order to take advantage of and incorporate new technology.
 Minimizing, to the extent feasible, the need to take care of and actively maintain the site
in the long term.

Figure 1 shows the main facilities comprising the Pierina mine site.

2
 Figure 1 Main facilities comprising the Pierina mine site

PIERINA MINE CLOSURE

The Pierina mine closure plan includes three stages: progressive closure, final closure, and post-
closure. Different activities are carried out in each stage to comply with the objectives of the closure
plan. Main closure activities include:

 Backfilling the open pit for soil stabilization purposes.

 Dismantling, removing and demolishing operating and management facilities;
disposing of wastes generated by these activities.
 Covering the waste rock dump, the in-pit backfill, the leach pad, the borrow pit, the
topsoil stockpile, among other areas, and revegetating rehabilitated areas.
 Building two treatment plants, one for acid rock drainage (ARD) and one for reverse
osmosis (RO), including one for detoxification of cyanide (DETOX) and a water
treatment plant (ARD–DETOX).
 Bringing the water management system, including both water which has been in contact
and water which has not been in contact with the operations, into agreement with the
mine closure plan;

3
  Building ditches to control surface runoff water and erosion in cover systems installed at
the main mine facilities;
 Implementing social programs;
 Monitoring physical and chemical stability and water quality.

Figure 2 shows the Pierina mine closure timeline:

Figure 2 Pierina mine closure timeline

The following sections describe each closure stage.

PROGRESSIVE CLOSURE STAGE

At Pierina, progressive closure activities have been carried out since the onset of operations and
will continue after cessation of operations to guarantee the fulfillment of closure and post-closure
objectives. To this end, the following progressive closure activities have been carried out:

 Rehabilitation of areas which are no longer used for mine operations.

 Waste rock dump rehabilitation.
 Construction of ARD, RO and DETOX treatment plants.
 Stabilization by recontouring pit walls and backfilling the open pit with appropriate in-
pit material and material obtained from the water rock dump.

It should be pointed out that a total of 42 hectares have been rehabilitated so far. From these, 27
correspond to small areas impacted during construction, and 15 correspond to the waste rock
dump. Moreover, 302 hectares have been reforested with “Colle” trees, Quinoa trees, Pine trees,
among other species. Photos 2, 3 and 4 show rehabilitation activities progressively carried out at
Pierina.

4
 Photo 1 Waste rock dump rehabilitation

Photo 2 Pucaurán water treatment plant

Photo 3 Open pit backfilling to physically stabilize the soil

FINAL CLOSURE STAGE

The Pierina mine final closure stage will start once mineral recovery and production activities have
definitively ended. During this stage, closure of the open pit and waste rock dump will be
completed, and the leach pad will also be closed.

In general, the main activities to be carried out in relation to the final closure of facilities include:

 Covering the central in-pit backfill, the northern in-pit backfill, the waste rock dump,
and the leach pad.
 Dismantling and disassembling processing facilities and ancillary infrastructure.

5
  Demolishing structures, recovering and disposing of hazardous and non-hazardous
solid wastes.
 Treating water at ARD, RO and DETOX plants.
 Providing maintenance to internal roads in order to be able to monitor and inspect mine
areas after closure.
 Installing a sloped cover system to increase surface runoff and reduce rain water
percolation through the cover system.

POST-CLOSURE STAGE
The Pierina mine post-closure stage will include maintenance and monitoring activities. These
activities will begin upon completion of mine facility closure activities and will include the follow-
up of the physical, geochemical, hydrological and biological stability of facilities which will remain
at the site in the post-closure stage. Bearing in mind their objective, these activities will be classified
as follows:

Post-closure maintenance activities: They will include programs and activities aimed at
maintaining and/or restoring the effectiveness of closure measures taken.

Post-closure monitoring activities: They will include the observation and systematic evaluation of
different aspects and measures adopted in order to make sure that closure measures are working
properly.

The Pucaurán and Pácchac ARD and RO plants are the only facilities which will continue operating
during the post-closure stage in order to reach the water quality objectives. The maintenance of
different facilities closed during the closure stage will be properly scheduled to take corrective
action, if necessary, to control water, sediments, runoff water, and erosion.

PIERINA – A RESPONSIBLE CLOSURE COMMITMENT

At Pierina, the closure plan is a “living document” which is permanently revised and updated at a
higher level of detail as final closure draws closer. This process requires a multidisciplinary team to
plan strategies, through an integrated approach, in order to implement a successful environmental
and social closure plan. This approach has allowed conducting different studies on the physical
and chemical stability of the facilities covered by the mine closure plan, including the cover system
design, water management, and social aspects. At the same time, while operations are being
carried out, opportunities are being identified to optimize the closure process, developing a
synergy between progressive closure activities and the use of associated mineral resources.
To achieve successful mine closure, different actions have been designed and are being
progressively implemented at Pierina, as follows:

Assessment of closure strategies

6
The Pierina mine closure plan is revised by external, corporate, and specialized teams to ensure the
fulfillment of environmental and social commitments and thus guarantee the sustainability of mine
closure activities over time. These revisions take into account all changes made during the life of
the mine, including construction of new facilities and any change in its operating processes. The
implications of changes are analyzed to assess risks associated with the closure plan. The closure
plan is regularly reviewed to identify additional areas which may have been impacted and thus
adjust closure costs.

Studies to plan and design closure activities

An important step to plan the Pierina mine closure activities consists of evaluating designs in order
to efficiently comply with the objectives set in the closure plan.
As far as the closure process is concerned, annual precipitation in the area where the Pierina mine is
located is a cause for concern because one of the objectives of the closure plan is to minimize
percolation into the underlying waste material, as acid rock drainage could potentially be
generated. To this end, studies have been conducted to install and analyze the performance of test
panels to monitor cover systems and determine their performance, controlling and minimizing net
percolation in the main closure components: central in-pit backfill, northern in-pit backfill, waste
rock dump, and leach pad. According to the “Final Monitoring Report on the Cover System Test
Panel 2009” (Geosystem Análisis Inc., 2010), the current design has considered the following types
of cover systems:
Type A Cover System: To cover material which could potentially generate acid rock drainage.
The purpose of this cover system is to provide a low hydraulic conductivity system in order to
reduce percolation into the underlying material, while providing an appropriate medium to
support revegetation. This cover system consists of a layer of low permeability material,
approximately 0,55 m thick, a layer of organic material, 0,30 m thick, and a vegetation cover. Figure
3 shows the composition of the Type A cover system.

Figure 3 Type A cover system composition

Type B cover system: For general purposes and to cover material which does not generate acid rock
drainage.

7
This cover system is composed of a 0,30 m layer of organic material which will be placed directly on
top the underlying material, once it has been recontoured, to then be revegetated. This system will
be used, for instance, at sites where structures have been demolished. Figure 4 shows the
composition of the Type B cover system.

Figure 4 Type B cover system composition

SOCIAL ASPECTS RELATED TO THE PIERINA MINE CLOSURE

As part of the social closure strategy, the need to carry out a social impact assessment of the Pierina
mine closure was determined. The assessment provided the information required to identify and
clearly define the scope, location and extent of the social impacts associated with the Pierina mine
closure (Amec, 2010). Bearing in mind this framework of reference, it was determined that the
social activities related to the Pierina Mining Unit closure process would focus on preventing and
minimizing potential adverse impacts by implementing social programs during the final years of
some components (progressive closure) and during the final closure stage itself. These programs
will be focused on addressing social and economic impacts derived from the end of the Pierina
mining unit activities.
It is worth pointing out that, for Barrick, a successful mine closure strategy should consider not
only the socioeconomic baseline and the social and economic impacts identified, but also the
participation of people living in communities located in the vicinity of the Pierina mine, during the
closure planning and implementation stages, in order to contribute to sustainable development.
For this reason, Barrick has considered implementing a communication and citizen participation
program which includes guided mine tours in order to be able to identify and respond in a timely
and adequate manner to people’s demands, expectations and fears with regard to the closure plan.
Photos 5 and 6 show some images of the guided tours organized to visit different Pierina mine
facilities.

8
Photo 5 Guided tour to the Pucaurán ARD treatment plant

Photo 6 Guided tour to the open pit

9
CONCLUSIONS
Closure is part of the life cycle of a mine. It includes a series of technical and legal actions which
must be taken by the mining company to rehabilitate the areas that it has used in order to restore
the land back to its approximate original contour. Closure includes three stages: progressive
closure, final closure, and post-closure. Pierina is currently in the first stage.
Pierina will be one of the first large-scale mine sites implementing a mine closure plan in Peru. It
poses an enormous challenge for Barrick, for which reason we have an approved closure plan in
place which has been designed according to the most stringent environmental and social standards
in order to meet the objective that a socially and environmentally responsible mining company
must meet: rehabilitate the areas used by the mining operation and, in this way, protect people and
the environment while meeting its long-term sustainability commitment.
Our team members have a specific purpose in mind: “PIERINA is more than a mine closure
commitment; we are proud to take up the challenge of building a legacy”.

10
REFERENCES

Amec Perú S.A, Social Impact Assessment of the Pierina Mine Closure, Ancash, Peru. (2010)

GeoSystems Analysis, Pierina Geosynthetic Cover System Design Evaluation, Ancash, Peru. (2013)

Golder Associatess, Modification of Pierina Mine Closure Plan, Ancash, Peru. (2014)

11
Strategy for a Sustainable Mining: Necessary
Changes for a Reliable Business Environment
Jorge Lagos
CODELCO, Chile

ABSTRACT
Today citizens are empowered, materialized through transverse mobilizations with new discourses.
The later has allowed bringing new issues into the discussion: environmental, social (education),
ethnic, rights of gender minorities, etc. Through radicalization in the discourse of some sectors
(pro-indigenism), and with external support, this ends placing the issues in the agenda of diverse
groups. We are facing an active civic society who protests in the streets to be considered in
decisions.
Civic society questions the current social and economic model, which has resulted in large
economic and social inequalities, affecting the image of the business sector.
We face active, informed citizens, who are willing to exercise their rights, forcing us to rethink the
way of public-private relationships.
Society manifests though ways which are not regulated by the state. There are new ways of
convening associated to new technologies.
When facing this uncertainty scenario for the development of projects, the discretional nature of
authorities, and litigation of assessment processes, companies have not known how to act and do so
through reactive responses. When being reactive, social and economic costs have risen for industry
and community.
In this context, the mining industry and the development of new projects require considering a new
view of business, focused on the construction of dialogue to prevent conflict, as an inclusive and
transparent process. Achieving sustainable mining requires the development of a sense of
appropriation and ownership, common for communities and companies, becoming stakeholders in
the identification of new business. These dialogue processes shall be built at early stages and
accompany whole development processes, in order for communities to participate in all stages of
decision making. Companies require supporting the process of levelling access and information
management, in order to contribute in this dialogue process under equal conditions, eliminating
power asymmetries.

1
INTRODUCTION

SOCIOENVIRONMENTAL CONFLICTS AND EMPOWERING OF SOCIEY

From the beginning of modern society, access and control of natural resources has been a source of
richness, but also conflict. In Latin America, where natural resources are a major percentage of the
strategic resources and subsistence, socio environmental conflicts have been rising with increasing
force. The potential for the development of conflict is especially high when state owned strategic
resources are being managed. In Chile, from the nineties, we have observed the rise of
environmental activist groups who have been introducing, in some sectors, the environmental issue
as a central element among social mobilizations. Thus the environmental discourse has ceased to
be an exclusive demand of environmental groups and become the need and rallying cry of different
sectors.
Today, socio environmental conflicts are portrayed as interactive processes among social actors
moved by shared interest around natural resources. One of the largest challenges faced today is the
integration of economic activity with environmental preservation, social concerns, and efficient
governance systems.
According to different authors (Padilla and San Martín, 1994; Claude, 1997) the rise of socio
environmental conflicts, or others based on the environmental rhetoric, is framed within the context
of implantation of neoliberal economics in different countries of Latin America, which in the
Chilean case occurs in a scenario of dictatorship and post-dictatorship. This happens because the
implantation of this economic model pressures over natural resources, resulting in pollution or
environmental degradation, which moves people with the purpose of defending the environment
(Mc Phee, Bernardita, 2010).
On the other hand, the inexistence of adequate governance structures to address environmental
conflict in an emerging context, where society’s veto power increases exponentially. Ever more
sensitive citizens are seen generating a new voice that rises in the defense of natural resources and
particularly under the “Not in my backyard” motto. The latter situation requires solid and
democratic institutions to become catalyzers of joint efforts and manage the structural causes of
conflict (Spadoni, Eliana. 2005).
Socio-environmental conflict has several sides that require integral interventions and proposals,
which respond to the need to articulate those that are part of the problem, in order for them to
become part of the solution (Davies, John y Kaufman, Edward. 2002). It is in this sense three of four
decades ago the ecologist movement did not have much strength, situation that has changed
dramatically in the last two decades. Similarly, we have witnessed a sustained increase of citizen
concern for the protection of the environment, channeled through a legal system that strengthens
citizen participation throughout the elaboration of environmental standards and participation in
Environmental Assessment Studies.
At the same time, empowerment has been a process oriented towards changing the nature and
direction of systemic forces, which traditionally have excluded disadvantaged citizens in a given
context (Sharma, 1991-1992)” cited in Batliwala 1997:193). In this sense, the information – power
and right relationship is key for citizens demanding their rights. This situation has increased since
the fall of the Berlin Wall, as a turning point of the (East – West) bi-dimensional world and the
beginning of a new multidimensional era, marked by the capitalist hegemony, globalization,

2
migratory phenomena, permanent technological revolution, increasing worldwide alarm over
climate change, and many other phenomena that have marked the environment since the end of the
XXth century (Brockman, 2009).
On the other hand, we see the discourse over our present and democratic future lead by politicians,
who represent a complacent political class, whose cynical demagogy is abysmally distant to reality,
incapable of recognizing and recognize themselves as part of this complexity. As pointed out by
Givanni Sartori, for whom democracy is the idealization without material existence itself; this
means that every democratic society is an approximation of an ideal: namely the “Duty to be shall
always be called to counterweight being. But it is precisely that this ideal is not limited to react
against the real, but to interact with what is real. A constructive ideal is only such if it learns from
experience” (Sartori, 2008, p.65).
Rising from real citizenship under concrete conditions of socio economic development and political
culture, limiting our approach towards the edges of both ideals, which – we must not lose of sight –
are matter of moral, the science of virtue; according to this view, citizenship and social
responsibility area ethical construct of deontological character (González-Santos, 2008); in a way
that, social responsibility is the virtue of taking a number of decisions on a conscious manner,
assuming the due to respond to the latter to whom it may concern in any given moment.

Litigation of the assessment processes

According to figures of the Environmental Assessment Service (EAS), in twelve years, one hundred
and eight Environmental Impact Assessment Studies have been brought to court, from which
fifteen relate to ILO convention 169, recognizing rights over land and natural resources, and
demands states to consult with indigenous peoples when these might be affected (Sáez, Sergio.
2012). We can see that courts have been used as an instrument to paralyze investment projects,
which has become an implicit risk in project analysis. It is worth mentioning, that in these litigation
processes also concur issues of territorial incompatibility and frailty of permitting and authorization
institutions or the justification of these).
It is precisely this agreement subscribed by Chile, which has had a relevant role in this regard,
being Chile the last country in Latin America to back a regulation of the rights of indigenous
peoples, which has resulting in doubling of project litigation in the last four years.
According to statistics of the EAS, before 2008, the average number of environmental lawsuits was
only six per year, while between 2009 and 2011, this number increased significantly, to an average
of eleven recourses every twelve months.
As for Environmental Impact Declarations (EID), the total number of proposals brought to trial
added thirty eight projects, two of which were paralyzed by court responding to ILO convention
169.
According to numbers of the Industrial Development Society (SOFOFA), currently there are over
forty billion dollars’ worth of investment projects that have not seen the light due to the resistance
of communities. The business association reveals that out of the 100 largest private endeavors to
2020, adding one hundred twenty four billion dollars, there are at least eight large projects risking
their development.

3
The increase in litigation is a situation with shared responsibilities, and it is key to achieve a balance
allowing speeding project implementation. Today we see an important tension between projects,
local communities, and legislation, which in some cases has translated into litigation of investment.
On the other hand, and although until today, the Environmental Courts, only accumulate three
causes for environmental damage against mining companies and fourteen reclamation actions
against administrative procedures related to mining, we expect in the near future that the amount
of actions related to mining will increase, given that recent case law in the Supreme Court, suggest
that issues regarding environmental assessment process, be discussed in these Court, and not
through Protective Actions. These numbers are worrying, given that they reflect project standstill,
delays, fines and sanctions, which have affected the development of mining, but that are common
to a period of adaptation of industry to such changes.
Litigation of environmental conflicts has raised to public opinion its relevance regarding
investment projects, particularly mining and energy. In this sense, discussion on the environmental
impacts or externalities of determined investment projects is mixed with warnings over the urgent
need to approve projects, to sustain growth of our economy and meet international commitments,
especially in the mining sector.

NEW RELATIONSHIP WITH LOCAL COMMUNITIES: SUSTAINABLE MINING

From the ideal exercise of the citizen – company relationship, we observe the construction of spaces
for satisfaction of their demands (needs, desires, and conflicts). In addition to working in support
of achieving the dynamic equilibrium of ecosystems sharing the same territory.
It is necessary for companies to establish a trust relation with communities, in order to avoid that
differences end up being solved in court. In this scenario, the government cannot be a passive
observer, they must create norms that promote an encounter between both actors, understanding
that a harmonic relationship is not only beneficial for both, it is beneficial for Chile.
In this sense companies have begun a voluntary process associated to incorporating aspects
associated to the relationship with communities in their areas of influence or neighboring facilities
or activities.
The latter rises from the daily pressure of Stakeholders over companies to find solutions to specific
problems or demanding for socially responsible behaviors.
Because of this, we consider to be unavoidable to begin planned and inclusive work in order to
strengthen the role of companies with different Stakeholders, towards generating mutual benefits
and assisting social, economic and environmental development, as a key part of their actions. The
main objective is that, trust and long term relationships are generated together with developing
their businesses, in what can be considered an environment of collaboration with citizenship.
Today mining must change the view, from “intervening the territory” towards generating the
“development of territories”.

4
FULLFILLING THE PROMISE
This new relationship not only shall be carried out through a new way of approaching and
dialoguing with communities, but in a way that is much deeper and complex. At Codelco we seek
to apply innovation and investment in new projects to reduce the impacts of our operations and at
the same time increasing efficiency in the use of natural resources.
For example, considering that operations in the north of Chile are located high water stress areas,
the Radomiro Romic Expansion Project will use desalinated sea water to replace fresh water
sources form the high Andes, together with technologies that allow higher recirculation and higher
use efficiency.
At the same time, we will implement a new technique for tailings disposal; the thickened tailing
technology, which means higher efficiencies in the use of water, given a higher recirculation from
tailings dams. This technology will also significantly reduce emissions of particulate matter to the
environment.
In the same way, our Chuquicamata Underground mining Project seeks to reduce over 90% of the
emissions of particulate matter during the process.
Complementing the above, we are implementing online air quality monitoring at all our operations,
dramatically improving the control of emissions, with higher transparency, given that the
information is online and of public access. We are investing over 1.5 billion dollars in technology to
increase emissions capture and gas treatment from our smelting complexes.
These are new standards for Codelco´s projects and development and where created to secure the
success of projects, ensuring competitiveness in the mid and long term and maintaining a license to
operate, which considers environment management and revising demanding targets that allow us
to improve our overall sustainability performance and be recognized as key players in the industry.
The standards, seek to incorporate criteria and indicators, common to the whole Corporation,
which consider a common structure and simple and concrete language, to ease understanding and
ensure implementation.
We carry all of these measures in the new structural projects of Codelco, in order for our new
operations to become world class operations. We constantly strive to develop our territories and
drive Codelco towards virtuous, inclusive, and sustainable mining.

5
REFERENCES

Claude, Marcel. 1997. “Una vez más la miseria ¿Es Chile un país sustentable?” LOM, Santiago de Chile.

Davies, John y Kaufman, Edward. 2002. Second Track/Citizen Diplomacy- Concepts and Techniques for
conflict transformation, Lanham Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, inc.

González y Santos, H. 2008. La ética en el servicio público. International Journal of Good Conscience 3(2):22.64.

Mc Phee, Bernardita, 2010. Conflictos ambientales y respuestas sociales: el caso de reetnificación de la

comunidad de Quillagua. Rev Mad. N° 22, Mayo de 2010. pp. 42-55.

Padilla, César y San Martín, Carlos. 1994. “Conflictos Ambientales. Una oportunidad para la democracia”
Observatorio Latinoamericano de Conflictos Ambientales. Santiago.

Saez, Sergio. 2012. Judicialización de los procesos de evaluación ambiental de proyectos se duplica desde 2008.
El Pulso.

Spadoni, Eliana. 2005. Los Conflictos socioambientales en el contexto Latinoamericano. Fundación cambio
democrático.

Sartori, G. 2008. ¿Qué es la Democracia? Santillana, México.

6
 C HAP T E R 1

CONTROL AND
MONITORING OF
ATMOSPHERIC
CONTAMINATION,
POWDERS AND
AIR QUALITY
Novel Drilling and Blasting Design for Vibration,
Noise and Dust Control for the Communities
Diego González1, Ricardo González1, Carolina Núñez1, Francisco Olea1, Carlos Muñoz1,
Stephen Jeric1, Juan Aravena2 and Manuel Gutiérrez2
1. Orica, Chile
2. Compañía Minera Teck Carmen de Andacollo, Chile

ABSTRACT
The rock fragmentations by blasting, typically generates vibrations, noise, and dust that in a
scenario lacking of control elements, can negatively affect the environmental conditions of the areas
surrounding the blasting operations.
With the objectives of mitigating and controlling the effects of blasting for customers operations,
Orica has developed the Dual Layer Blasting method. This is a non-conventional blasting
technique, that incorporates special multiple charged timing and loading configurations, electronic
delay times sequencing and advanced technology in explosives modelling and applications. A
series of demonstration blasts were developed together with Compañía Minera Teck Carmen de
Andacollo, a medium sized open pit copper mine located in the 4 th Region Northern of Chile to
mitigate and control the blasting influence over the neighbouring of Andacollo town that comes to
within 300 meters of the active mine areas. The results of the new blasting application include:
- Dust Control: The vertical projection of rock and dust ejected, using the Dual Layer method
measured with high speed video was limited to less than 3 meters versus a standard blasting
ranging from 15 to 20 meters. Therefore the decrease is estimated at approximately 80%.
- Vibration: The level of vibration measured using NCVIB online seismograph monitoring
stations, were of less than 3 mm/s, under the average of standard blasting of similar sizes
ranging 2.5 to 4.5 mm/s.
- Airblast (Noise): A decrease of 6% of dBL (versus a Standard Blasting) measured using NCVib
online airblast monitoring stations located on the town perimeter.

Since 2014, Compañía Minera Teck Carmen de Andacollo has applied Dual Layer Blasting method
as a standard operation technique for managing their relationships with the surrounding
community. Based on the results obtained, the Dual Layer Blasting method was validated by
SERNAGEOMIN (Chilean Geological & Mining Survey).

1
INTRODUCTION
The environmental controls to all types of industry in Chile have gained great importance and
could stop any main project if the impact generated causes damage to people, or any natural
resource present near of its location.
Compañía Minera Teck Carmen de Andacollo (Teck CDA) is located less than 800 meters from the
town of Andacollo (10,000 habitants), place that in 2009 was declared by the Environmental
Ministry as a saturated zone due to high level of PM-10 present in different monitoring stations
around the town.
For this reason Teck CDA has the commitment with communities to reduce the environmental
impact so it can continue with a normal operation of mine production.
One of the most critical processes of Teck CDA and in overall of all open cut mine operation is Drill
& Blast. This activity of rock fragmentation, is a generator of vibration, dust, noise and fumes.
To control these effects, the company developed a series of trials for a new blasting technique called
Dual Layer Blast.
This non-conventional technique was designed and developed by Orica and its goal is to reduce the
environmental impact, especially dust, from Drilling & Blasting process.

METHODOLOGY
The new technique of Dual Layer Blasting consists in loading holes with lengths over 15 m with 2
decks with a short stemming between them. This generate 2 layers, the upper layer with less energy
and the bottom one with higher levels of energy, both layers are fired with a difference of a few
seconds between them.

Upper Layer

Bottom Layer

Simulation of
Detonation of Dual
Layer Blasting

Figure 1 Dual Layer Blasting Technique. Double Deck of charge with a stemming lenght between them

2
Teck CDA invited the authorities, government entities and community of Andacollo to be partners
of the project, sharing all the information pre trials and engaging them to be present in the mine for
the three initial blasts.
With that commitment, Teck CDA was looking for approval of SERNAGEOMIN to develop these
trials and if the results achieved the objective of decreasing the environmental impact, then new
technique will be allow to be used as a conventional one in blasting operations.

The initial trials consisted in three shots to evaluate the following items:
 Drill holes availability in double bench of 21 m of length (standard length is 11 m).
 Dust, airblast and vibration levels measurement, comparing them with standard
blasts.
 Operation loading time for this type of blasts.

First Trial
The first blasting had 35 holes detonated with 904 [m²] of surface exposed and 48,273 [ton] blasted
with a Powder Factor of 371 [g/ton].

Upper Layer Bottom Layer

Figure 2 Detonation of layers for the first Dual Layer Blast

Second Trial
The second blasting had 71 holes detonated with 1,877 [m²] of surface exposed and 102,032 [ton]
blasted with a Powder Factor of 371 [g/ton].

3
 Upper Layer Bottom Layer

Figure 3 Detonation of layers for the second Dual Layer Blast

Third Trial
The third blasting had 132 holes detonated with 3,800 [m²] of surface exposed and 200,000 [ton]
blasted with a Powder Factor of 371 [g/ton].

Upper Layer Bottom Layer

Figure 4 Detonation of layers for the third Dual Layer Blast

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Dust Control

The vertical projection of rock and dust ejected using Dual Layer method, measured with high
speed video was limited to less than 3 meters versus a Standard Blasting ranging from 15 to 20
meters. Therefore the decrease is estimated at approximately 80%.

4
 Figure 5 Vertical projection and dust control of Dual Layer Blasting versus standard blast

Vibration

The following chart shows a comparison of the first and second Dual Layer Blasting against
standard blasting of similar size < 150,000 [ton].

10
DIN-4150 Construcciones
Fragiles
PPV (mm/s)

Urmeneta

1
Chepiquilla

DC Urmeneta

0,1 DC Chepiquilla
1 10 100
Frequency (Hz)

Figure 6 Vibration level of first and second Dual Layer Blasting (DC) versus standard blasting of similar size

This following chart shows a comparison of the third Dual Layer Blasting against standard blasting
of similar size > 150,000 [ton].

5
 10

DIN-4150 Construcciones
Fragiles
PPV (mm/s)

Urmeneta
1
Chepiquilla

DC Urmeneta

0,1 DC Chepiquilla
1 10 100
Frequency (Hz)

Figure 7 Vibration level of third Dual Layer Blasting (DC) versus standard blasting of similar size

In both cases the values reached using NCVIB online seismograph monitoring stations are under
the average of standard blasting of similar sizes ranging.

Airblast
A decrease of 6% of dBL measured using NCVib online airblast monitoring stations located on the
town perimeter versus a standard blast. This is shown in the following chart.

Air Blast July - September 2014

150

140

130

120 Urmeneta
dBL

110
Chepiquilla
100

90 Límite
Permisible
80

70
Blast Registered

Figure 7 Airblast of Dual Layer Blasting versus standard blasting

6
CONCLUSION
Is clear that the control of dust obtained with Dual Layer Blasting technique should be the way of
maintaining a clean process of Drilling & Blasting in the rest of useful life of the mine, especially in
zones near the communities.
In addition, the exposed surface, quantities of blasting events and number of holes are reduced in a
50% for a determinate amount of tones to remove.
With the trials results obtained, was presented a report to SERNAGEOMIN, government entity
which approved the use of the technique as a normal operation at Teck CDA.
Since the ending of 2014, Dual Layer Blasting technique has been implemented, technical and
operational pros and cons have been evaluated.
Until now the results are positive and the idea of Teck CDA is to continue using this technique
adjusting its parameters and conditions to different zones of the mine to achieve the objectives
proposed.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
“The environmental impact of blasting is and has been a constant concern for Teck Carmen de
Andacollo. And in seeking solutions, we recognize and appreciate the willingness and proactively
demonstrated by Orica in order to achieve the best performance, both technical and environmental
expected in blasting results” Manuel Gutiérrez, Mine Superintendent, Teck CDA.
“Orica appreciate the opportunity and confidence to develop Dual Layer Blasting with Teck
Carmen de Andacollo, a new Global technique of blasting which key objective is to reduce the
environmental impact of this intrinsic process of any Mine Operation”
Stephen Jeric, Technology Solutions Manager, Orica.

NOMENCLATURE
dBL decibel, way of quantifying the noise
PPV Peak Particle Velocity, way of quantifying vibration.
PM-10 particles under 10 microns measured in part per million
DC Dual Layer, for its Spanish “Doble Capa”

7
Integrating Air Quality Management Systems on a
Territorial Base
Paul Maidstone
Codelco, Chile

ABSTRACT
Codelco operates through 3 divisions which share the same air basin at Calama in Chile.
Traditionally each had an independent air quality management system, resulting in an excess of
monitoring stations and disconnection among them; different methods and formats for emission
inventories; as well as independent meteorology descriptions (depending on the consultant used
for compilation). All this led to monitoring and investment inefficiency and, ultimately, to minimal
impact of the effort on environmental quality. The challenge was to develop mechanisms and tools
with a territorial basis that could actually contribute to consistent, flexible and cheaper divisional
air quality management systems.
The aim of the project was to develop and implement territorial tools for emission inventory,
measurement databases, district basted emission and weather forecasts; unique meteorological
assessments that are consistent with national guidelines, and the use of the air quality modeling
systems common to the district.
Though the project has not been fully implemented there has been important progress towards
integration, achieving results that confirm the expected benefits. Among the results, we have
already achieved standardization of emission factors and their parameters, integration of databases,
and monthly update of activity levels for diagnostic purposes. This has also resulted in
meteorological assessment through the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model. With over
a year’s trial, results are promising and can be used for dispersion simulation with standard
available tools, but also constitute a baseline to be used in environmental assessment for new
projects.
Today we are facing a number of challenges to achieve full integration, but results are already
available and benefits are being perceived by users. We can now speak of actual territorial
management of the air quality in the Calama basin.

1
INTRODUCTION

Air quality management is a key approach for air pollution control and a critical element to develop
an adequate plan is to consider the air basin as the limit of your system. An air basin can be
defined as a territory within a ring of mountains or hills that share meteorological and geographic
conditions and thus we will consider it as the basis to understand the different phenomena
occurring in a location and also to identify the sources and interactions.

Calama is the capital of the el Loa province in the Antofagasta Region of Chile. It is located in the
Atacama Desert and it is considered as the Mining capital of Chile with more than 6 large scale
mining companies operating in it. Codelco has 3 operations which are based in Calama, namely the
Chuquicamata, Radomiro Tomic, and Ministro Hales Divisions.

The Calama air basin is characterized by being located in an extremely arid area and at an altitude
between 2,000 and 3,000 m.a.s.l. It is characterized by temperatures with low yearly variations but
high daily variability and very low relative humidity in what is called a Marginal High Altitude
Desert Climate. Geographically it is characterized by the town of Calama or the oasis located in the
middle of the basin and surrounded by hills of around 2,400 m.a.s.l. and the Talabre Tailings Dam.

Due to the particular characteristics of the basin, the Chilean Ministry of the Environment has
declared Calama and its surroundings as an area saturated for particulate matter under 10 microns
(PM10) through Supreme Decree 59 of 2009 (Decreto Supremo N° 59 de 2009). Currently, the
environmental authorities are updating the 2010 Air Quality Management Plan for Calama (Plan de
Gestión de Calidad del Aire de Calama, 2010).

Figure 1 Spatial location of Codelco operations in the Calama basin

2
The problem
Codelco operates through three divisions that share the same air basin in Calama. Traditionally
each division has managed an independent environmental management system, particularly for air
quality. Each division has implemented its own monitoring station network (over 35 stations in
total) with the associated implementation and maintenance costs involved.

In time, this has also meant that each division has developed methods and formats for their
emission inventories, depending on the consultants in charge and their criteria, resulting in
inconsistencies among divisions (for example different emission factors for equal emission sources)
or even within the same division throughout the years (if the consultant is changed and with him
the applied methodology). There have been several failed attempts to harmonize operations and to
standardize how the information is presented.

This has resulted in inconsistent pollutant dispersion results, and thus the definition and
implementation of measures to mitigate impacts are ineffective, for example: in environmental
assessment purposes, the estimation of mitigation measures can result in that for a 1 µgr/m3 impact
a division might commit x kilometers of paved roads and other y kilometers and synergies towards
improving environmental impact of measures is never achieved.

In terms of transparency this disconnection between divisions has meant that the surrounding
communities do not understand (and shouldn’t) how come that a same company has different
criteria in different operations located very close to each other. This leads to mistrust and to public
questioning of the projects and mitigation measures.

Also, the duplication of efforts leads to increased costs and response times associated to
unnecessary information processing and exchange.

Through this integration project we are addressing the challenge of developing the tools and
mechanisms, based on a district level, to contribute to a consistent, flexible, economic, and efficient
divisional management of air quality.

METHODS
For the last three years the 3 main divisions in the district have been working towards integrating
their air quality management systems within the framework of a Corporate project seeking to
improve reduce inefficiencies and take advantages of synergies regarding air quality management.

The first step was to establish a working group composed of the air quality management system
operators of each division, led by Corporate staff, where common issues were to be discussed. This
group also incorporated the Vice-presidency of Projects, who is in charge of designing, authorizing
and implementing Codelco’s strategic projects.

The first talks sought to level the playing field by identifying those areas for synergy to be
constructed, configuring the requirements for a territorial management of air quality and defining
requirements and internal policies.

One of the key issues addressed in the working group is the sharing and adoption of best
management practices. As an example, one division managed a platform or online simulator for air
quality called SimCa (Figure 2) or air Quality Simulator which allows assessing the impact of real or

3
virtual emission sources, based on common local meteorological information. The simulations,
based on the CALPUFF model, are consistent with the “Guide for the use of air quality models in
the Environmental Assessment System” developed by the Chilean Environmental Assessment
Service. The tool is being implemented at all divisions in the district as a result of the agreements of
the work group and has been key for assessing the impact of specific operations or projects, but also
to evaluate the effectiveness of particular mitigation project.

Figure 2 Typical visualization of SimCa Air Quality Modeling System

Today the Corporation has gone further, establishing a district based organization for
environmental management, aimed at centralizing some aspects of the environmental management,
namely the management of shared resources, such as monitoring station, the management of
simulation platforms. Through this organization, the divisions and Vice Presidency of Projects may
request information for use in their decision making; it will also be the organization in charge of
responding to requests from authorities and the community regarding air quality.

Further steps of the project will seek to raise and standardize emission inventories, emission factors,
and to develop operational controls that take into account weather, meteorological and air quality
criteria and apply them to the daily operations.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

At this moment, the project is far from over but results are beginning to show that the decision to
integrate air quality management systems was the correct decision.

We have already seen important financial benefits from the integration of contracts and we are
beginning to benefit from the wealth of information generated and shared in the district. Currently

4
we are preparing to start evaluating the financial and operational benefits of using standardized
data for environmental assessment.

Also, Codelco will soon start to share the information generated with the communities and the
authorities, thus contributing to local awareness of the variables that determine air quality
throughout the basin.

CONCLUSION
As mentioned above, the integration of the air quality management systems for Codelco’s Northern
District has already shown a number of benefits, both economical and in environmental
performance. The task today is to consolidate the achievements using the available tools to
improve decision making in the short and long-term, developing strategies towards the control and
mitigation of the environmental impacts caused by our operations.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank Mónica, Ruben and the whole air quality management teams for their
invaluable contribution and hard work to achieve consensus and drive towards the goal of
improving environmental performance and also to Rainer for his technical support and ideas
during the process.

I would also like to thank J.C. Torres for his invaluable support in the configuration of this paper.

REFERENCES
Supreme Decree Nº 57/2009 of the Ministry General Secretariat of the Presidency, which declares Saturated
Zone for breathable particulate matter PM10, as annual concentration, the area around the city of
Calama, published on May 30th 2009 in the Official Newspaper of the Republic of Chile.

5
Data Sensitivity in Mine Emissions Inventory
Rosario López1, Steve Lamming1 and Sandro Ludeña2
1. Air Quality Department, Amec Foster Wheeler, Perú
2. Air Quality Department, Amec Foster Wheeler, Canada
3. Environmental Department, Pueblo Viejo Dominicana Corporation, Dominican Republic

ABSTRACT
Mining interests around the world have to determine offsite air quality risks, and while much of
such impact risk assessment has traditionally been determined by dispersion modelling and air
monitoring, it is the determination of source emissions that is the primary input. An accurate
emissions inventory is therefore an essential baseline for managing pollution monitoring and
control activities. Since sources may include either point or fugitive types, such an inventory is
commonly conducted using a variety of methodologies, each of which has its own inherent level of
uncertainty. Calculations are typically based on either public emission factors (eg AP-42) or plant-
specific factors developed by emissions testing. A sensitivity analysis is therefore a tool to evaluate
the overall uncertainty in the emission estimates and to assess where limited resources are best
assigned to gather more detailed information that may be required to refine emissions data. This
paper looks at the sensitivity of total facility emissions of two pollutants to changes in key process
or calculation parameters and compares this with similar data elsewhere. The findings of this study
indicate that the uncertainty attached to emissions from some processes can be significant and
should be assessed as part of any such project to ensure reliable data is used for dispersion
modelling.

1
INTRODUCTION

The mining sector in many countries constitutes a significant impact to local air quality and mining
interests around the world have to quantify offsite air quality risks. While much of such impact risk
assessment has traditionally been determined by dispersion modelling and air monitoring it is the
determination of source emissions that is the primary input, and hence there has been a concerted
effort aimed at ensuring the accurate quantification of atmospheric emissions. For this study,
sources are categorized into two source groups – point and fugitive. Point sources include most of
the ore milling and refining processes and may include both stacks and other vented emissions. In
the case of underground mines, such sources also may include ventilation risers. Fugitive sources
include all of the open pit extraction processes including blasting, ore hauling and tailings, as well
as some process sources including tanks and wet tailings emissions. Source emission inventories
therefore utilize a variety of estimation methodologies all of which have varying levels of inherent
uncertainty. To ensure the capture of the largest variety of sources, the study has focused on two air
contaminants – particulate and nitrogen oxides and looks at both the uncertainty of individual
estimates and the impact of that uncertainty on the overall mine emissions. The study concludes
that for significant emissions sources estimates derived from emission factors should be validated
on the as-built scenario for mine due diligence.

METHODOLOGY

A sensitivity analysis is a tool to evaluate the overall uncertainty in the emission estimates and to
assess where limited site resources are best assigned to gather more detailed information may be
required to refine emissions data. Knowledge of key sources of variability in emissions can also be
used to prioritize strategies for controlling emissions. The emission inventory is typically carried
out using project emission factors developed using a variety of methods or sources including:
 Published emission factors – the option most widely used, the US EPA AP-42 list of
emission factors is often applied, although other agencies have also developed lists and
source measurements are also converted to plant emission factors for use in an inventory.
 Factors developed from source measurements or other calculation – these may be based on
standard test methods such as the list promulgated by the US EPA and other regulatory
agencies, or may have been developed for unique plant situations.

Extraction Milling Refining

Wet ore Metal Metal

Blasting Transport Crushing
processing extraction refining

Figure 1 Operational Schematic

2
While other methods including mass balance for process emission and engineering calculation may
also be employed, the discussion of the sensitivity of plant emission to any particular source has
been made in the context of these two primary methods. For purposes of comparison, mine
operations have been broadly grouped into extraction, milling and refining processes as shown in
Figure 1.

Emission Factors

The basic formulation of an emission rate derived using the emission factor method, is shown as the
product of an activity factor related to a unit of production per unit time, an emission factor which
is a function of the atmospheric emission per selected production unit, and a control efficiency
where such control has been applied.

Emission rate (kg/hr) = Activity rate (units/hr) x Emission factor (kg/unit) x (1 - Control efficiency
(%)/100)

The total plant emission is then the emission for the specified parameter summed over all emissions
sources for that contaminant. The emission factor used may either be obtained from published lists
available from regulatory agencies or may be derived for the specific project from source
measurement or process model data. Where published factors are used, it should be noted that
these have typically been derived from an aggregate of source measurements and may have been
adjusted. Each rate generated will have an uncertainty distribution function attached to both the
activity rate and the emission factor itself (Figure 2).

Figure 2 Contribution of Uncertainty to Output (Frey 2007)

The US EPA applies a qualitative ranking to its emission factors ranging from “A” (excellent to “E”
(poor) and this is based on the quantity and quality of the test data available for the source class.
Pouliot et al, (2012) have quantified uncertainty ranges for the letter ratings and these are shown in
Table 1.

3
Table 1 US EPA Emission factor Rankings and Associated Uncertainty Ranges (Pouliot et al 2012)

Letter Uncertainty
Description
Rating Range
A Excellent 25-62%
B Above average 45-75%
C Average 60-82%
D below average 69-86%
E Poor 82-92%
U Unrated ND

The calculation of emission factors using measured data, obtained through source testing or
continuous emission monitoring, is a function of the exhaust flow rate and the concentration of the
specific contaminant in the flow. There are a therefore a number of factors which can influence the
final result. These can include source design considerations, feedstock geochemistry, location of the
sample point, the test method used (especially for high moisture sources), the source production
rate, control system maintenance, ambient atmospheric conditions or other factors. These can all
have a significant impact on the calculation of emissions from any source, and where such a source
is the largest contributor of pollution there may also be an impact on the emissions inventory. This
may be reduced as the number of test samplers increases over time but will not be entirely
eliminated. To achieve a representative sample it may be necessary to partition the source data to
reflect varying operating conditions. In most test campaigns, uncertainty in measurement methods
or results in not reported and the test result is typically an average of three source tests where the
coefficient of variation (COV) may vary widely.

Data Sensitivity

It is an important aspect of any sensitivity analysis to determine how best to express the
uncertainties associated with individual estimates and then to see how this affects aggregated mine
emissions. While there has been a great deal of discussion on this topic, it has centered on rigorous
statistical methods for uncertainty assessment. However, in many cases uncertainty ranges for
published emission factors are difficult to obtain, while in some cases the use of a given factor has
expanded beyond the original intended use. In practice, standard emission factors are used at the
initial design stage and validation may only be possible post commissioning unless company data
for a similar site is available. Even here it may be difficult to obtain a sample size which will allow
for a robust statistical analysis and expert judgement is often required. For example source tests are
typically based on a three sample per source protocol and it may be several years before enough
data is archived to base any robust statistical analysis.

4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Emission inventory data for the Barrick Pueblo Viejo Mine site were analyzed and the impact of
percentage changes to critical parameters was reviewed in the context of source significance. This
included data from a variety of point and fugitive sources and a range of assessment
methodologies. For uniformity of presentation, all emission methodologies have been compared in
the form of emission factors, either published or plant derived. The particular case of source test
data has been further assessed in terms of measurement variability as an indicator of data
consistency. Data has been further broken out by source categories to examine the relative
contribution in each case to the plant total and to better enable comparison to other, similar, mine
sites.

The percentage contribution to the total PM and NOx emission are shown in Table 2 for each source
category and subcategory included. It should be noted that not all emission categories have been
included since these may be unique to the site and thus not comparable to other locations. For
example the Barrick site produces its own power and process limestone and these aspects have not
been included here. Four other open pit gold mines have been used for data comparison and
include sites in both North and South America. While these will vary in throughput, in all cases the
main mine components (extraction equipment, milling and metals refining) are similar.

A number of items are of interest. The first is the generally low quality rating of the available
emission factors. Most of the non-combustion, mining-related factors have a number of sub-
dependencies where the associated uncertainty will tend to reduce the overall rating (for example
dust suppression efficiency on unpaved haul roads). For blasting operations, NOx emissions are
shown as the most significant contributor to the plant hourly NOx emission. While some past
studies have assumed the NOx blast plume to be negligible, there has discussion between
regulatory agencies as to the significance of this impact. However, given the difficulty in obtaining
good data except by Lidar or other remote measurement and this discussion continues.

It is also noted here that emissions from tanks and cooling towers also appear to be a significant
source of particulate emission. The method here involves assumptions as to the total dissolved
solids (TDS) content of the liquid and the mechanism by which droplets are transferred to the
atmosphere. This carries an E-rating at best and given the level of significance companies should
consider flux measurements for tank emissions speciation.

In general, for the sources of greatest operational significance, it was found that changes in critical
parameters of up to 10% produced variations in final source emission from individual categories of
2 to 12% depending on the relation of the parameter to the particular emission equation used. It is
therefore critical that the emissions sensitivity for those source categories of greatest potential
significance be resolved for each individual project and, where necessary, by additional source
measurement.

5
 Table 2 Percentage Contribution of PM and NOx Emission by Source

Category and Activity Estimation EF % PM in % of total plant % NOx in % of total plant

Method Rating category PM emission category NOx emission
Extraction 63.3% 99.3%
Blasting EF D 28.7% 83.9%
Handling & Transport EF B 1 66.9% 14.0%
Crushing EF E 3.6% 0%
Storage piles EF C1 0.8% 0%
Milling 36.2% 0.3%
Source emissions SM A 2 2.4% 100%
Tanks / Cooling towers EF E 95.4% 0%
Other process tanks EF E 2.2% 0%
Refinery SM A2 100% 0.5% 100% 0.4%
Plant Total 100% 100%
1 Rating reduced due to parameter uncertainty
2 Source test measurements are given in-plant A-rating

Where possible, source measurements are the best method for emissions validation of the as-built
scenario. Table 3 shows the coefficient of variation, defined as the ration of the standard deviation
to the sample mean, sources in the milling and refinery categories. It should be noted that the
higher CoV levels are associated with measurements where moisture loading and other
interferences are likely to impact result quality.

Table 3 Source Test Coefficient of Variation (CoV) by Source category

CoV Range PM COV Range NOx

Max Min Max Min
Extraction n/a n/a n/a n/a
Milling 29.05% 5.04% 56.26% 8.93%
Refinery 16.63% 2.65% 164.62% 23.81%

To put the above data into context, Figures 3 and 4 show NOx and PM emissions for a number of
different mine sites. The numbers are shown as a percentage of the total project emission and are
grouped into the three process categories. While the major impact is related to extraction and in
particular blasting and haul roads (Figure 5), there can be significant emissions from other sources.
It should be noted that while these are all open pit mines, the ore type is varied and power
generation has been specifically excluded. In the case of the PM emissions for Mine A (Figure 4) the
apparently large emission from the milling process is due to the direct application of PM emission
factors to vapour emissions and is being verified.

6
 100

80

60

40

20

0
Mine A Mine B Mine C Mine D Mine E

Extraction Milling Refinery

100

80

60

40

20

0
Mine A Mine B Mine C Mine D Mine E

Extraction Milling Refinery

Figure 3 NOx Emissions Benchmark Figure 4 PM Emissions Benchmark

100,0%

80,0%

60,0%

40,0%

20,0%

0,0%
Mine A Mine B Mine C Mine D Mine E Mine F Mine G

Blasting Haul roads

Figure 5 PM Estimation Variability Major Fugitive Sources as Percentage of Extraction Emissions

Figure 5 shows wide variability in particulate emission estimates taken from a number of
environmental assessments. Once again these are all open pit mines of different sizes and the data
has been normalized by the total extraction process emission for the project.

7
CONCLUSION
In the development of an emissions inventory, the proponent will consider the application of the
most appropriate estimation methodology for each emissions source based on information available
to the project team. Where the overall contaminant impact may be significant and the number of
sources small then increased attention should be paid to logging parameters for those sources that
will most significantly affect the emission rate calculation. In many cases the variability is a strong
function of the assumptions used to derive the estimates and indicates the degree of uncertainty
that is likely when relating such estimates to regulatory limits or in using them to generate fugitive
emission management plans. In conclusion it is strongly recommended that estimates used to
generate emissions profiles for permit processes are validated on the as-built scenario for mine due
diligence and environmental protection.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge the assistance of Amec Foster Wheeler management and
staff in both Mississauga, Canada and Lima, Peru for assistance with the emissions inventory data,
and to Barrick Gold, Pueblo Viejo Mine for provision of information and technical insights.

NOMENCLATURE
CoV Coefficient of Variation
EF Emission factor
NOx Oxides of nitrogen
PM Total particulate matter
SM Source measurement

8
REFERENCES
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2009) Good Practice Guidance and Uncertainty Management in
National Greenhouse gas Reporting, EMEP/EEA Emission Inventory Guidebook 2009.

US Environmental Protection Agency (2007) Emission Factor Uncertainty Assessment Review Draft prepared
by RTI International, February 2007.

Frey H.C. (2007) Quantification of Uncertainty in Emission factors and Inventories, Presented at the 16th
Annual International Emission Inventory Conference , Rayleigh, NC, May 2007

Pouliot G, Wisner E, Mobley D and Hunt W (2012) Quantification of Emission Factor Uncertainty, Journal Air
and Waste Management Association 62(3), 287-298, March 2012

E. Wisner, Mobley D, Pouliot G and Hunt W (2010) Emissions Uncertainty Focusing on NOx Emissions from
Electric Generating Units, Presented at the 19th Annual International Emission Inventory Conference,
San Antonio, Texas, September 2010

9
Natural Dust Sources: Evaluating Particulate Matter
Concentration Within and Outside Mines and its
Effects Over Open Pit Mining Activities
Raúl Arasa, Albert Salvador, Anna Domingo-Dalmau and Martí De Riquer
Meteosim, Spain

ABSTRACT
Natural dust generated in semi/arid regions is the main source of atmospheric particulate matter
(PM) around the world. Natural mineral dust is generated as consequence of the wind erosion over
the soil. Wind-blown mineral dust could generate high levels of PM at local scale and visibility
reductions. When natural dust is generated in high wind conditions, dust storms can be formed,
causing potential health, environmental and safety impacts that could affect local populations and
economical productive sectors in the affected areas.
Open pit mining activities are usually located in regions where wind-blown dust concentration
could be high. For this reason, it is important to take into account with tools allowing to forecast
dust storms and to discriminate between particulates generated by wind erosion within and outside
the mine. Meteosim has been developing modeling systems that provide predictive operational
products that alert the exceedance of environmental or meteorological thresholds for mining. The
environmental predictive system has been shown effective in meteorological and air quality (AQ)
forecasting with high accuracy, helping to identify main emission sources and its contribution over
AQ levels. This system is a true solution for managing the AQ on mining operation with direct
positive impact on the P&L.
In this contribution it is examined the ability of a modeling system to forecast dust storms and
enabling to determine the contribution of natural dust over PM. Therefore, two study cases has
been realized in regions where mining activity is intensive: in the north of Chile near the Atacama’s
Desert and in the Ica’s Department of Peru. The potential PM emission generated from natural dust
erosion has been calculated and its influence over mines has been analyzed. To this end, a
meteorological model has been coupled with a photochemical model, providing meteorological and
AQ forecasting in these mining regions.

1
INTRODUCTION
Air quality is one of the environmental issues that most directly affect the population (Brauer et al.,
2012). It can be defined as gases and aerosol particles emitted that can cause direct or indirect
damage to plants, animals, other life forms, ecosystems, structures or works of art (Jacobson, 2002).
The World Health Organization estimates that 2.4 million people die each year from causes directly
attributable to air pollution, while for particulate matter (PM) the average loss of life expectancy
owing to exposure is estimated to be nine months (EEA, 2007). At the same time, to understand and
mitigate the health effects of PM air pollution have an interesting research (Pope et al., 2006).
Remark that the emission of gaseous and particulate matter into the atmosphere comes not only
from human activity, but also the Earth itself (oceans, deserts, forests, etc.) is capable of generating
atmospheric pollutants. Air quality is a measure of the anthropogenic perturbation of the natural
atmospheric state, and the feedbacks with atmospheric composition and climate have to be
considered (Monks et al., 2009). In the case of aerosols, they can be suspended over long time and
travel over long distances in the atmosphere and can cause a wide range of diseases that lead to a
reduction of human life. In this case the size of particles has been directly linked to their potential
for causing health problems (Ki-Hyun et al., 2015).
Especially in arid and semiarid areas, where natural dust is the main source of this particles (Jiawei
et al., 2011), mineral dust aerosol plays important chemical, radiative, and biochemical roles in the
Earth system. Explaining the observed spatial heterogeneity of global dust emissions is important
for understanding the relative role of natural, and anthropogenic processes in the present-day dust
emissions, and thus for predicting future trends in production (Penner et al., 2001). One of the most
sensitive areas are the Pacific coastal deserts (mainly Chile and Peru), where natural dust emissions
caused by strong winds are more intense. The sandy characteristics of the area favor these events.
In South America, the Andes have a significant influence on the atmospheric circulation and on the
transport of chemical species, because of the pronounced orographic features. Aeolian dust events
are often registered in these regions, especially in desert areas like the Atacama Desert in Chile and
in the Ica’s department of Peru, where there are also many mining industries.
Chile and Peru have very extensive arid and semiarid regions. These, along with the presence of the
mining sector in these desert regions and activities related to them, such as material transport, have
a strong impact on air quality in the area (Lagos, 1997). Thus, nearby urban areas are very strong
influenced by these elements, making air pollution an important problem to consider. This has
made the governments of Peru and Chile have been concerned about it and have taken steps to try
to reduce this impact. Thus, studies of air quality monitoring have helped the importance of
knowing the contribution of the various sources of pollution in each area to urban areas.
The contribution of the mining industry has been very important in the area, making that special
measures to control air quality for this sector had been taken (Ministerio de Energía y Minas, 2007;
Ministerio Secretaría General de la Presidencia, Decreto 66, 2010). Still, their presence in desert
areas makes these also be influenced, especially under episodes of aeolian dust which bring a lot of
aerosols into the environment. Thus providing a forecasting system of these aeolian dusts in mining
areas is a key factor in the proper study of the air quality.
Modelling and forecast air quality has been used for years, involving both meteorological factors
and chemical processes. Models are used for the authorities for to assess mitigation measures and

2
obtain an operating forecast (Saide et al., 2011). Mesoscale meteorological models allow us to study
and simulate meteorological variables, and photochemical models give us information about how
air pollutants disperse in the ambient atmosphere, as well as the air pollutants concentration
forecasting.
In this paper we focus our attention in the use of a photochemical model for the forecasting of
aeolian dust in the regions of Atacama in Chile and in the Ica’s Department of Peru, and how to
discriminate their contribution against other sources of pollutants as particulate matter, specifically
emission sources such as mining industries, as well as elements derived from them like road
material transport. With this target, we decided to use an Eulerian coupled air quality modelling
system (Arasa et al., 2013b), which simulates different processes of trace gases and aerosols. For this
purpose, to obtain a high-resolution information of the soil characteristics and a well-known study
of the area are essential for an efficient air quality modeling system since meteorological outputs
are inputs both in the emission and photochemical models. Other studies have used air quality
models (Cavazos-Guerra et al., 2012) for the study over tropical regions, but in Latin America there
are few studies on aeolian dust, although the results suggest that the problems are the same as
those observed in developed countries (Romieu and Borja-Aburto, 1997; Castanho and Artaxo,
2001; Bogo et al., 2003).

METHODOLOGY
In the following sections we show a more detailed description of the studied areas as well as the
simulation domains and periods analysed.

Studied area
Following the aim of an aeolian dust forecasting in arid and semiarid areas of Chile and Peru, the
Antofagasta region in Chile and the Ica region in Peru were chosen to modelling. These two regions
were selected because their location in middle desert of Atacama and the coastal desert of Peru,
respectively.
Chile is bordered by Peru to the north, Bolivia to the northeast, Argentina to the east and the Drake
Passage in the far south. The Chilean relief consists of the central depression, which crosses the
country longitudinally, flanked by two mountain ranges that make up about 80% of the territory:
the Andes Mountains to the east-natural border with Bolivia and Argentina, and Coastal Range
west-minor height from the Andes. Among the coastal mountains and the Pacific is a series of
coastal plains which allow the settlement of coastal towns and big ports.
The Atacama Desert is a plateau mainly located on northern Chile. It’s the driest non-polar desert in
the world, with contact with the coastline of the Pacific. With an approximate area of 105.000 km2,
it expands southward to a few kilometres above the city of Copiapo, bringing Chilean cities like
Antofagasta and Calama a strong influence by the presence of this desert. At an altitude of between
400 and 1500 meters above sea level, the climate of this region, besides having in mind its presences
on the Tropic of Capricorn, is strongly influenced by the Humboldt Current, an ocean current
caused by the rise of deep, cold waters, which limit evaporation in the area, causing a strong aridity
and the presence of rare and light rain. These conditions favour, in the presence of strong winds,
aeolian dust events.

3
Peru is bordered Ecuador and Colombia to the north, Brazil to the east, Bolivia to the southeast,
Chile to the south and the Pacific Ocean to the west. The Andes Mountains run parallel to the
Pacific Ocean. The costa (coast), to the west, is a narrow plain, largely arid except for valleys created
by seasonal rivers. Along the coast you can find sand covered plains that form the deserts of the
country, such as Sechura (Piura) and Pisco (Ica). The sierra (highlands) is the region of the Andes.
The third region is the selva (jungle), a wide expanse of flat terrain covered by the Amazon
rainforest that extends east.
The coastal desert of Peru is located in most of the coast of Peru, from north to Piura Tacna and the
border with Chile to the south. It is a coastal desert ecoregion with a very arid subtropical climate,
high humidity and very little vegetation. It is narrow but it widens greatly in the departments of
Piura and Ica, with a variable width from a few kilometers to 100 km. The temperature of the
Peruvian coast is less than that corresponding to latitude because of the cold waters of the
Humboldt Current and the barrier caused by the high altitude of the Andes. The coastline is made
up of sandy beaches or steep cliffs, dominated by rectilinear forms and few bays.

Simulations domains and episode selection

In figure 1 we show modelling domains used for the simulations. The coupled air quality modelling
is built over a mother domain (D01) with 27 km spatial resolution centered at 18.3˚ S, 69.8˚ W. It
comprises almost all the territory of Peru, Bolivia, part of Brazil, Paraguay, the northern and central
territory of Chile and Argentina, as well as some part of Uruguay. Part of other countries as
Ecuador and Colombia are partially considered too. We have tried to consider an important part of
the Pacific Ocean as well as the terrain of the territory. In the table 1detailed information can be
found.
In one of the two regions considered, the first nested domain (D02), with a spatial resolution of 9
km, covers the northern territory of Chile and part of the Pacific Ocean, as well as part of Bolivia
and Argentina, considering the topography of the area. Inside of it we can find two new nested
domains D04 and D06, with a spatial resolution of 3 km and 1 km respectively. The domain D04
covers the Antofagasta region and a part of the Pacific Ocean, and the domain D06 cover the region
around the municipalities of Baquedano and Antofagasta, considering the Mejillones peninsula.
In the second region considered, the second nested domain (D03), with a spatial resolution of 9 km,
covers the central and southern territory of Peru and part of the Pacific Ocean. Inside of it we can
find again two new nested domains D05 and D07, with a spatial resolution of 3 km and 1 km
respectively. The domain D05 covers completely the department of Ica and part of the departments
of Lima, Huancavelica, Ayacucho and Arequipa as well as some part of the Pacific Ocean. Finally,
the domain D07 covers the region around the district of Paracas, considering the cities of Paracas,
Ica and Pisco.

Table 1. Simulation domains

Domain Description Resolution Grid points Domain size

D01 Central-western South America 27x27km2 137x137 3699x3699km2
D02 North Chile 9x9km2 139x127 1251x1143km2
D03 Central and south Peru 9x9km2 127x127 1143x1143km2
D04 Antofagasta region 3x3km2 151x112 453x336km2
D05 Ica region 3x3km2 130x112 390x336km2

4
 D06 Antofagasta/Baquedano 1x1km2 139x94 139x94km2
D07 Ica/Pisco/Paracas 1x1km2 133x97 133x97km2

Our goal is to detect and simulate recorded episodes of aeolian dust in the two domains indicated,
to determine the feasibility of the model. In this way, simulations were conducted in two different
days, each one for the two different regions considered. In this case, for the region of Chile we have
chosen an episode of Aeolian dust around the municipality of Antofagasta, near the Mejillones
peninsula. Episodes have been selected based on the news which talk about them, extracted from
the local press.
In the case of Chile, we have studied this area due the high content of erodible soil located in the
Mejillones peninsula is an important source of dust contribution to the air when high winds pass
through the peninsula, especially in dry periods. These dust contributions normally affect the
neighbouring municipalities and mining industries nearby.
In the case of Peru, the presence of Vientos Paracas, common winds in the area, lifted sand of the
surface causing an aeolian dust in the area between the municipalities of Pisco, Paracas and Ica, the
capital of the studied department. In Pisco it was recordered upper winds at 54 km/h, reducing
visibility to 100 meters (Source: laprensa.peru.com, rpp.com.pe).

(a)

(b)

Figure 1 Modelling domains for simulation (left). Domains D06 (a) and D07 (b). [Images generated using
Google Earth]

Modelling approach
We have developed an Eulerian coupled modelling system (WRF-ARW/AEMM/CMAQ) to
evaluate the impact of natural dust over particulate matter concentration. The mesoscale
meteorological model used is Weather Research and Forecasting – Advanced Research (WRF-ARW)
version 3.3 (Skamarock et al., 2008). Air Emission Model of Meteosim (AEMM, Arasa et al., 2013a;
Arasa et al., 2014) is a numerical, deterministic, Eulerian, local-scale model developed by Meteosim

5
S.L. It allows obtaining the intensity of emissions in different areas, either anthropogenic (traffic,
industry, residential, etc.) or natural (emissions caused by vegetation or erosion dust) for the area of
interest. And the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency models-3/CMAQ model is the one used to
simulate the physical and chemical processes into the atmosphere (Byun and Ching, 1999). CMAQ
is an open-source photochemical model which is updated periodically by the research community.
In this contribution we use CMAQv4.7.1, considering CB-5 chemical mechanism and associated EBI
solver (Yarwood et al., 2005), and AERO5 aerosol module (Carlton et al., 2005).
In the domains of study we will use the ability (or ease) of soil to be eroded by the influence of
surface wind. Soil erodibility estimates the amount of sand is exposed at the surface to be eroded by
the wind, and the subsequent formation of aeolian dusts. Erodibility expression is extracted from
the following equation (Ginoux et al., 2001):

( )

(1)

where is the probability to have accumulated sediments in the grid cell of altitude , and
and are the maximum and minimum elevations in the surrounding 1˚x1˚ topography,
respectively. To increase the topographic contrast of these locations, the relative altitude has been
taken at the fifth power. Only land surface with bare soil is considered as possible dust sources. The
choice of assuming a constant area of 1˚x1˚ is based on the surrounding hydrological basin.
The topographic data of the two smaller domains (D06 and D07) were obtained from the USGS
(United States Geological Survey) at a spatial resolution of 3”x3” (approximately 90 meters). As it
has been said, the erodibility surface affected corresponds exclusively to a particular type of soil, so
land use information of the chosen domains is obtained at a spatial resolution of 300 meters, and a
filter by the particular soil type is set in the erodibility map, giving for example values of null
erodibility surfaces covered by water, vegetation covered surfaces, etc. In figure 2 we show the
erodibility factor calculated for the regions analyzed.

Figure 2 Erodibility factor calculated for the region of Ica (left) and Antofagasta (right)

6
This erodibility factor (also source function) will be introduced in the following equation, giving us
the emission flux aerosol particle (Ginoux et al., 2001):
( )
{ (2)

where is an empirical proportionality dimensional constant equal to 1 µg s 2 m-5, is the source

function, is the horizontal wind speed at 10 meters, is the threshold velocity, and is the
fraction of each size class, which has a dependence with the particle size. So, the values are thus
0.1 for the class 0.1-1 µm, and 1/3 for the classes 1-1.8 µm, 1.8-3 µm and 3-6 µm, respectively.
Constant is an empirical proportionality constant, as descrived above, originally estimated based
on regional datasets. In this work, we fixed this constant to value 0.5 µg s2 m-5 as in Cavazos-
Guerra et al. In the case of threshold velocity, this is mainly affected by the interparticle cohesion
forces which depends on the particle size and the surface wetness, as gives the following equation:

( )
{ √ (3)

where = 6.5 is a dimensionless parameter, is the surface wetness, is the particle diameter, is
the acceleration of gravity and and are the particle and air density, respectively.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The meteorological situation during the day of February 23th of 2015 in Peru has been modelled
with the WRF-ARW model and it has been compared with the situation described by the press. The
wind was parallel to the coast during the day, increasing their intensity reaching up to 17 m/s in the
last hours of the day. Thus, we used this weather situation with the parameters described above in
the Methodology Section to calculate the dust erosion flux of PM10 and subsequently introduced
into the CMAQ model to see the results of concentration of PM10 and PM2.5 in the regions of study.
In figures 2 and 3 we show wind velocity and wind direction modelled using WRF model and the
particulate matters concentrations modelled, respectively, for the region analysed over the region of
Ica.

7
 Figure 2 Wind speed and wind direction at 19 UTC (left) and 20 UTC (right) for the region of Ica

8
 Figure 3 Daily values for PM10 concentration (upper) and PM2.5 concentration (lower) for the region of Ica

We can see that for both classes of concentration have maximum daily values near the coast, with
values above 150 µg/m3 and 25 µg/m3 for the PM10 and PM2.5 concentration daily values,
respectively, 30 km south of the city of Paracas and 10 km west of Pisco. We emphasize these values
because they are the limit values set by the regulations, 150 µg/m3 for daily PM10 concentrations by
Decree 074-2001-PCM, and 25 µg/m3 for daily concentrations of PM2.5 by Decree 003-2008-MINAM.

CONCLUSION
We can see that the development of an Eulerian coupled modelling system provides us a tool
allowing to forecast wind-blown mineral dust effects and to discriminate between particulates
generated by wind erosion within and outside mines. That way, this tool is useful in the forecast of
natural dust contributions in the air, which allows us to make predictions about the limitations on
the amount of pollutants that can be emitted by mining industries close to the affected areas, based
on weather forecasts. It is also useful in assessing the dust contributions in episodes which the
legislated limit values have been overcome in the past, and how to distinguish them from other
types of emissions. The environmental predictive system has been shown effective in
meteorological and air quality (AQ) forecasting with high accuracy, helping to identify main
emission sources and its contribution over AQ levels. This system is a true solution for managing
the AQ on mining operation with direct positive impact on the P&L.

9
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11
 C HAP T E R 2

ENERGY AND
ENVIRONMENTAL
ISSUES
Utilizing Heat Pumps for Recovery of Geothermal
Energy in Mineral Processing Water
Ian Ross1, Gregory Ross2 and John Scott1,2
1. Bharti School of Engineering, Laurentian University, Canada
2. Northern Ontario School of Medicine, Laurentian University, Canada

ABSTRACT
The mining and mineral processing industry contains many opportunities for improving overall
energy efficiency through the recovery of energy from low-grade otherwise waste thermal
resources. This has led to significant interest in the potential of flooded and abandoned mines as
sources of geothermal energy for space heating after mine closure. The same concept can be applied
just as effectively to active mine and mineral processing sites and the objective of current work is to
examine the potential for cost effective recovery of thermal energy present in process waters.
To examine this opportunity, a heat pump system was modeled and analyzed over a representative
year of data to predict system performance. A financial replacement analysis was then undertaken
to examine the possibility of using the heat pump system to deliver space heating and cooling at a
comparative, or lower, annual cost than the currently installed natural gas/air conditioning system.
The environmental impact in terms of carbon dioxide emissions from both heating systems was
also examined. It was found that lower annual costs can be realized and carbon dioxide emissions
reduced significantly by utilizing a heat pump system.

1
INTRODUCTION
Opportunities for heat recovery within the mining and mineral processing industry are numerous
and include both operational and decommissioned sites. This is exemplified by a growing body of
research examining opportunities for heat recovery from flooded mine workings (Hall et al. 2011),
(Richardson, Lopez 2014). These flooded mines are potentially a long-term environmental hazard,
but novel schemes are being proposed and implemented that could transform them into a valuable
asset. The geothermal heat conducted across the mine walls and into the mine water can be
recovered and employed in a variety of uses, particularly as a source of thermal energy for space
heating. The temperature of the mine water is often very low, between 15 to 20°C. As such, it is
considered a low grade thermal resource; too cool for direct use applications such as power
generation or material processing. Before a low grade thermal resource can be employed it must be
increased in temperature, termed upgrading. The method of upgrading employed by these heat
recovery schemes is a heat pump.
If low grade heat recovery utilizing heat pumps from abandoned mines is possible, then
opportunities within active mining and mineral processing sites can be capitalized upon as well.
Water that is removed from the sumps of a mine has been exposed to the elevated temperature
found underground, and therefore represents an opportunity for energy recovery. Therefore, the
potential of using the dewatering system of an operational mine as a thermal resource has been
examined (Jinggang et al., 2010; Du et al., 2013). In the field of mineral processing, focus on heat
recovery has tended towards high temperature resources, but a recent paper by (Fang et al. 2015)
examined the potential of using heat recovery from low grade sources in the 20-40 °C range at a
copper smelter in northern china for district heating.
The purpose of this paper is to model opportunities for heat recovery within the mineral processing
industry. This has been done by combing site specific data and performance data from a variety of
commercially available heat pumps to arrive at conclusions as to the applicability of on-site space
heating and cooling. Technical, economic and environmental assessments were made, in particular
the determination of total annual costs and carbon dioxide (CO 2) emissions. The specific site
examined was the Sudbury INO (Glencore Company), smelter site in Falconbridge, Ontario,
Canada. This site processes a mixture of nickel-copper ores and custom feeds, recovering cobalt,
gold, silver, platinum and palladium. The climate of Sudbury is relatively cool, requiring
approximately 70% less cooling than heating over the year. Therefore, the main focus is on space
heating, but the heat pumps are also examined for their applicability to space cooling during the
summer.

2
BACKGROUND
Our work focuses on thermal resources in the mining and mineralogical industry that are of a
temperature too cool for direct use in space heating (e.g., by use of heat exchangers). The value of
these thermal resources is, therefore, dependent on whether the process of upgrading can be done
in a cost effective manner.
One technology capable of upgrading a low grade thermal resource is a heat pump (Bhattacharjee
2010; Bruckner et al., 2015). Heat pumps have been commercially available for over a century, with
perhaps the most common examples found in household appliances such as refrigerators and air
conditioners. In essence, a heat pump is a device that moves thermal energy from a low
temperature source to a higher temperature sink or vice versa. This process reduces the local
entropy of the system, and so requires work, typically in the form of added electricity to run
compressors and pumps (Moran et al., 2011).
The performance of a heat pump is expressed using the coefficient of performance (COP), defined
as the number of units of thermal energy delivered/removed in heating/cooling mode given a unit
of input energy. The higher the COP, the more effectively the heat pump operates. The COP of any
heat pump is bounded above by the Carnot COP, which is a function of the source and sink
temperature, TC and TH respectively.
(1)

This equation illustrates a key property of heat pumps; that the COP increases as the difference
between the temperatures of the source and sink, called the lift, converges to zero. While
commercial heat pumps have COPs well below this theoretical maximum, the trend of increasing
COP as the temperature difference decreases still holds (Spoelstra et al., 2002). This property
illustrates why any thermal resource (even one only marginally warmer than ambient conditions)
offers a valuable opportunity for heat recovery. A warmer source leads to an increased COP, and
an improved COP increases the likelihood that the heat recovery scheme will operate in a cost
effective manner.
Using the Sudbury INO smelter site as an example, three process streams were identified as of
interest to the proposed heat recovery scheme:
 The calciner, which processes a mix of custom feeds including lithium ion batteries and
oil refinery catalysts.
 The furnace, where the majority of ore and custom feed is processed.
 The matte granulation process path, which includes the unit operations necessary to
convert furnace outflow into a finely granulated product.
Process water available from these three facilities is utilized to cool equipment and processing
units. Both the furnace and the matte granulation process waters are circulated in closed loops as
cooling water, while the calciner process water is discharged to a settling pond. A summary of the
average temperature and flow rate over a year of data collection for these process waters is given in
Table 1.

3
 Table 1 Average source characteristics

Matte granulation Furnace Calciner

Temperature (°C) 22.7 ± 3.2 18.2 ± 2.4 12.3 ± 0.7

Flow rate (L/s) 487.2 ± 96.5 23.6 ± 0.9 18.7 ± 3.3

All heat recovery opportunities must be matched with a use for the recovered heat, called the sink.
For the heat recovery scheme proposed in this work, the sink is a laboratory and office facility
located adjacent (within 250m) to the smelter site. In January, the coldest month of the year, the
facility has a heating demand (interchangeably called the heating load) of 1 MW, and in July it has a
cooling demand of 268 kW. This facility currently employs a space heating/cooling system
comprising of a natural gas furnace and a central air conditioner. Since the distribution system is
forced air, the range of heat pump options is restricted to water-to-air (heat pumps that exchange
thermal energy between water on the supply side and air on the demand side).

METHODOLOGY
The design of the heat pump system is as follows:
 A piping run is installed above ground that connects the source of process water to the
central distribution point of the sink. This run is 250 m long for the calciner, while both
the furnace and matte granulation have runs of 200 m.
 The process water is then split into multiple flows, each flow being made to contact the
internal heat exchanger of a heat pump. This array of heat pumps is called a heat pump
bank. The heat pumps must be arranged in parallel because they have maximum flow
rates much less than the total supply of process water necessary to meet peak heating
demand.
 After passing through the heat pump bank, the process water is returned to its source.
Piping connections are made of American standard schedule 40 four-inch stainless steel pipe
because it tended to place fluid velocities in the range of 1-3 m/s, recommended by (Holland, Bragg
2002). This piping was wrapped in three inch fibreglass insulation to minimize the temperature
drop from source to sink. A total of thirteen commercially available heat pumps from
Waterfurnace, Geosmart and Carrier were examined for their application to the heat pump system.
Operating data for COP, pressure loss and power as a function of flow rate and temperature was
obtained from supplier specifications. The capital cost of a given heat pump unit was determined
using a cost approximation curve supplied by Staffell et al., (2012). The capital cost, CC, adjusted
for July 2015 US dollars (US$) is a function of nominal capacity, Cap, as seen below in equation (2).
The nominal capacity of a heat pump is calculated as the product of its power requirement and
COP, both of which are evaluated at the industry standard of 8.33 °C.
(2)

The temperature change and pressure loss that occurs in the piping run was calculated using
equations commonly used in heat transfer and fluid mechanics (Incropera et al., 2006; Munson et

4
al., 2009). A finite difference method was employed across the length of piping to calculate the total
temperature change. The temperature change is necessary to accurately determine the COP of the
heat pumps, and pressure losses are used to determine power requirements of the circulation
pumps.
By leaving the number of heat pumps as a variable, a financial optimization can be performed in
which a minimum cost system is determined. Such a system will employ a mixture of both natural
gas and heat pump sourced space heating, using natural gas as a peak shaving method during the
coldest months of the year. The temperature and pressure change through the heat pump bank is
equal to the loss through a single heat pump due to the parallel arrangement. The change in
temperature of the process water was calculated using equation (3), where ∆T is the change in
process water temperature, q the thermal energy added or removed by the heat pump, Q the
volumetric flow rate, cp the specific heat of water and the density of water.
(3)

This temperature change, which is negative for the majority of the year when the heat pumps are in
heating mode and removing thermal energy from the process waters, is an unintended benefit of
the heat pump system. Since the process waters are ordinarily used as coolants, additional
temperature decreases in them will be beneficial.
To compare the proposed heat pump system with the current system, the cost of operating either
system is expressed on an annual basis. This comprises of both operating costs and annuitized
capital costs. The annual cost of the current system comprises only the operating cost of natural gas
for the furnace and electricity for the air conditioner since capital costs are sunk. The heat pump
system has an annual cost that includes the operating costs of supplying the heat pump and
circulation pumps with electricity, as well as annuitized capital costs such as the cost of purchasing
heat pumps and installing piping. These capital costs are converted to an annuity by employing
equation (4). PV is the current cost, AV the annuitized cost over n years, and i the hurdle rate for
Sudbury INO.
(4)

Maintenance costs for either system are very difficult to predict accurately. However, because heat
pump systems tend to have lower maintenance costs than natural gas systems (Cane et al., 1998), it
is possible to forgo maintenance and still have a valuable model because the analysis is made more
conservative by tipping the economics in favour of the current system. A summary of the critical
prices and system lifetimes employed in the analysis is given in Table 2.

Table 2 Key financial values

Parameter Value Units Comments

Hurdle rate (i) 15 %
Average electricity cost 6.85 ¢/kWh (IESO, 2015)
Average gas cost 2.23 ¢/kWh (Union Gas, 2015)
Heat pump life 20 Years Commonly cited in literature

5
Associated CO2 emissions to either system were calculated using equation (5). E is the annual
emissions, in tonnes of CO2, while CEF is the carbon emission factor and C represents consumption.
(5)

The subscripts e and ng stand for electricity, in kWh, and natural gas, in m3, respectively. The
carbon emission factor for natural gas is 0.001879 tonnes of CO 2/m3 natural gas (Environment
Canada, 2013). In Ontario, the carbon emission factor for a kWh of electricity is only 0.04 kilograms
of CO2, due to a heavy reliance on nuclear and hydroelectric generation (Aegent Energy Advisors,
2015).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The annual cost for the current space heating and cooling natural gas system and nine different heat
pump systems is given in Figure 1. The total annual cost for each system is broken into four
categories: the electrical power consumed by the heat pump bank, the electrical power necessary to
run the circulation pumps, the annuitized capital costs of the heat pump system and the cost
associated with any supplementary natural gas heating capacity (the entirety of the cooling demand
being met by heat pumps). Only the heat pump model from a manufacturer that resulted in the
lowest annual cost is displayed. The manufacturers were Waterfunace, Geosmart and Carrier
(abbreviated as WF.,G. and C. in the following figures). As a result, there are three different heat
pump models for each of the calciner, furnace and matte granulation process flows (abbreviated as
Cal., F. and MG. respectively), for a total of nine systems.

Annual System Costs

140.000
Annual Cost (US$)

120.000
100.000
80.000
60.000 Supp Cost
40.000
Cap Cost
20.000
0 Pump elec.
HP elec.

System

Figure 1 Annual system costs for the current system and a collection of cost minimized heat pump
systems

6
As illustrated in Figure 1, a key result of the financial optimization is that a cost minimized heat
pump system will rely on a significant amount of supplementary natural gas heating. The natural
gas sourced heating is often equal to or greater than the total heating provided by the heat pumps.
This result is driven by the comparatively higher capital costs and lower operating costs that heat
pumps have with respect to a natural gas based system. If heat pump capacity is installed to meet
peak heating demand than there will be heat pump units that only operate for the coldest months of
the year. These marginal use heat pumps will fail to recoup their higher capital costs with lower
operating costs. With the capital cost of natural gas sourced heating being sunk, the heat pump
systems rely even more heavily upon natural gas capacity, and, therefore, only as many heat
pumps as can ensure high utilization across the entire year should be installed.

For the systems presented above, equation (5) was employed to determine their associated annual
CO2 emissions as a function of their consumption of natural gas and electricity. The results of this
analysis are shown in Figure 2.

Annual CO2 Emissions

900
CO2 emissions (tonnes)

800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0

System

Figure 2 Annual CO2 emissions associated to the systems of Figure 1

All heat pump based systems resulted in significantly lower annual CO 2 emissions when compared
to the current system. The most expensive heat pump system, based on calciner process water and
Carrier 50 VQP series model 240, resulted in a decrease in annual CO 2 emissions of 276 tonnes. The
system that resulted in the lowest annual cost, a matte granulation process water based system
employing the Waterfurnace Envision NLV series model 240 heat pump had the greatest reduction
in emissions at 500 tonnes per annum. This reduction was due to the exceptionally high COP (in
both heating and cooling mode) exhibited by this model (Table 3).

Table 3 Number of heat pumps within the bank and averaged COP

7
 Model Number of heat pumps COPheating COPcooling
Cal., WF240 4 6.0 8.4
Cal., G70 8 4.3 6.7
Cal., C240 3 4.4 5.0
F.,WF240 6 6.5 7.6
F., G70 9 4.6 6.0
F., C181 5 5.0 4.4
MG., WF240 6 6.9 7.0
MG., G70 10 4.9 5.4
MG., C181 5 5.3 4.1

From Table 1, it can be seen that the matte granulation process water flow has the highest average
temperature, followed by those of the furnace and the calciner. As a result, Table 3 shows a general
trend of increasing heating COP as the different sources are employed from calciner to matte
granulation. There is the reverse trend in the cooling COP, which decreases. This is expected from
Equation (1), as rising source temperature increases the efficiency with which thermal energy is
extracted from the source water and pumped into the building, but decreases the efficiency with
which thermal energy can be pumped the opposite way. The greater demand for heating over
cooling means higher heating COPs are preferable to higher cooling COPs, so higher temperature
thermal sources lead to lower cost systems.

The unintended benefit of cooling the process water flow by employing it in a heat pump system is
presented in Figure 4 (which uses the MG.,WF240 system). As can be seen, temperature decreases
associated with heating are far more numerous than the slight increases that result from employing
the heat pumps for cooling. Averaged over an entire year, the drop in process water temperature
through the heat pump bank is approximately 3.7°C. This temperature drop will improve the
overall efficiency of the process waters in their intended use as coolants.

Temperature Change by Month

3
2
Temperature change (°C)

1
0
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
-7
Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
Month

8
 Figure 3 The change in temperature of the process water through the heat pump bank

CONCLUSION
Opportunities for heat recovery within mining and mineral processing are significant. As energy
costs increase and the industry becomes more environmentally and socially aware, the value of
recovering these otherwise waste thermal resources grows. It is, therefore, worthwhile examining
all thermal resources available on site for their application to heat recovery schemes. Whilst
historically heat recovery has been largely focused on high grade opportunities, the abundance of
low grade opportunities in temperature ranges only marginally above ambient should not be
ignored.

From examination of three different process water streams on a smelter site, with temperatures in
the range of 10-25°C, it was determined that significant reductions in annual heating/cooling costs
(in the range of 9-22%) are attainable from using multiple heat pump systems. In addition to cost
savings, it was determined that reductions in annual CO 2 emissions of 31-63% are possible. The
system with the best cost performance also had the best emissions performance and presented
annual operational savings of 22% and emissions reduction of 63%.

While the results presented in this work are specific to a smelter site, the generality of the analysis
offers implications for other mining and mineral process sites. Since mines have warm water flows
(such as from dewatering) and buildings that require space heating and cooling (such as the mine
head, administrative and workshop facilities) similar heat recovery heat pump systems could be
designed that utilize “untapped” thermal resources to reduce both costs and emissions.

9
ACKNOWLEGMENTS
The authors would like to thank Sudbury INO (a Glencore company) for supplying critical data and
site knowledge that made this work possible.

REFERENCES
Aegent Energy Advisors, (2015)-last update, Ontario Electricity Carbon Intensity: How Does It Measure Up?
[Homepage of Aegent Energy Advisors], [Online]. Available:
http://www.aegent.ca/newsletters/OntarioCarbonIntensity.html [05/11, 2015].
Bhattacharjee, K., (2010), Energy conservation opportunities in industrial waste heat recovery systems, Energy
Engineering: Journal of the Association of Energy Engineering, Vol. 107(6), pp. 7-13.
Bruckner, S., Liu, S., Miro, L., Radspieler, M., Cabeza, L.F. And Lavemann, E., (2015), Industrial waste heat
recovery technologies: An economic analysis of heat transformation technologies, Applied Energy, Vol.
151, pp. 157-167.
Cane, D., Morrison, A. And Ireland, C., (1998)-last update, Maintenance and Service Costs of Commercial
Building Ground-Source Heat Pump Systems [Homepage of ASHRAE], [Online]. Available:
http://www.wfiglobal.com/documents/research/7-4.pdf [05/11, 2015].
Du, H., Dou, Y. And Qi, C., (2013), Application of mine water for water-source heat pump system, Applied
Mechanics and Materials, 291-294, pp. 1701-7.
Environment Canada, (2013)-last update, Fuel Combustion [Homepage of Environment Canada], [Online].
Available: http://www.ec.gc.ca/ges-ghg/default.asp?lang=En&n=AC2B7641-1 [05/11, 2015].
Fang, H., Xia, J. And Jiang, Y., (2015), Key issues and solutions in a district heating system using low-grade
industrial waste heat, Energy, 86, pp. 589-602.
Hall, A., Scott, J.A. And Shang, H., (2011), Geothermal energy recovery from underground mines, Renewable
and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 15(2), pp. 916-24.
Holland, F. And Bragg, R., (2002), Fluid Flow for Chemical and Process Engineers, Butterworth-Heinemann.
IESO, (2015)-last update, Power Data [Homepage of Independent Electricity System Operator], [Online].
Available: http://www.ieso.ca/Pages/Power-Data/default.aspx#download [05/11, 2015].
INCROPERA, F.P., DE WITT, D.P., BERGMAN, T.L. And LAVINE, A.S., (2006), Fundamentals of heat and mass
transfer, 6th ed edn. John Wiley & Sons.
Jinggang, W., Meixia, D., Chuanchuan, D. And Xiaoxia, G., (2010), Exergy analysis of mine water source heat
pump system, Advanced Materials Research, 121-122, pp. 980-5.
Moran, M.J., Shapiro, H.N., Boettner, D. And Bailey, M.B., (2011), Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics,
6 edn. John Wiley & Sons.
MUNSON, B.R., YOUNG, D.F., OKIISHI, T.H. And HUEBSCH, W.W., (2009), Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanic,
6th edn. USA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
RICHARDSON, J.J. And LOPEZ, D.L., (2014), Investigating heat flow through a flooded coal mine complex for
heat pump applications, Abstracts with Programs - Geological Society of America, 46(6), pp. 119.
Spoelstra, S., Haije, W.G. And Dijkstra, J.W., (2002), Techno-economic feasibility of high-temperature high-lift
chemical heat pumps for upgrading industrial waste heat, Applied Thermal Engineering, 22(14), pp. 1619-
1630.
Staffell, I., Brett, D., Brandon, N. And Hawkes, A., (2012), a review of domestic heat pumps, energy and
environmental science, 5(11), pp. 9291-9306.
Union Gas, (2015)-last update, Important Information About Your Rates [Homepage of Union Gas], [Online].
Available: https://www.uniongas.com/~/media/aboutus/rates/residential/rate310.pdf?la=en [05/11,
2015].
WATZLAF, G.R. And ACKMAN, T.E., (2006), Underground mine water for heating and cooling using
geothermal heat pump systems, Mine Water and the Environment, 25(1), pp. 1-14.

10
Assessment of Hydra-Energetic Resources in Small-
Scale Underground Mining
John Niño1 and Juan Salamanca2
1. Mining Engineering School/Universidad Pedagógica y Tecnológica de Colombia (UPTC),
Colombia
2. Electronics Engineering School/Universidad Pedagógica y Tecnológica de Colombia
(UPTC), Colombia

ABSTRACT
Usually the mining industry generates environmental strong impact on areas in which mining
projects are operating. One of the major impacts is on the water resources; for example, when the
mine drainage is pouring in the surface water. Currently, a challenge of modern mining industry is
to develop processes that do not pollute the environment, especially the water. Mining companies
make large investments for treating drainages, which has high cost due to the electricity
consumption for evacuating out the drainage. This investment increases according to the mine size
and quantity of drainage. Therefore, mine drainage has being seen as an environmental and
economic problem for the mining companies. This paper presents an assessment method of hydro-
energetic potential in an underground mine, in order to evaluate the possibility of using mining
drainage to generate electricity.

1
INTRODUCTION
The mine drain is very important in the underground mining operation and a priority to remove
the drainage of mine working areas and facilitate the mineral removal from the ore deposit, see
(Fernandez Rubio & Fernandez Lorca, 1993), (Cope, Larry;, 2013). For evacuating the mine drainage
from the depth of a mine, mining companies must adapt their adits and use high power equipment
such as electric pumps, (Pizarro Losilla, 2007) (Vosloo, Kleingeld, & Bolt, 2011). The treatment of
mine drainage produces a high cost due to the electricity consumption and equipment used in the
mining operation, (Fernandez Rubio & Fernandez Lorca, 1993). Likewise, this cost depends on the
kind drainage, which is relating to the level and variety of contaminants, (Sanchez Rial & Ferreira
Centeno, 2011), (ICMM, International Council on Mining & Metals, 2012).
In Colombia, Boyacá province is one of the most important coal producers. In Boyacá, there are two
kinds of coals, namely, the thermal one and the bituminous one, the both are of high quality. The
coal production in Boyacá is very important for Colombian production of coal, (Ministerio de Minas
y Energía, UPME, 2005). Due to the geographic, hydrographic and hydrological characteristics of
this region, Boyacá has phreatic levels and presence of surface water and underground sources.
These factors and water infiltration from atmospheric precipitation in rainy seasons increase the
drainage in underground coalmines see (Fernandez Rubio & Fernandez Lorca, 1993), (Pizarro
Losilla, 2007) (Niño Merchán, Salamanca, & Blanco Castañeda, 2014). In Colombia, the mine
drainage is an environmental and economic problem for mining companies, government
authorities and surrounding communities of mining projects, see more information in (Gelvez,
Laverde, & Escalante, 2008), (Díaz Álvarez & Jiménez García, 2013)); currently few large coal-
producing companies make depollution treatments; see (Gelvez, Laverde, & Escalante, 2008)
(ICMM, International Council on Mining & Metals, 2012).
In countries like Chile, Australia, South Africa and Canada (where mining sector is very important
in the country economy), mining companies recycle the mine drainage and water used in their
plants. It is important to note, the mining industry is one of the few industries that use poor quality
water in their productive processes, see for example (ICMM, International Council on Mining &
Metals, 2012), (Niño Merchán, Salamanca, & Blanco Castañeda, 2014).
One of the most important promising options for using mine drainage is in electrical generation.
From the micro-generation point of view, the possible application of the generated energy from
mining drainage, are automation of processes in mining, illumination for the tramming tunnel in
deep mining, power supplies for sensors and actuators, communication networks, chargers for
lamps, etc. (Almudena Ordónez, Pablo Cienfuegos, & Loredo, 2013), (Higuera, Romero, España,
Niño Merchán, & Salamanca, 2013), (Niño Merchán, Salamanca, & Blanco Castañeda, 2014).
This paper presents an assessment method of hydra-energetic potential in an underground mine, in
order to evaluate the possibility of using mining drainage to generate electricity. The reported
results are relating to a study of feasibility to generate electricity by using Hydra-energetic
Resources in the VENTANAS- SAYEMIR mining company, which has eight mines that produce
bituminous coal. In the performed study, authors present a general description of the mining area,
the analysis of height to determine the generation potential, flow calculation and a brief description
of hydrology of coalmine.

2
GENERAL INFORMATION OF THE MINING AREA
The VENTANAS SAYEMIR mining company is placed in Socotá town, Boyacá, Colombia. There,
the company has a mining concession title of 36 ha and 94 m2. (See Figure 1). This study area is
located at 2800 m above sea level, (VENTANAS SAYEMIR, 2006), and its coordinates are shown in
the Table 1.

Table 1.Coordinates of the study area

Pto. Pto. Distance North East
Start Final (m)
P.S 1 1.752,75 1’156.695.87 1’158.626.990
1 2 800.00 1’156.011.24 1’160.240.504
2 3 500.00 1’156.386.85 1’160.946.846
3 4 300.00 1’156.828.33 1’160.712.110
4 5 605.04 1’156.969.18 1’160.976.988
5 6 1.113.74 1’156.434.96 1’161.261.037
6 1 280.00 1’155.764.57 1’160.371.661

Source. Authors
Figure 1. Mining Study area

In the concession area, company exploits coal seams 1, 2, 5, 6 and 7 of the superior member of
geological Formation 'Guaduas'. The company operates eight mines; of these, four are using to
evacuate the mine drainage generated in the underground operations. Table 2, shows the structural
features of coalfield and Table 3 presents a list of the eight mines indicating in which of them, the
mine drainage is evacuating. Figure 2 shows the sequence of coal seams in the mining area and
stations pumping.

Table 2. Structural features of coalfield

Coal Seam Thickness (m) Coal hardness Strike and Dip Intercalation(m)
One 1.6 Soft N68°W,18°NE 0.50
Two 2.0 Soft N69°W,17-19°NE 0.23
Five 1.6 Soft N70°W,18-20°NE 0.25
Six 1.8 Soft N71°W,19-21°NE 0.15
Seven 1.5 Soft N69°W,19-21°NE 0.10

3
Table 3. Operating mines, with evacuation of
mine drainage and elevation of each mine
Mine Seams Drainage Elevation
name Mined Evacuation (m)
B.m 1 Seam 1 Yes 2748
manto 1
La Seam 2 Yes 2760
Metálica
B.m 1 Seam 2 Not 2812
Manto 2
La Seam 2 Yes 2834
Quebrada
San José 1 Seam 5 Not 2901
San José 2 Seam 5 Yes 2848
San Seam 6 Not 2877
Marcos
La Loma Mantles Yes 2897
6,7 Figure 2. Sequence of coal seams and stations pumping
Source. Authors Source. Authors

GROSS HEAD MEASURING

The head is a difference between the highest elevation at the location of the water source and the
lowest point, where the turbine is located; see (Niño Merchán, Salamanca, & Blanco Castañeda,
2014). In this study, the head was calculated only for mines in which the drain is removing. For
calculation the head, firstly, researchers measured the highest and lowest height by using a GPS;
then, the information of GPS is use to conduct a topographical survey to determine the accurate
heights. According to the head value, it is possible to determine two situations for generation from
drainage: i) The mine topography is favourable and there are several suitable heights for generator
location; ii) The topography is not favourable, therefore, the generator must be located in the
highest place.

Figures 3 and 4 present a graphic description of discussed situations, showing explicitly the
location of the primary treatment tank of drainage. The drain should be previously treated for the
generation system, more information in (Higuera, Romero, España, Niño Merchán, & Salamanca,
2013) (Niño Merchán, Salamanca, & Blanco Castañeda, 2014).

4
Figure 3. Favorable topography for generation with Figure 4. Topography not favorable for generation
drainage with drainage
Source. Authors Source. Authors

According the above analysis, it is determined that for mines, “La Quebrada”, “La Loma” y “San José
2” their gross heads of 10 m to 25 m. With favorable topography. In the mines “La Metálica” and
“B.m 1 manto 1”, is determined a gross head of 10 m with an unfavorable topography.

DRAINAGE FLOW MEASUREMENT

In the measurement of flow, the drainage system configuration and pumping time are analyzed.
The researchers’ measure the stream flow rate by using the bucket method directly from the pipe
drain at mines where pumping is done. Therefore, mines ‘San José 2’ and ‘La Loma’ are not included
in this study. All measurements were conducted on the surface, in the treatment tanks of each mine.
For the ‘La Quebrada’ mine, researchers also performed a measurement of the stream flow inside of
mine at an Aquifer, this measurement is very important in the analysis because it increases the
drainage level. In this aquifer, there is an electric pump of 20 Hp to evacuate the drainage and an
extra pump of the same power, which was install in case of failure. The results of stream flow rate
for mines “La Quebrada” and “La Metálica” are in Table 4; in which variables like mine location, day,
flow and month also are registered.

Table 4. Results drain flow capacities

Mine “La Quebrada.” Mine “La Metálica.”
Day March April May March April May
(m3/h) (m3/h) (m3/h) (m3/h) (m3/h) (m3/h)

1 11,84 11,87 12,02 13,82 13,99 15,7

2 11,86 11,8 12,03 13,8 13,89 15,89
3 12,01 11,8 12,04 12,99 14 15,9
4 11,8 11,79 12,1 13,79 14,36 15,99
5 11,7 12 12,23 13,7 14,56 16,8

5
 6 11,06 12,01 12,3 12,99 14,57 16,89
7 11,9 12 12,35 13,89 14,89 16,02
8 11,95 11,98 12,38 13,7 14,8 16,09
9 11,8 11,94 12,5 13,45 14,9 16,78
10 11,5 11,78 12,56 13,49 14,97 16,89
11 11,77 11,89 12,58 13,6 14,76 16,9
12 11,04 11,9 12,8 12,99 14,65 16,67
13 11,69 11,9 12,69 13,89 14,82 16,56
14 11,08 11,89 12,6 13,79 14,67 16,7
15 11,16 11,96 12,4 13,67 15,5 16,56
16 11,6 11,56 12,3 13,78 15,78 16,45
17 11,56 11,97 12,68 13,67 15,73 16,78
18 12 12,09 12,4 13,56 15,39 15,34
19 11,9 12,9 12,49 13,56 15,67 14,56
20 11,89 11,9 12,89 13,78 15,78 14,3
21 11,78 12,9 12,67 13,6 15,67 14,38
22 11,45 12 12,7 13,67 15,89 14,45
23 12,07 11,98 12,9 13,7 15,9 14,7
24 12 11,89 12,98 13,9 15,36 14,32
25 11,99 12,09 12,99 13,93 15,29 14,22
26 11,97 12,08 12,78 13,91 15,32 14,1
27 11,91 11,9 12,99 13,85 15,23 13,89
28 11,97 12 13,01 13,84 15,23 13,56
29 11,79 12,01 12,98 13,56 15,22 12,56
30 12,09 11,9 13,09 13,46 15,23 12,45
31 12,89 0 12,89 13,79 0 12,45
Source: Authors

Mine “La Metálica” is in the lower elevation (2760 m). This leaves the mine drainage, “Mina 1 manto
2” and a portion of “La Quebrada” mine, which are at higher elevations. Is very important to have
information flows drainage of all mines. Thus, could be found the available mine drainage flow to
generate, in the mining area. Capacities data mines San Jose 2 and La Loma, will also be included.
Where pumping is not performed every day, but it is important to have records of these to take
advantage of their flow.
Data are statistically analyze to determine the duration curve flows. Table 5 shows the statistical
processing of the data flows in Mine “La Quebrada”. The flow ranges, absolute frequency,
cumulative frequency, relative frequency and cumulative relative frequency percentage.

Table 5. Statistical data of flow, “La Quebrada” Mine

Absolute and relative frequency. Rank flow

Mine “La Quebrada”
Rank Absolute Accumulated Relative Duration
(m3/h) frequency frequency frequency %
%
11,00-11,10 3 3 3,26 3,26
11,10-11,20 1 4 1,09 4,35
11,20-11,30 0 4 0,00 4,35
11,30-11,40 0 4 0,00 4,35

6
 11,40-11,50 2 6 2,17 6,52
11,50-11,60 3 9 3,26 9,78
11,60-11,70 1 10 1,09 10,87
11,70-11,80 9 19 9,78 20,65
11,80-11,90 15 34 16,30 36,96
11,90-12,00 16 50 17,39 54,35
12,00-12,10 12 62 13,04 67,39
12,10-12,20 0 62 0,00 67,39
12,20-12,30 3 65 3,26 70,65
12,30-12,40 4 69 4,35 75,00
12,40-12,50 2 71 2,17 77,17
12,50-12,60 3 74 3,26 80,43
12,60-12,70 4 78 4,35 84,78
12,70-12,80 2 80 2,17 86,96
12,80-12,90 6 86 6,52 93,48
12,90-13,00 4 90 4,35 97,83
13,00-13,10 2 92 2,17 100,00
Source: Authors

In Figure 5, is shown that the flow rate of greater persistence this in 11.90-12.00. In the figure 6, is
shown duration curve of flow. This information is very important, can determine the design flow
for the micro-generator and estimating the time of operation of the equipment. Is very important to
mention that the measured flow drainage, have a limited duration, depending on the time at each
mine drainage time. The estimated time to drain in the “La Quebrada” mine is 3 hours.

7
 Relative frequency histogram "La Quebrada" mine.
20,00 17,39

Relative frequency
18,00 16,30
16,00
13,04
14,00
12,00 9,78
10,00
8,00 6,52
6,00 4,35 4,35 4,35
3,26 3,26 3,26 3,26
4,00 2,17 2,17 2,17 2,17
1,09 1,09
2,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
0,00
11, 11, 11, 11, 11, 11, 11, 11, 11, 11, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 13,
00- 10- 20- 30- 40- 50- 60- 70- 80- 90- 00- 10- 20- 30- 40- 50- 60- 70- 80- 90- 00-
11, 11, 11, 11, 11, 11, 11, 11, 11, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 13, 13,
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 00 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 00 10
Series1 3,2 1,0 0,0 0,0 2,1 3,2 1,0 9,7 16, 17, 13, 0,0 3,2 4,3 2,1 3,2 4,3 2,1 6,5 4,3 2,1

Flow (m3/h)

Figure 5. Relative frequency histogram "La Quebrada" mine

Source. Authors

Figure 6. Flow duration curve

Source. Authors

8
HYDROLOGICAL AND HYDROGEOLOGICAL SHORT DESCRIPTION OF THE
MINING AREA
For determining the behavior of the drainage in the mining area, the water cycle of a mining
operation has should be studied; it has been related and interconnected with the hydrological cycle
of a river basin. Is important to know basic hydrological conditions in surface and groundwater in
the mining area. See (INTERCADE Consultancing & Training, 2015). Hydrology of the area).The
annual rainfall in the area is 500 to 800 mm, with two rainy periods, the first from March to May
and the second from September to November. The main hydrographic basin area is the Chicamocha
River. At this, empty into the ravines still the most important “Cómeza” river. The main water
stream is the creek Chipre in the mining area of study. Groundwater). The main source of this kind
is located in the “La Quebrada” mine, where an underground aquifer is present; this can be part of a
groundwater hydrographic basin. Infiltration waters originating from atmospheric precipitation
seep into the terrain due to gravity. The water propagates through cracks and fissures in rocks as
well as the porosity of the materials that form the subfloor. Their result is groundwater in the mine
bottom.

CONCLUSIONS
In the study zone the potential hydra-energetic, by gross head and flow rate of drainage, is
favorable for the installing an electric central generation with mine drainage.
The successful application of hydrogenation from miner drainage could help reduce the
environmental impact of mining and would serve as a backrest to reduce operating costs generated
from electricity consumption.
By calculating gross head and duration curve of flow is possible to approximate the amount of
energy that can be generate.
Hydrogeology and hydrology are important studies must be doing to understand the behavior and
amount of mine drainage in the mining area.
Minimum level available of the drainage in the mining area is very important to determine.
Measuring flow drainage daily the in each mine for this should be made.

9
REFERENCES
Almudena Ordónez, S. J., Pablo Cienfuegos, R. Á., & Loredo, J. (2013). Mine Water for Energy and Water Supply
in the Central Coal Basin of Asturias (Spain). Mine Water Environ(32), 139.151.

Cope, Larry;. (2013). Measurement of Water in Underground Mines. SRK Consulting (US) Inc.

Demchak, J., McDonald, L. M., & Skousen, J. (2000). Water Quality from Underground Coal Mines in Northern
West Virginia (1968-2000). E.U.

Díaz Álvarez, J., & Jiménez García, F. N. (2013). Tratamiento biológico como alternativa para disminuir el impacto
ambiental ocasionado por el drenaje ácido,generado por la actividad minera en el municipio de marmato-caldas.
Manizales: Universidad de Manizales.

Fernandez Rubio, R., & Fernandez Lorca, D. (1993). Mine Water Drainage. Madrid, Spain: Mine Water and The
Environment.

Gelvez, G. A., Laverde, D. A., & Escalante, H. (2008). Remoción de Metáles Pesados de Drenajes Ácidos de Minas de
Carbón Usando Bacterias Sulfato Reductoras . REVISTAION, 21(1), 71-78.

Gunson, A. J. (2013). Quantifying, Reducing and Improving Mine Water Use . Vancouver: The University of British
Columbia .

Higuera, F., Romero, E., España, J., Niño Merchán, J. J., & Salamanca, J. M. (2013). Diseño de un Sistema de
Control Discreto para un Generador Hidraulico. Tunja, Colombia: III Congreso Internacional de
Instrumentación Control y Telecomunicaciones CIICT 2013.

ICMM, International Council on Mining & Metals. (2012). Water Management in Mining: A Selection of Case
Studies.

INTERCADE Consultancing & Training. (17 de 02 de 2015). CAMARA MINERA DEL PERU. Obtenido de
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kzKBWFrEk5Y:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kzKBWFrEk5Y

Karmis, M. (2001). History and Overview of Mine Health and Safety. En R. L. Grayson, & B. Waztman, Mine Health
and Safety Management (págs. 1-13). Littleton, Colorado: SME, Society for Mining, Metallurgy and
Exploration,Inc.

Ministerio de Minas y Energía, UPME. (2005). La Cadena del Carbón; El Carbón Colombiano Fuente de Energía para
el Mundo. Bogotá: UPME.

Niño Merchán, J. J., Salamanca, J. M., & Blanco Castañeda, D. A. (2014). Microgeneration of electricity usisng mine
drainage-a proposal for deep mines. Deep Mining 2014. Seveth international Conference on Deep and High
Stress Mining (págs. 575-583). Sudbury, Canadá: Australian Centre for Geomechanics.

Ortiz Flórez, R. (2011). Pequeñas Centrales Hidroeléctricas. Construcción paso a paso. Cali : Ediciones de la U.

Pizarro Losilla, A. (2 de Noviembre de 2007). infoindustriaperu. Recuperado el 14 de Febrero de 2015, de

http://www.infoindustriaperu.com/articulos_pdf/mineria/minas/008.pdf

Sanchez Rial, J. E., & Ferreira Centeno, J. P. (2011). Drenajes Ácidos de Mina: Alternativas de Tratamiento. Oruro,
Bolivia: Ministerio de Industria, Comercio y Trabajo de Córdoba Ciencia y Tecnología para el
Desarrollo - CYTED, 2011.

Sierra Vargas, F. E., Sierra Alarcón, A. F., & Guerrero Fajardo, C. A. (2011). Pequeñas y Microcentrales
Hidroeléctricas: Alternativa Real de Generación Eléctrica. Informador Técnico, 75, 73-85.

VENTANAS SAYEMIR. (2006). PTO. Programa de Trabajos y Obras Contrato EGH-151. Sogamoso.

10
Vosloo, J. C., Kleingeld, M., & Bolt, G. (2011). Water Supply Energy Recovery Systems on Deep Mines. Proceedings
of the 8th Conference on the Industrial and Commercial Use of Energy.

11
Use of thermal solar energy in the mining industry
René Canello and Mariana Villegas
Energía Llaima, Chile

ABSTRACT
The solar thermal energy with medium scale plants has been in use in Chile since the 19th century,
example of this was the solar plant built for water distillation at the Chacabuco nitrate plant. Today
these plants have reached larger scales and are used for electricity production, city district heating,
agriculture, industrial fermentation, food industry and chemical processes. The solar thermal plants
are used in Chile to provide heat for electrowinning processes in the copper industry.
The solar thermal energy can also be used for other mining industry processes: production and
purification of metallic and nonmetallic salts, drying of concentrate, precipitate and salts, iodine
heap leaching, secondary and primary copper sulfides and other processes.
The application of heat in bioleaching through bacterial catalysis process means major economic
benefits, an increase of production, a decrease in process inventory and subsequently, a decrease in
water consumption, which is scarce, expensive and difficult to obtain.
This paper describes a typical large scale solar plant, its operation and connection to heat demand
points. Also it will describe the performance and operational results of División Gabriela Mistral of
Codelco Chile and Minera Contanza solar thermal plants located in Chile.
This paper will also present a potential application of solar energy in the heap bioleaching process,
potential heat injection points, system thermal stability, other linked metallurgical aspects and the
respective economic and productivity benefits.

1
INTRODUCTION
Sun has been as a heat source since immemorial times. The first document that indicates the
construction of a solar system to capture heat is from 1776, when the Swiss scientist Horace de
Saussure developed the solar collector, called hot box. The astronomist Sir John Herschel used this
hot box to cook during his expedition to Africa in 1830, as a consequence of this, the use of solar
thermal energy became common in many African places. In 1872, Carlos Wilson designed and
built a solar seawater distillation plant at the Chacabuco nitrate operation in Chile; this plant
consisted of a 5.000 square meters collection area and was able to produce 20.000 litres per day of
drinking water, being this plant the biggest for this purpose in the 19th century. The American
pioneers, during the western settlement, used the hot box during daytime to heat water with the
purpose of saving fuel for cooking. This event resulted in that around 30 % of houses in Pasadena,
California started using solar water heaters.
Solar energy continued being used moderately during the next century, but its popularity increased
considerably with the energy and oil crisis of the decade of 1970. The use of solar energy
diminished as the crisis ended, but rose again in the early 1990 with the awareness of the
population regarding the danger to the environment and public health posed by the burning of
fossil fuels and the use of nuclear energy.
Solar thermal energy became a good option for massive district heating, agricultue, food and liquor
industry and chemical processes.
At the end of 2012, Chilean mining operations, introduced solar thermal technology to supply heat
for the electrowinning process.

DESCRIPTION OF A LARGE SCALE SOLAR THERMAL PLANT

A large scale solar thermal plant is a large industrial facility that receives solar radiation which is
converted into heat, which in turn is transferred through piping and heat exchangers to a heat
demand point. The solar plant captures energy during day time and has to be stored in
accumulation tanks or ponds. This allows for the delivery of heat during 24 hours a day.
Accumulation tanks and ponds are used to store heat for daily and inter seasonal periods.
These types of solar plants usually have a closed primary circuit, which deliver the captured
energy to a heat storage system. In turn, a secondary circuit transmits the stored energy to the
process through a heat delivery point. Solar plants with heat storage systems have the capacity to
supply heat with variable thermal energy demand.
In general terms, a solar thermal plant consists of: solar collectors that capture the sun's energy,
which can be of the flat plate, parabolic cylinder, vacuum tube or Fresnel mirrors. The pipes
through which the heat transfer fluid flows and storage tanks can store the thermal energy in the
form of hot water, salts or other similar media. Heat exchangers transfers heat from one circuit to
another. Pumps, valves, fittings, control and monitoring systems make it possible to automatically
operate a solar plant and to optimize its performance.

2
 Figure 1 General diagram of a solar thermal plant scale

USE OF SOLAR THERMAL ENERGY IN CHILE

The use of solar thermal energy in Chile is still in its infancy but has successful experiences, both at
home and in industry. A brief description of the most common uses:
 Greenhouses and drying plants. Direct use by enhancing greenhouse construction and by
natural and forced convection.
 Domestic hot water. Mainly as hot water for showers. Use in private homes, houses and
buildings, hospitals, gyms, schools and camps, among others.
 Industrial use. For tempering low temperature processes, primarily in the food industry.
 Mining. So far, existing thermal solar plants are focused on the tempering of electrolyte,
cathode washing and detachment and other services to the electrowinning process. The
most notable experiences include a solar plant in Minera El Tesoro (Antofagasta
Minerals), Planta Prat (Minera Constanza) and Gabriela Mistral Division (Gaby, Codelco);
as of today, the largest of its kind in the world.

Oparational characteristics of the Pampa Elvira Solar and Pukara de Hatur thermal solar
plants in Chile
The solar thermal plants in "Pampa Elvira Solar" - Gabriela Mistral Division operated for Codelco
by Energy Llaima (www.ellaima.cl) and "Pukara de Hatur" installed in Planta Prat of Minera
Constanza, have the characteristic of having both a collector field based of flat plate solar panels
and water storage tank. Both solar plants supplies heat for tempering the process electrolyte, with a
high replacement factor of diesel heaters. The main features of both plants are shown in Table 1.

Table 1 Main characteristics of Pampa Elvira Solar and Pukara de Hatur solar plants
Further details of Pampa Elvira are available in: http://www.ellaima.cl/operaciones

3
 Feature Pampa Elvira Solar Pukara de Hatur
Collecting area 43.000 [m2] 404 [m2]
Accumulation volume 4.600 [m3] 27 [m3]
Annual energy generated 54.000 [MWh/y] 540 [MWh/y]
Replacement factor 55 % 90 %
Peak power 34 [MW] 0,25 [MW]
Started operation September 2013 December 2012

OTHER POTENTIAL USES OF SOLAR ENERGY IN THE MINING INDUSTRY

In the metallic and non-metallic mining industry, many metallurgical processes require heat, such
as for production and purification of salts, drying products, heating brines, iodine leaching, oxide
copper leach and bioleach of secondary and primary sulfide copper.
In all these processes solar thermal energy can be applied; this technology allows for the supply of
heat during all hours of the year. Through appropriate heat transfer operations, transferring
thermal energy through heat exchangers and heat pumps and thermal insulation application,
economic returns of all these metallurgical processes can be maximized.

Production and purification of copper sulfate and other salts

In Chile, small mining companies leach oxide copper ores which, due to the deficit of electrical
power, are forced to produce technical grade copper sulfate by saturation of pregnant leach
solution through evaporation. Medium companies of greater size and capacity, use solvent
extraction processes to saturate a clean rich electrolyte for copper sulfate precipitation.
Generally, this copper sulfate is sold as technical pentahydrate copper sulfate, as a source of copper
and equivalent acid for the copper electrowinning process and production of other salts for the
fungicide and antifouling paint industry.
Some mining companies obtain a very high purity copper sulfate, classified as food or
pharmaceutical grade. In this case, the copper sulfate that is produced through solvent extraction, is
purified through several cleaning, redissolution and controlled recrystallization processes.
Copper sulfate of any grade, must by dried prior to packing, transportation and marketing.
In the non-metallic industry, several types of salts are obtained through dissolution and
precipitation by saturation. Generally these salts are purified by cleaning and recrystallization
processes, where solutions or brine percolates are heated up to 90 °C.
Examples of these products are sodium and potassium nitrates, sodium chloride (mineral and
marine), sodium sulfate, carbonates, etc.
For the above-mentioned cases, solar thermal energy can be used for drying, dehydration and
solution heating. Also, a set of solar collectors can be used to evaporate, and recover water, which
is very scarce in many of the places where these processes are carried out.

4
Leaching of iodine
The nitrate mining industry processes nitrate ores, called caliche, with potassium and sodium
nitrates content, which also contains commercial sub products such as lithium and iodine. Today
fresh ore and old nitrate tailings are processed to obtain iodine through a leach process.
In these ores, iodine is present as calcium iodate (Lautarita), as well as sodium and potassium
iodates. The total iodine content fluctuates between 0.05 % to 0.1 %. All theses iodates are soluble in
water. These iodates are leached with a sodium nitrate water brine solution, called mother solution.
This mother solution comes from a sodium nitrate crystallization and thickening process, at a
temperature between 5 °C and 15 °C, with a content of 360 g/L of sodium nitrate.
The leaching process is carried out in vats (cachuchos) as vat leaching or dynamic heap leaching, in
counter current stages, which may be up to five stages. (Garcés Millas, 2000)
Due to the high viscosity of the mother solution, the low diffusion, capillarity and solubility of
iodates salts at low temperature within the rock matrix, the sodium nitrate dissolution is slow,
hence it is necessary to perform the leach process at least at 40 °C, in order to achieve high
metallurgical recoveries.
In the leach process, heat is required to warm the mother solution to at least 40 °C, which also
implies that the cold ore must also be heated.
The heat demand of this process can perfectly be supplied using solar thermal energy.

Copper bioleach
In the majority of cases, an increase in temperature allows chemical reaction to go faster, with the
advantage of increased production. Chemical industry uses this tool to improve production, using
an amount of heat energy only up to the level that maximizes economic profit.
Some oxide copper operations are considering the use of available heat to improve acid leach
recovery. (Sun Xi-liang et al., 2009)
Secondary sulfide ores, such as chalcocite, covellite, digenite, bornite and others can be leached.
Investigations to be able to leach primary copper chalcopyrite have been carried out for many
years; today there are promising results, considering that, this resource will be soon available for
the majority of mines; secondary sulfides are under exploitation today and will be a very scarce
resource in the near future. (Robertson et al., 2005) (Pradhan et al, 2008)
Leaching, solvent extraction and electrowinning are environmental clean processes and require less
water, energy and cost compared to flotation, smelting and electrorefining processes. The tendency
is therefore to use leach processing for sulphides.
The sulfide leach process goes through redox chemical reactions; oxidation can take place in a direct
or indirect manner. The majority of chemical reactions are exothermal and generate heat; they are
very slow kinetics as they have high activation energy. The majority of the chemical reactions are
not spontaneous, they need to be kicked off with initial energy.
The use of catalytic mechanisms allows all these reaction to take place faster in a spontaneous
manner. Protein enzymes present in cell membrane of some bacteria are able to catalyze the
majority of secondary sulfides reactions. Recently, some bacteria allows sulfide oxidation to take
place at higher temperatures.

5
The Michaelis-Menten chemical reaction kinetic model represents the chemical reaction of a
substrate [S], converted to a product [P], through an intermediate enzyme-substrate complex [ES];
reaction that takes place with less activation energy, at a higher reaction speed.
The Michaelis-Menten kinetic model mathematical expression, is shown in equation (1)

(1)

Where [S], [E]o and [P] are the concentration of substrate, enzyme and product respectively. The
reaction rate increases with increasing substrate concentration [S], asymptotically approaching its
maximum rate Vmax, attained when all enzymes are bound to substrate. It also follows that
Vmax=Kcat[E]o, where [E] o is the enzyme concentration.
The Michaelis constant Km is an inverse measure of the substrate affinity for the enzyme. A small
Km indicates high affinity, meaning that the maximum reaction rate will approach more quickly.
The Kcat constant is proportional to the turnover speed reaction between enzyme to enzyme-
substrate complex; the higher this value, the higher is the product formation. The Km and Kcat
values are dependant on pH and temperature conditions.
Investigations have found that copper sulfides bacterial catalysis follows Michaelis-Menten
kinetical model in which the maximum reaction rate is proportional to live bacteria amount and
substrate-bacterial affinity depends on pH and temperature values. (Lufin, 2007)
Through bacterial catalysis, the different chemical reaction routes, makes oxygen at the latest steps,
acting as final oxidant. The presence of oxygen, nitrogen and phosphorous nutrients are key to
bacterial catalysis.
Copper production rate of a sulfide leach, catalyzed by bacterial enzymes, are dependant of pH and
temperature. The normal acidity for best bacterial activity ranges at pH higher than 1.3 and less
than 2.5. Temperature plays an important role in copper production rate. (Ahonen & Tuovinen,
1991) (Qui Ting-sheng, 2007)
Mesophilic optimum bacterial catalysis temperature ranges between 20 °C and 40 °C; thermophilic
optimum temperature ranges between 40 °C and 60 °C. Normally catalysis increases with
temperature up to a maximum value, but beyond this value, catalysis starts decreasing by enzyme
protein alteration and denaturation. (Acevedo & Gentina, 2005)
Figure 2 shows relative bacterial activity of a mesophilic and thermophilic bacteria used for copper
sulfate leach catalysis:

6
 Figure 2 Relative reaction activity

Figure 3 shows sulfide leach copper recovery against specific solution irrigation, catalyzed by
bacterial activity, at two temperature levels. The initial acceleration of copper recovery at higher
temperature is due to best bacterial catalysis. As substrates positions decreases through time,
copper recovery starts to reach asymptotic values. The maximum copper recovery difference
normally is located below the maximum specific solution irrigation. This effect allows a decrease in
process inventory and water consumption.

Figure 3 Sulfide leach copper recovery

The normal operation tendency is to maximize copper production by maximizing specific solution
irrigation as far as the solvent extraction capacity allows. However, the best economic profit not
necessarily is at the maximum specific flow application.
Figure 4 shows the relative net economic profit, at two different temperatures, considering all
involved operational and marketing costs as well as all revenues by copper sellings. This figure
shows that maximum economical profit is located at a point, beyond which, incremental costs are
higher than incremental revenues.

7
 Figure 4 Relative net economic profit at two temperature levels

The additional heat cost required to increase leach temperature increases copper recovery and the
economical profit only to a certain level. The maximum economic profit temperature is not always
at the maximum bacterial activity catalysis temperature. Heat losses increases with higher
temperatures.
Figure 5 shows maximum economic profit of a bioleach process and the maximum bacterial activity
as a function of process temperature.

Figure 5 Maximun economic profit and bacterial activity

8
To reach maximum economical profit it is necessary to operate the heap with good operational
practices, heat application is needed to ensure adequate temperature inside the heap leach system
and insulation should be used to reduce heat losses: evaporation, convection, radiation and
conduction. The application of heat inside the heap leach system can be carried out through
solution irrigation, agglomeration and aireation.
The use of solar thermal technology together with heat storage, heat transmission and heat
insulation, is now available to be applied to the copper sulfide-leaching process.

CONCLUSIONS
There are new attractive uses of solar thermal energy in the mining industry, which not only
focuses on the benefits of clean production, but also introduces operational and economical benefits
associated with the increase of temperature in some processes.
The largest potential application of solar thermal heat today is for secondary copper sulfide
bioleach process, which can increase copper production leading to less process inventories and
more economical profits.
In future, secondary copper sulfides resources will start to decrease and subsequently, primary
copper sulphides will be available. Heap leach with thermophilic bacteria is under inverstigation
with promising results, with the benefit of lower water consumption and potentially lower cost
compared with milling flotation and pyro process. In both cases, solar thermal technology is
available to bioleach secondary and primary sulphides.
The solar thermal technology is safe, energy independent, stable for heat dispatch, and provides
process thermal stability. It also decouples the cost and volatility of oil energy, is a greenhouse gas
emission reducer and translates into social corporate responsibility image and mission, among
other intangible benefits.
The thermal solar plants have the capacity to supply heat and keep temperature stability in the
process even with high variation of heat demand due to exogenous changes.

REFERENCES
Acevedo, F. & Gentina, J.C. (2005) ‘Fundamentos y Perspectivas de Tecnologías Biomineras’,

Ediciones Universitarias de Valparaíso, Chile.

Ahonen & Tuovinen (1991) ‘Temperature Effects on Bacterial Leaching of Sulfide Mineral in Shake Flask
Experiments’, Department of Microbiology, University of Helsinki, Finland.

Garcés, I. (2005) ‘La industria del Yodo en Chile’ , Universidad de Antofagasta, Antofagasta, Chile.

Lufin, L. (2007) ‘Desarrollo de un Modelo Computacional para el Proceso de Lixiviación de Súlfuros de Cobre
en Pilas’, Departamento de Ingeniería Química y Biotecnología, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile.

Pradhan, Nathsarma, Srinivasa, Sukla, Mishra (2008) ‘Heap bioeaching of chalcopyrite: A Review’, Institute of
Minerals and Materials Technology. Bhubaneswar, India.

Qui Ting-sheng, Nie Guang-hua, Wang Jun-feng, Cui Li-fengl (2007) ‘Kinetic process of oxidative leaching of
chacopyrite under low oxigen pressure and low temperature’, Jiangxi University of Science and
Technology, Guiyang, China.

9
Robertson, Vercuil, Van Staden, Craven (2005) ‘A Bacterial Heap leaching Approach for the Treatment of Low
Grade Primary Copper Sulphide Ore’, The South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, South
Africa.

Sun Xi-liang, Chen Bai-zhen, Yang Xi-yun, Liu You-yuan (2009) ‘Technological conditions and kinetics of
leaching copper from complex copper oxide ore’, School of Metallurgical Science and Engineering, Central
South University, Changsha, China.

10
 C HAP T E R 3

ENVIRONMENTAL
DESIGN AND
OPERATION OF MINING
ACTIVITIES INCLUDING
CLOSING STAGES
Use of Sea Water on the Leaching of a Chalcopyrite
Ore like an Environmental Contribution
María Taboada1,2, 3, Pía Hernández2, Teófilo Graber1,2,3 and Rafael Quiroz3
1. Universidad de Antofagasta, Chile
2. CSIRO-Chile Centre of Excellence in Mining and Mineral Processing, Chile
3. CICITEM, Centro de Investigación Científico Tecnológico para la Minería, Chile

ABSTRACT
Due to the increasing demand of water produced by the scarcity of this resource, many copper
mining industries are using sea water in their processes. Using seawater in replacement of fresh
water in the industrials processes will contribute to the sustainability of the hydric resources.
In this regard, within the project FONDECYT No. 1140169, the use of sea water on leaching of
copper sulphides has been studied in replacement of freshwater. The effect of chloride ion on the
kinetics of extraction of copper (grade 1.48%) of an ore was studied. Chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) is the
only copper specie present on the ore.
The objectives of this study are to determine the effects of chloride ion on the extraction of copper
from a sulphide ore using sea water and distilled water as solvents. Extraction rates, pH and redox
potential of cuttings analysis are obtained as function of time, in addition to some experiences.
Leaching tests were performed in jacketed glass reactor equipped with 2 l glass lids to prevent
evaporation losses. Stirring is carried out mechanically using a Teflon stir bar. The stirring speed
was kept constant at 450 rpm. The tests were conducted at a temperature of 45 °C using a
thermoregulator bath. The grain size used was 100% under 150 μm (P80= 103 μm) and leaching time
of 10 days for all tests. Tests to small scale (using flasks of 250 ml) were performed too.
The results obtained showed that sea water systems at 20 and 50 g/l Cl - presented better copper
extractions than water system Higher chloride concentration (of 60 and 80 g/l) do not show better
results than 50 g/l, therefore exist an optimal chloride concentration at condition operational
studied.
The redox potential caused a direct effect on the recovery of copper at final pH > 2, confirming the
reported in the bibliography, that a window potential range exists (550-620 mV) where chalcopyrite
mineral increases the speed of the dissolution.

The results shown that sea water is a good alternative to replace freshwater into leaching process of
copper sulphide. This is positive for the environment because there would be greater availability of
water resources for the population and activities such as agriculture and animal husbandry.

1
INTRODUCTION
Currently, there is a decrease in the availability of fresh water resources worldwide, mainly due to
climate change, population growth and the growth of the industries, which results in that water is a
resource increasingly most valuable. The availability of water resources in a mining operation is of
great importance for developing processes thus an efficient management is indispensable. In Chile,
the copper mining activity is concentrated mainly in the north of the country. In this location, the
weather is dry, desert area, with few and sometimes null rainfall and limited surface water
resources. Therefore there is a great demand for water for the different productive activities. Water
consumption in copper mining includes the use of fresh water to replenish losses in the production
process, such as evaporation, disposal solutions and washing solutions. Hydric resources are
mainly used in the concentration process by flotation, transport of concentrates and tailings, and it
is lost through evaporation and infiltration in dams. Water is used in the leaching, solvent
extraction and electrowinning on the hydrometallurgical process. Due to the decreasing availability
of water, some mining industries (Wisskirchen, 2012) are using sea water as resource hydric. It is an
alternative to the limited availability of water in production processes. Some processes use raw sea
water and others use desalted sea water (Aral et al., 2010). The use of sea water by industries will
produce an increase of availability of water for other consumptions (human, agriculture, animal
husbandry).
Moreover, desalination plants are increasing in Chile (Ministerio de Minería, 2015). In the future,
this will produce larger amounts of saline solution from rejection. It is necessary to find a use for
this saline solution. An alternative could be using like chloride provider in leaching processes of
copper sulphide ore.
For the other hand, chloride solution in acid medium improves the kinetics of leaching from copper
sulphide ores (Watling, 2014; Carneiro and Leão, 2007; Liddicoat and Dreisinger, 2007; Dutrizac,
1992) especially on chalcopyrite ores. Thus sea water or saline solutions could be used on leaching
processes.
In general, chloride medium is better than a sulfate medium for leaching of copper sulphides ores
because to allow improving the kinetics, promoting the complexes formation with copper ion, and
helping to diffusion from ore to solution due to formation of porous layer of elemental sulfur
generated during leaching. Several authors have studied the effect of chloride on dissolution of
copper from secondary sulphide ores (Vračar et al., 2000; Ruiz et al., 1998; Cheng and Lawson,
1991b; 1991a)
The aims of this work are to determine the effect of chloride ions, acid concentration, type of water
(sea water and distilled water) and granulometry on the extraction of copper from a sulphide ore.

2
METHODOLOGY

Reagents
The reagents used for these experimental tests (NaCl, H2SO4, CuSO4*5H2O) were analytical grade.
Seawater was filtered until 1 µm and it was obtained of Antofagasta, Chile. The concentrations of
ions present in sea water are shown in Table 1. Distilled water was used too.

Table 1 Concentrations of different ions of seawater

Parameter Unity Value Parameter Unity Value

Ca2+ mg/l 403 F- mg/l 0.87

Cl- mg/l 20,063 PO43- mg/l 0.74
CaCO3 mg/l 114 SO42- mg/l 2,811
HCO3 mg/l 139 NO3- mg/l 3.01
Mg2+ mg/l 1,292 NO2- mg/l < 0.1
Na+ mg/l 10,725 NH4+ mg/l < 0.1
K+ mg/l 387 Cu2+ mg/l 0.072

Ore
The ore used for the test was obtained of mine site on the north of Chile. The tests were performed
using particle size of P80 = 103 µm. The acid consumption was 40.33 kg/kg soluble copper. The
chemical analyses of copper were obtained by atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS) and the
mineralogy was obtained by X-ray diffraction (XRD). The results are shown in the Table 2.

Table 2 Chemical analyses of copper and mineralogy of ore used on the tests

Chemical analysis
Element wt. % Element mg·kg-1
Iron (Fe) 18.68 Manganese (Mn) 482
Silicon (Si) 5.80 Chromium (Cr) 355
Calcium (Ca) 2.43 Potassium (K) 339
Copper (Cu) 1.48 Cobalt (Co) 319
Aluminum ( Al) 1.35 Nickel (Ni) 300
Sulfur (S) 1.20 Zinc (Zn) 107
Sodium (Na) 1.04 Molybdenum (Mo) 60
Magnesium (Mg) 0.25 Silver (Ag) 0.01
Mineralogical analysis
Mineral wt. %
Magnetite (Fe3O4) 33.15
Quartz (SiO2) 36.14
Albite (NaAlSi3O8) 12.22
Pyrite (FeS2) 2.31
Chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) 4.27
Calcite (CaCO3) 5.01
Chlorite (Mg4Fe2Si3AlO10(OH)8) 2.43

3
 Magnesium hornblende (Ca2(Mg0.75 Fe0.25)4Al(Si7Al)O22((OH)0.75 F0.25)2) 4.47

Experimental procedure
The agitated leaching tests were performed at two sizes of reactors. Glass flasks of 250 ml were used
for tests to small scale. A thermostatic bath was used for temperature control and rotatory agitation
(32 rpm). The operation conditions were: 45 °C, solid liquid ratio of 10 g ore/100 ml solution, 2 days
of leaching. When the time finished, the pulp is filtered and the solution and solid residue were
analyzed by copper using atomic absorption spectrometry (AA).
Jacketed glass reactors of 2 l were used with mechanical stirring to 450 rpm. Temperature control
was obtained using a thermostatic bath. The tests were performed at 45°C, solid liquid ratio of 100 g
ore/1,000 ml solution and 10 days of leaching. Samples of solution, 10 ml, were obtained
periodically. Theses samples were analyzed for copper using AA. These results were corroborated
by solid residue analysis for copper using AA.

Redox potential and pH were measured in the solution at different intervals of time. A pH
meter/ORP portable (Hanna) was used. The equipment was calibrated using patron solutions (1.68
and 4.01) before each measurement for pH measures. For redox potential, patron of different mV,
were used for this purpose.

RESULTS

Tests in flask of 250 mL

The effect of chloride (20 – 80 g/l) and cupric concentration (1 - 2 g/l) were evaluated on these tests
using the operational conditions of: 9.8 g/l H2SO4, P80 of 26 µm, sea water as dissolvent, 45°C, 2 days
of leaching and 10 g ore/100 ml solution. Figure 1 shows the results.

4
 20 g/l Cl-

100 80 g/l Cl-

90
80
70
Cu Ext, %

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1 g/l Cu2+ 2 g/l Cu2+

Figure 1 Effect of chloride (20 and 80 g/l) and cupric (1 and 2 g/l) concentration on leaching of copper sulphide
ore (45°C, [H2SO4] = 9.8 g/l, sea water, P80 of 26 µm, S/L = 10 g ore/100 ml solution, 2 days of leaching, 32 rpm)

Increasing chloride concentration from 20 to 80 g/l increases the copper extraction at 13.6%. This
indicates that a solution of seawater concentrated in chloride (this could be due to recirculation on
the process and effect of evaporation will produce higher salinity) will not produce worse copper
extraction. The copper extraction does not show a significant effect at different cupric concentration
evaluated.

Tests in reactors of 2 l

The effect of chloride at low leaching time was evaluated on reactors of 2 l. At time used, the
maximum copper extraction did not was achieved in these results.

In Figure 2 is shown the copper extraction (%) in function of the time (h) using different chloride
concentrations from 10, 20 y 50 g/l on different dissolvent: sea water and water. The operational
conditions were: 45°C, 9.8 g/l H2SO4, P80 of 103 µm, S/L = 100 g ore/1,000 ml solution, 10 days of
leaching, 450 rpm, pH initial equal to 1, 1.5 g/l of cupric.

5
 50

45

40
Sea water, [Cl-] = 10 g/l
35

30
Sea water, [Cl-] = 20 g/l
Cu Ext, %

25 Sea water, [Cl-] = 50 g/l

20
Water, [Cl-] = 10 g/l
15
Water, [Cl-]= 20 g/l
10

5 Water, [Cl-] = 50 g/l

0
0 50 100 150 200 250

Time, h

Figure 2 Copper extraction (%) in function of time (h) for tests using different chloride concentration: 10, 20
and 50 g/l, and different solvents: sea water and water. (45°C, [H2SO4] = 9.8 g/l, P80 of 103 µm, S/L = 100 g
ore/1,000 ml solution, 10 days of leaching, 450 rpm)

Best copper extractions were obtained using 50 g/l of chloride for sea water (37.34%Cu) and water
(27.41%Cu). This indicates that high chloride concentration improve copper extraction at conditions
used in this study. In general, system on sea water presents better copper extraction than system on
water, except when sea water is diluted (10 g/l). This chloride concentration, 10 g/l, was chosen to
evaluate the alternative to diluted sea water with freshwater, but with this results, it is not
convenient for to obtain better copper extractions. The results shown in Figure 2 indicates that
water could be replaced by sea water on the process with a result of improves the copper extraction
or to maintain similar results. Chloride ions presents on sea water help to dissolution of
chalcopyrite.
Figure 2 shows that leaching kinetics of sea water systems are faster than water systems at
beginning in the process.
Figure 3 shows redox potential (mV v/s SHE) and pH in function of the time (h) for the different
tests performed.

6
 750
2,4

700 Eh, Sea water, [Cl-] = 10 g/l

2,2
Eh, Sea water, [Cl-] = 20 g/l
650 2,0 Eh, Sea water, [Cl-] = 50 g/l

Eh, Water, [Cl-] = 10 g/l

600 1,8
Eh, Water, [Cl-]= 20 g/l
Eh, mV v/s SHE

1,6 Eh, Water, [Cl-] = 50 g/l

pH
550
pH, Sea water, [Cl-] = 10 g/l
1,4
pH, Sea water, [Cl-] = 20 g/l
500
1,2 pH, Sea water, [Cl-] = 50 g/l

450 pH, Water, [Cl-] = 10 g/l

1,0
pH, Water, [Cl-] = 20 g/l
400 pH, Water, [Cl-] = 50 g/l
0,8

350 0,6
0 50 100 150 200 250

Time, h

Figure 3 Redox potential (mV v/s SHE) and pH in function of time (h) for tests using different chloride
concentration: 10, 20 and 50 g/l, and different solvents: sea water and water. (45°C, [H2SO4] = 9.8 g/l, P80 of 103
µm, S/L = 100 g ore/1,000 ml solution, 10 days of leaching, 450 rpm)

From Figure 3, the best results to 50 g/l in sea water and water showed that the redox potential was
in range of 550-640 mV for sea water and 640-730 mV for water. The behavior of Eh and pH for tests
to 20 g/l in sea water and water showed similar results. Ibáñez y Velásquez (2013) determined a
potential range (540-630 mV v/s SHE) where dissolution of chalcopyrite by leaching is possible. In
the case of sea water system at 50 g/l, this range of redox potential is partially accomplished. Several
tests performed are in range of redox potential optimal for chalcopyrite leaching: 10 g/l chloride in
sea water, 20 g/l chloride in sea water and water. Final pH is the differences among the tests. For
better copper extraction, the final pH was > 2. This is according to said by Velásquez-Yévenes, Nicol
& Miki (2010). Clearly there is a combination of effects among chloride concentration, redox
potential, pH and disolvent used.
Tests at different chloride concentration (10, 20, 40, 50, 60 and 80 g/l) were performed in order to
obtain a optimal range using sea water as disolvent. Figure 4 shows the results of final copper
exraction obtained at 10 days. The operational conditions were the same to used in Figure 2.

7
 50

40
Cu Ext, %
30

20

10

0
10 20 40 50 60 80
[Cl-], g/l)

Figure 4 Final copper extraction (%) in function of chloride concentration (g/l) for tests using different chloride
concentration: 10, 20, 40, 50, 60 and 80 g/l, using sea water as dissolvent. (45°C, [H 2SO4] = 9.8 g/l, P80 of 103 µm,
S/L = 100 g ore/1,000 ml solution, 10 days of leaching, 450 rpm)

Figure 4 shows that the best result of copper extraction was obtained to 50 g/l of chloride. Higher
chloride concentration (60 or 80 g/l Cl -) does not show better results. Figure 4 is according to that
shown in Figure 1 where 80 g/l Cl- presents better results than 20 g/l Cl- with sea water. If a mining
operation of leaching uses sea water (20 g/l Cl -), in the time, increase in solution chloride
concentration due to evaporation and recirculation. With these results, 50 g/l will be a good
chloride concentration, but higher values worsen copper extraction.

CONCLUSIONS
The experimental work showed the following:
 Using seawater does not produce a negative effect on the copper extraction. At higher
concentrations of chloride, until 50 g/l, the effect of seawater is positive for extraction. This
added to the positive environmental effect of use sea water instead scarce fresh water,
indicating that their use is an interesting alternative for copper extraction processes from
minerals containing sulphides. The process of leaching is a closed circuit therefore the brine
solution is recirculating many times until the equilibrium concentration is achieved.
 When smaller sizes (P80 of 26 µm, flask of 250 mL) are used, the extraction of copper
obtained was 85%. It can be applied to chalcopyrite concentrate whose size is similar.
 As future work, it is proposed a pre-treatment of ore before to leaching process for obtain
fast kinetics and it can be obtain higher copper extraction from chalcopyrite leaching using
sea water at high chloride concentrations.

8
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors acknowledge CONICYT for financing this study through the Fondecyt Project No.
1140169.

REFERENCES
Aral, H., Mead, S., Cuevas, J., Davey, K. and Bruckard, W., 2010. Desperate times call for desperates
measures - the use of seawater in mining and mineral processing., AusIMM Sustainable
Mining Conference Kalgoorlie, Western Australia.
Carneiro, M.F.C. and Leão, V.A., 2007. The role of sodium chloride on surface properties of
chalcopyrite leached with ferric sulphate. Hydrometallurgy, 87(3–4): 73-82.
Cheng, C.Y. and Lawson, F., 1991a. The kinetics of leaching covellite in acidic oxygenated sulphate-
chloride solutions. Hydrometallurgy, 27(3): 269-284.
Cheng, C.Y. and Lawson, F., 1991b. The kinetics of leaching chalcocite in acidic oxygenated
sulphate-chloride solutions. Hydrometallurgy, 27(3): 249-268.
Dutrizac, J., 1992. The leaching of sulphide minerals in chloride media. Hydrometallurgy, 29(1): 1-
45.
Ibáñez, T. and Velásquez, L., 2013. Lixiviación de la calcopirita en medios clorurados. Revista de
Metalurgia, 49(2): 131-144.
Liddicoat, J. and Dreisinger, D., 2007. Chloride leaching of chalcopyrite. Hydrometallurgy, 89(3–4):
323-331.
Ministerio de Minería, G.d.C., 2015. Consumo del agua en la minería del cobre al año 2014. In:
C.C.d.C. Dirección de Estudios y Políticas Públicas (Ed.), pp. 28.
Ruiz, M., Honores, S. and Padilla, R., 1998. Leaching kinetics of digenite concentrate in oxygenated
chloride media at ambient pressure. Metallurgical and Materials Transactions B, 29(5): 961-
969.
Velásquez, L., Miki, H. and Nicol, M., 2010. The dissolution of chalcopyrite in chloride solutions:
Part 2: Effect of various parameters on the rate. Hydrometallurgy, 103(1–4): 80-85.
Vračar, R.Ž., Parezanović, I.S. and Cerović, K.P., 2000. Leaching of copper(I) sulfide in calcium
chloride solution. Hydrometallurgy, 58(3): 261-267.
Watling, H., 2014. Chalcopyrite hydrometallurgy at atmospheric pressure: 2. Review of acidic
chloride process options. Hydrometallurgy, 146: 96-110.
Wisskirchen, C.W., J.; Vásquez, F., 2012. WIM2012 Proceeding of 3rd International Congress on
Water Management in the Mining Industry,. In: F.W. Valenzuela, J. (Ed.), Considerations
for seawater in mining: Approaches to evaluate ARD and metals leaching potential.,
Santiago, Chile, pp. 524-534.

9
Environmental and Physical Hazards of Historic
Magnesite Mining Sites in the Tshipise Magnesite
Field: A Conceptual Site Model (CSM) and
Implications
Sphiwe Mhlongo and Francis Amponsah-Dacosta
Department of Mining and Environmental Geology, University of Venda, South Africa

ABSTRACT
Abandoned mines are commonly the result of lack of care and planning in the past practices and
they are linked directly to regulations which were inadequate. Some of these mine sites are in
appalling state and pose major environmental and social problems for the mining industry,
communities and governments. This paper presents a conceptual site model (CSM) of physical and
environmental hazards of abandoned/historic magnesite mines in the Tshipise Magnesite Field. The
construction of the CSM involved identification, mapping, and detailed field description of the
identified features of the historic mining sites.
The study indicates that all the abandoned mine features present a variety of community safety,
health threats and environmental problems. Site characterisation revealed that mining of magnesite
in these areas was conducted haphazardly and this resulted in safety threatening open surface
excavations. Based on the studies, 24 prominent unprotected exploration trenches were identified at
only two of the sites within the Tshipise Magnesite field. It was also established that large volumes
of mine wastes were dumped without any plan of managing the environmental effects or
rehabilitating the waste deposits. Exposed metal edges and steel nails were found at all the three
historic mining sites and these pose safety risks to humans. A conceptual site model has been
developed that provides an overall understanding of the site in terms of the sources of physical and
environmental hazards and pathways and exposures of these hazards. Such a complete and
detailed conceptual model is essential for making sound professional judgements on appropriate
rehabilitation plans and post-mining land uses.

Keywords: Hazards, abandoned/historic mines, conceptual site model, magnesite mining

1
INTRODUCTION
The development of sound engineering strategies for rehabilitation of abandoned mine site requires
a detailed site characterization. According to Fortier and Moore (2002), site characterization is an
iterative process in assessing problems at the site, and determining the best approach of carrying
out the site rehabilitation. Consequently, this work looks at the environmental and physical hazards
of abandoned/historic magnesite mining site in the Tshipise magnesite field of South Africa. This
field is one of the economical viable magnesite fields in South Africa with magnesite occurring in
weathered sheets of olivine dolerite (Strydom, 1998). The magnesite ore in the Tshipise magnesite
field is generally found containing 45.10% (MgO), 51.00% (CO2), 2.01% (SiO2) and 1.9% others
(Herzberg, 1976). Like in other parts of South Africa, magnesite in the Tshipise field is mined by
surface mining methods (Mintek, 2007). Due to the fact that magnesite in this field occur as soft
clay-like matrix above the water table, makes it suitable for artisanal surface mining operations
(Paul et al., 1997). About 80% of the magnesite mined in the Tshipise magnesite field is sold as crude
material to the local farmers, while the other 20% is exported (Ratlabala, 2003). Magnesite mining
has been taking place in the Tshipise magnesite field for decades and this has left several open
pits/trenches and waste dumps in the region. These present serious environmental and physical
hazards in the area.
In the context of this work, the physical hazards refer to the factors within the environment that can
harm (i.e. cause injury or death) the body with or without being in contact with (Mackasey, 2000).
According to the Abandoned Mine Lands Preliminary Assessment Handbook (1998), several
physical hazards such as dangerous mine excavations, mine shafts, sinkholes and glory holes may
be found at abandoned mine sites. On the other hand, the environmental hazards refer to the state
of features or events which have the potential to threaten the surrounding natural environment and
adversely affect the health of people and animals. Examples of this type of hazards are water, air
and soil pollution by contaminants from the abandoned mine sites. The focus of this work was to
create a conceptual site model that depicts environmental and physical hazards of the
abandoned/historic magnesite mining sites in the Tshipise magnesite field. This model will serve as
a framework or guide for making decision rehabilitation of abandoned/historic magnesite mining
sites in the Tshipise magnesite field.

Location of the Tshipise Magnesite Field

The Tshipise magnesite field is found along the far northern part of the Limpopo Province of South
Africa as shown in Figure 1. It is also at the north of the Soutpansburg Mountains. The magnesite
deposit in this field is hosted by metamorphosed ultrabasic and calcareous rocks of the Limpopo
Belt (LB) and it extent for about 50 km east-north of Tshipise (The Mineral and Mining
Development in the Black Homelands of South Africa, 1977). In the Tshipise magnesite field,
significant occurrences of magnesite are known in farms such as Graadrik (162 MT), David (160
MT) and Frampton (72 MT) (Municipality Manager’s Office, 2009).

2
 Figure 1 The location of the Tshipise Magnesite Field (modified from Strydom, 1998)

METHODOLOGY

The development of the conceptual site model (CSM) of physical and environmental hazards of the
abandoned/historic mines in the Tshipise magnesite field began with identification and location of
all the areas of historic magnesite mining. The Landsat images (15m spatial resolution), aerial
photographs and orthophotographs (both with the spatial resolution of 5m) were used in the
identification and description of the abandoned mine sites and/or features. In addition, a detailed
site description of the abandoned mine sites and their associated features were made.

The field work involved traversing around the abandoned/historic mine sites in order to identify
and physically describe the mine features found in each and every historic magnesite mining site in
the Tshipise magnesite field. The field description of the mine features took into consideration the
present state of the features and the way they affect the different parts of the environment as well as
the manner by which they threaten the safety and health of the mambers of the public. The particle
size and major oxide analysis of the mine tailings were carried out to establish their general
properties. The site description of the abandoned mine features based on the images and actual
field survey enabled the pathways and/or exposure routes to be established.

3
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The description of the abandoned/historic mining sites

The Tshipise magnesite field is characterized by several abandoned magnesite minesites. This may
be attributed to be the fact that mining was condacted in the area for a very long time during the
regime where abandoning a mine without rehabilitation of the disturbed land was legal. These
abandoned mine sites pose serious threat to the environment and public safety and health. Figure 2
shows the location of the major abandoned and inactive mining sites in the Tshipise magnesite field
in relation to the different communities. Mining in this region was carried out using small to
medium scale surface mining methods.
A long history of magnesite mining has contibuted to nagative lagacy of large number of surface
excavations and heaps of mine waste in the vicinity of Folovhodwe and Zwigidini villages as
shown in Figure 2. Despite these major magnesite mining areas, sites affected by extensive
magnesite exploration works were identified at about 4km east of the abandoned magnesite surface
workings (Nyala Mine) at Zwigodini Village (see Figure 2).

Figure 2 The distribution of major magnesite mining areas in the Tshipise magnesite field

4
The high pit walls, erosion gullies on the slopes of the tailings dumps and the ore bunker (which
was the only abandoned mine infrastructure identified) were the mine features identified to be the
major sources of risk at the historic minesites. Other features such as sharp metal edges and nails or
packs were found at all the historic mine sites. These features presents the walking and trapping
hazards to mambers of the public.

The state of abandoned mine features

Abandoned excavations and pit-lakes
The haphazard mining of magnesite in the Tshipise magnesite field has left several excavations that
have excessively altered the natural landscape of the study area. Some of the walls of the pits left by
magnesite mining were high and sleep. The height ranges from approximately 15 to 20 m whist the
slope angles that greater than 90° in certain areas (see Finger 3a). The height and slope angle of
these excavations raise serious safety concerns as they present risk of injury or death due to fall
from or falling of the highwalls. Most of the abandoned excavations/pits in the Tshipise magnesite
field accumulate water during rainy seasons. The amounts of the water in these pits vary from one
rainy season to the other. Figure 3b shows flooded pits near the communities during the rainy days.
It was found that two of the abandoned excavations, one at Zwigodini and the other around
Folovhodwe, were basically pit lakes that contain water throughout the year. The analysis of the
water in the abandoned excavations at Nyala Mine around Zwigodini village showed that the
water was alkaline (pH 9.8) and corrosive due to high chloride content (Mhlongo and Dacosta,
2014).
The fact that these pit lakes are found within the residential areas, the community members have
found uses for the mine water in the pit. The water in the pits (especially the pit lake) at the
abandoned Nyala Mine is used by the Zwigidini community for different purposes such as
swimming, fishing and serves as drinking water for livestock. The use of this water by the nearby
communities was found linked to the fact that the area does not have sufficient surface water
bodies thus the communities depend on ground water resources for domestic purposes. These
activities exposed a large number of people from the host communities (especial young boys and
girls) to the health and safety concerns of the waters in the pit lakes and the unstable pit walls.
Young children are always found around these pit lakes mainly because they are expected to safe-
guard domestic animals as they drink the water in the pit. In many occasions, animals such as cows
were found trapped in the sticky mud at the pit floor. In addition, dumping of domestic waste in
the waters of the pit lakes was observed to be a common practice around Folovhodwe area. This
practice increases the risk of the children from the community who play in the pit lakes getting cut
by sharp objects covered by water. Moreover, the undefined chemical composition of the waste
thrown in the water in the pit lake might potentially make the water in the pit more health
hazardous if consumed or/and contacted by people and animals. This can results to serious water
related diseases to people and/or animals that use the water for different domestic purposes.

5
Figure 3 An illustration of some of the safety threatening features of the abandoned pits: (a) unstable high pit
walls and (b) flooded abandoned pit around Fholovhodwe village
Mine waste
The Tshipise magnesite field has four large volume tailings dumps and several heaps of spoil
dumps. These dumps were abandoned without any attempt of protecting the environment.
Consequently, the surface of this dumps are characterized by gully formations as the result of
excessive water erosion and rapid run off reoccurrence during rainy seasons. In some cases, the
magnesite tailings slopes are detoriating due to erosion. Erosion gullies of the depth and width of
8m and 6m respectively were recorded at the old dumps around Zwigodini and Folovhodwe
villages. These tailings dumps were identified as the major source of fine sticky sediments that fill
the pits floor around the mined out areas (see Figure 4a). In the pit lakes floor, these sediments have
trapped and killed several cows as they go there drink the water in the pits. They are also
responsible for the hostile grounds in supporting the easy growth of vegetation in many areas
around the abandoned mine sites in the Tshipise magnesite field. The particle size distribution of
the mine tailings showed that the material making up the dumps comprise of 58% sand, 40% gravel
and only 2% silt. Grading curve of the tailings is shown in Figure 4b.

Figure 4 (a) mud cracks in the shallow pit floor and (b) particle size analyses of magnesite tailings

6
In terms of mineral composition, the tailings comprise dominantly of silica (i.e. 43.3% SiO2).
Magnesium oxide (MgO) was found to be the second highest oxide of the magnesite tailings
material. Table 1 shows the percentage levels of different major oxides concentration in the
magnesite tailings. The 13.7% loss on ignition (L.O.I) obtained from the tailings material suggested
that these materials comprised of an increased amount of volatile material.
Table 1 The concentration of major oxides in magnesite tailings material
Major oxide concentration (%)
Magnesite SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3(t) MnO MgO CaO Na2O K2O P 2 O5 Cr2O3 L.O.I.
tailings 43.3 2.2 4.0 11.4 0.1 20.6 3.7 0.1 0.4 0.1 0.2 13.7

The spoil materials occupy a relatively large area than tailings dumps in the Tshipise magnesite
field. They were found at all historic minesite, especially around the abandoned excavations. The
spoils together with the open pits were scattered all over the areas of historic magnesite mining
sites in this field are the major influence of the ruggedness of the topography around the historic
mining sites. Apart from the fact that this material showed evidence of resisting water erosion
better than the tailings material (see Figure 5); it was also that it has potential of supporting
vegetation growth. There was evidence of growth of aristida-congesta-subsp grasses on the slopes of
the spoil dumps. Generally, the growth of grasses and few acacia trees were identified in areas
completely covered by spoil materials or where these materials are found mixed with tailings
materials such as along the base of magnesite tailings.

Figure 5 Limited effect of erosion on spoil dumps slopes

7
Abandoned infrastructure
The main abandoned surface infrastructure found at the Nyala Mine (Zwigodini Village) was the
ore loading platform or the ore bunker. This structure measures 7.5 m high and 7.5m in width and
breadth of 4.5 m. It is made-up of steel frame on which the feeder box is in the form of an inverted
pyramid with the bottom discharge attached (see Figure 6a). Treated timber logs tightly supported
by large boulders against the frame were used to line the walls of this structure. The risky part of
this structure is the fact that most of the timber lines have decayed; resulting to increased instability
of the walls. The feeder box that was left at its highest point on the structure during the time of
abandonment of the mine was observed to be gradually moving to lower positions. Generally; this
structure presents risk of injuries or fatalities due to a fall of human and animals from its high
walls. These risks also stem from the unstable feeder box, decaying timber logs and large unstable
boulders supporting the logs. It also poses physical hazards to the public and this is exacerbated by
the fact that the children from the village (Zwigodini Village) do play on the structure.
The other mine features that were also found to be the source of both physical and environmental
hazards in the area were metal containers and exposed metal edges or nails (see Figure 6b). They
generally create walking and tripping hazards around the areas of abandoned magnesite mining
sites in the Tshipise field. The containers that were found imbedded within the tailings materials
may be contaminated by chemicals and this may create inhalation or skin exposure hazards. These
risks are also influenced by the fact that children from the nearby villages easily get attracted to
play on the slopes of the dumps (Mhlongo et al., 2013).

Figure 6 (a) dilapidated ore bunker and (b) sharp nails around the areas of historic magnesite mining

The description of the risks of the abandoned/historic mine features

There were several different ways through which the abandoned/historic mine features were
observed to be affecting the environment as well as the safety and health of the members of the
public. The tailings carried by water and wind may be contacted by people in the nearby
communities, hunters any other adventurous and/or researching people through inhalation on the
atmosphere, drinking water contaminated by chemical from the tailings dumps. Children playing
at the mine site, especially on tailing dumps may be victims of potential skin contact hazards with

8
the tailings materials and chemical containers found within these materials. Swimming and fishing
in the pit lake also expose people to skin and eye contact hazards. Risks of accidental ingestion of
contaminated water during swimming in the pit lake waters are also high. Falling from unstable pit
walls was also found to be threatening the safety of both human and animals.
Domestic animals grazing at the abandoned mine sites get exposed to the risks of drinking
contaminants in the pit lakes and also from grazing on the contaminated fields. Birds, amphibians
and reptiles have found habitat on the site and therefore get exposed to the mine hazards presented
by contaminated water, sediments and material from the tailings dumps. Contaminates from
different parts of the mine are carried to pit lakes where they have potential to affect aquatic species
(both plants and animals). These species get exposed to these hazards. The exposure can be also
through food contact with sediments at the pit floor. The roots of aquatic plants on the other hand
take up chemical contaminates from sediments. In addition, sticky mud at the pit lake floors traps
and kills animals (cows) that drink the water in the lakes.
Abandoned mines and tailing dumps in particular can have detrimental effects on plants. This is
due to the fact that plants get their nutrients directly from the soil and as a result, any change in the
soil chemical characteristics and structure directly affect the plant growth and this was identified to
be a common problema around all sites of historic magnesite mining. Poor top soil structure created
by haphazard digging and dumping of spoils and tailings dumps have affected severely vegetation
growth at the abandoned/historic magnesite mining sites. In addition, mining of magnesite in the
Tshipise field was and is still carried out alongside with agriculture (crop farming) thus the
dispersion of tailing materials to these agricultural fields may have severe effect on soils which may
the reduce the productivity of these fields.

Conceptual Site Model of the Abandoned Mine

A conceptual site model (CSM) is a valuable analytical framework that provides visual summaries
of the current understanding of the physical features of the site including known and potential
sources of mine-related contamination, it describes both known and potential chemical migration
pathways, and outlines human and ecological populations that may contact mine-related
contamination or be exposed to physical hazards presented by the features of the abandoned
magnesite mine sites. The CSM elements related to exposure media, exposure routes, and
populations of concern are used to develop exposure scenarios.
The sources of environmental problems identified in areas of abandoned/historic mines in the
Tshipise magnesite field were large volumes of magnesite tailing dumps, spoils and top soil heaps
as well as the water contained in excavations and/or pit lakes. Generally, the sites are extremely
degraded with most profound surface alterations resulting from extensive excavations, tailings
material and overburden spoil dumps materials from these dumps are continuously carried away
to the sounding environs by wind and surface run-off. Seepage of surface water was considered to
be the primary pathway or route for ground water contamination.
Dangerous abandoned highwalls, exploration trenches, ore loading platform together with mine
litter (such as metallic chemical containers and steel packs) left exposed to the general public were
identified to be some of the serious safety threats of magnesite mining sites.
Solid waste and contaminated mine water enter the environment and eventually taken up by both
human and animals through ingestion, inhalation, direct contact and dermal contact. Fine

9
magnesite dust from tailings and the rest of the extensively degraded mine sites are carried by wind
for a long distance to the surrounding environs. This has high potential of influencing the pH of
soils in the areas away from the abandoned/historic mine sites. In addition, cases of animals and
human drowning in some of the pit lakes were reported by members of the public and remains of
animals were found in some of the old magnesite mining excavations. The environmental and
physical hazards of the abandoned/historic magnesite mining sites in the Tshipise field can be
conceptualized schematically as shown in Figure 7.

Figure 7 Conceptual model of physical and environmental hazards of abandoned/historic magnesite mining
sites

CONCLUSION
The features of the abandoned/historic magnesite mining sites in the Tshipise magnesite field were
found to be associated with several physical hazards. The major safety threats of magnesite mining
in the Tshipise magnesite field are falling from and/or off of the elevated heights of features such as
pits highwalls, deep erosion gullies and ore bunker which is in an appalling state. Working and
drowning hazards were found presented by the pit lakes and exposed metal edges and/or nails
mainly around Zwigodini and Folovhodwe old mining areas.
The physical characterization of the mine tailings showed that these materials are generally well-
graded sands (58% sand) with very little silt (2%) content. The absence of clayey particles to serve as
binding or cementing materials for the sand particles make these materials easily affected by water

10
erosion hence the existence of massive erosion gullies on the tailings dump slopes. Major
environmental problems of these materials were slow rate of vegetation growth due to their
physical structure and sedimentation problem that has led to trapping and subsequent death of
cows that drink the water in the abandoned pits and/or pit lakes.
The CSM developed for the magnesite field provide the necessary understanding of the way and
manner the abandoned/historic magnesite mining sites are affecting the environment and/or
threatening the health and safety of human and animals. Based on the information provided by the
CSM about the physical and environmental hazards, the objectives of rehabilitation of abandoned
magnesite mining sites in the Tshipise field are defined.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This paper was written from the ongoing PhD work in the Department of Mining and
Environmental Geology (University of Venda) and the authors are grateful to the Office of the
Deputy Vice Chancellor Academic, University of Venda, South Africa for funding the work.

REFERENCES
Abandoned Mine Lands Preliminary Assessment Handbook (1998), Second Printing, February 1999. Available
in http://www.dtsc.ca.gov/SiteCleanup/Brownfields/upload/aml_handbook.pdf

Fortier D and Moore S.W (2002) Abandoned Mine Site Restortion on Pine Creek, Coeur D=Alene Basin,
Northenr Idaho.

Herzberg, W. (1976). Magnesite. In: Mineral Resources of Republic of South Africa, 4th Edition (Coetzee, C.B.
editor). Government Print, Pretoria, pp. 385-388.

Ratlabala, M. E. (2003). An Overview of South Africa’s Mineral Based Fertilizers. Department of Minerals and
Energy, pp. 1-28.

Paul, R. L., Guest, R. N. and Net, P. (1997). Small mines/General Interest. The Mintek Small Mine Case Study-
Venmag. The Journal of the South African institute of Mining and Metallugy, pp. 1-6.

The Mineral Potential and Mining Development in the Black Homelands of South Africa (1977). Chris van
Ransburg Publications (Pty) Ltd, Johannesburg, pp 83.

Mackasey, W.O. (2000). Abandoned Mines in Canada. WOM Geological Associates Inc. Sudbury, Ontario. p
14.

Mhlongo, S.E., Amponsah-Dacosta, F., Mphephu, F (2013). Rehabilitation Prioritization of Abandoned Mines
and its Application to Nyala Magnesite Mine. Journal of African Earth Sciences, Vol. 88, pp. 53-61.

Mhlongo S.E, Amponsah-Dacosta F (2014). Assessment of Safety Status of Open Excavations and Water
Quality of Pit Lake at Abandoned Nyala Mine in Limpopo Province of South Africa. In: Sui, Sun and
Wang. An Interdisciplinary Response to Mine Water Challenges, China University of Mining and
Technology Press, Xuzhou, pp. 395-399.

11
Mintek (2007). A Survey of Precious Metals, Base Metals, Nuclear Sector Minerals Ferrous Minerals and
Selected Industrial Minerals in KwaZulu-Natal (“other minerals”). Trade and Investment KwaZulu-
Natal.

Municipality Manager’s Office (2009). 2009/10 I.D.P, Musina Local Municpality

Strydom J.H (1998). Magnesite. In: The Mineral Resources of South Africa (Wilson M.G.C and Anhaeusser C.R.
Editers): Handbook, Council for Geosciance, 16, pp. 444-449.

12
 C HAP T E R 4

GEOCHEMISTRY
OF MINING
ENVIRONMENTS
Geochemical and Mineralogical Characterization of
Aladino VI Abandoned Mine, Puno region, Peru
Sheyla Palomino1, Mansour Edraki1, Corinne Unger1, Ana Condorhuaman2, Franz
Garcia2, Magdie Ochoa2, Shianny Vasquez2, Susana Orihuela2
1. Sustainable Minerals Institute, The University of Queensland, Australia
2. Instituto Geológico, Minero y Metalúrgico, Perú

ABSTRACT
The Puno region, located in the larger catchment of Lake Titicaca, is one region impacted by
ancestral mining in Peru. One of the abandoned mines in this region is Aladino VI, located near
Mañazo Village. This mine was abandoned 50 years ago, when environmental regulation of mining
did not occur and community expectations for environmental remediation were lower than they are
today. The mine waste materials (tailings and waste rocks) contain residual sulfide and locally
generate acid and metalliferous drainage despite the presence of potential alkalinity in the geology.
The waste materials were found to have high concentrations of iron (170 000 mg/kg), arenic (26 497
mg/kg), copper (62 739mg/kg), manganese (87 640 mg/kg), cadmium (1 621 mg/kg) and zinc (118
085 mg/kg). The tailings mineralogy was enriched in secondary minerals which may act both as the
sink and source of heavy metals. The primary sulfide minerals include pyrite, chalcopyrite,
hematite, sphalerites and galena. There is also an important presence of calcite, as part of the
Ayabacas geological formation. The elements in water showed an increase in conncentrations after
the zone of contact with the mine waste materials with high levels of Fe (1.162 mg/L), sulfate (484.6
mg/L), conductivity (1 125 us/cm) and TDS (552 mg/L). The sediments also indicated an increase of
Fe (9 5562 mg/L), Cu (700 mg/L), As (623 mg/L), Mn (1028 mg/L) and a decrease in paste pH (3.8).
The ABA test results confirmed that the tailings and overburden have a capacity for generating
AMD. The presence of calcite in some samples and its abundance in the waste suggests the
improbable potential to generate AMD. This neutralization potential could be the responsible for
the low metal concentration in the water. Nevertheless, this can change if the acid drainage activity
continues. Tailings are particularly enriched in heavy metals which are readily mobilised through
physical and chemical weathering processes.

1
INTRODUCTION
One of the main concerns for the environment in the study of mine waste materials at abandoned
mines is the possible generation of Acid Mine Drainage (AMD) due to the oxidation of pyrite.
(Ritchie, 1994, Johnson et al., 2000; Lefebvre et al., 2001; Gieré et al., 2003; Sracek et al., 2004; Salmon
and Malmström, 2004; Salzsauer et al., 2005, Smuda et al., 2007). The important characteristic of the
mine drainage waters typically is the low pH and high concentrations of sulfate, iron and other
metals (Blowes et al., 2003). The characterization of mine and mineral processing waste disposal
areas is of great importance to assess their environmental impact (Puura et al., 2002). The
information on the mineralogical and geochemical composition of mine waste materials in terms of
the concentration of metals and other potential contaminants such as salts (e.g. sulfate) is essential
to understand the processes controlling the dissolution of contaminants, their persistence,
availability and toxicity to the environment. In this paper, we focused on the geochemical and
mineralogical characterization of the mine waste materials at Aladino VI Abandoned Mine, and
their control on the distribution of contaminants in the sediments and water in the local river.

Site Description
The mining district of Mañazo, North-West of Puno, is located in the eastern foothills of the
Western Cordillera (Fig. 1). This region is characterized by the presence of diverse mineralized
structures as in the case of the Aladino VI Abandoned Mine. In the area of village of Mañazo,
North-West of Puno, there are extensive deposits of Upper Jurassic (Callovian) rocks consisting
mainly of dark, sandy shales, grey quartzites, and minor amounts of fossiliferous grey limestone
(Normand, 1949). Aladino VI Abandoned Mine is located at the middle of a micro-watershed with a
marked topographic difference of more than 800 m from the top of the range to the bottom of the
valley. Historically, Aladino VI Mine was a copper deposit with characteristics of hydrothermal
processes and later contact metamorphism along the contact of limestone and shale. The ore
minerals were pyrite and chalcopyrite (34.5% Cu, 35% S, 30.5 % Fe), and the mineral waste were
silicified limestone and pyrite (Aparicio, 1972). Mine waste materials (waste rock plus tailings) that
are causing concern in the population located in the surrounding of this abandoned mine have high
concentrations of metals as Pb, Zn, Mn, Cu and As. More than 120,000 m2 (estimated from maps) of
metal sulfides-rich mine waste and tailings are placed along the local river.

METHODOLOGY

The waste rock dumps are located to the west of the site where old mine workings have cut into an
area which seems to be at the contact of carbonate rocks and volcanic or intrusive intermediate
rocks.The mine waste materials are concentrated in five piles. The five piles and the samples
collected were labelled as R-2, R-3, R-4, R-5 and R-6 (Figure 1). R-1 was collected from is in-situ rock
formation.

The samples from the mine tailings were labelled as RV-1, RV-2 and RV-3 (Figure 2), from the
youngest to the oldest. The mine tailings have a general stratified structure, are partly eroded and
incised, and show signs of high oxidation on the surface, with greyish, yellowish and orange
horizontal layers and a whitish surface layer of approximately 5 cm thick (Figure 2). The samples
were collected from an interval of 10 cm at each distinct layer using sterile and previously cleaned

2
plastic bottles (wide mouth) and bags. Figure 1 shows the general location of mine waste piles
along the river and the influence zone, the non-influence zone and the mixing zone along the river.

Figure 1 Location of Aladino VI Abandoned Mine and sampling network

The samples of water and sediments were collected upstream of the zone of influence of Aladino VI
abandoned mine, downstream of the river, after the contact with the mine tailing pile and in a
channel that comes from an underground mine shaft. The water samples were labelled as 0174-154-
031, 0174-154-032, 0174-154-033 and 0174-154-034 and the sediment samples, 0174-154SED01, 0174-
154-SED05 and 0174-154-SED08 from the highest to the lowest on level samples in the river (Figure
1). All the waste samples from the mine were dried at 50 °C, ground and analysed. The analyses
included the concentration of metals (ICP MS), acid base accounting (ABA) (developed in the
laboratory of SGS del Peru S.A.C.), X-Ray diffraction (XRD), petrology, mineralogy and level of
liberation of the minerals (in the INGEMMET’s laboratory).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Geochemistry

Table 1 shows concentrations of As , Cd, Cu, Mn, Pb, Zn and Fe at Aladino VI Abandoned Mine,
including tailings (RV-1, RV-2 and RV-3), and rocks (R-1 and R-6). In the case of tailings, the most
abundant metal is iron with a minimum concentration of 5.5% and a maximum of 17%. In the same
way, iron (Fe) as Fe2O3, had a variation from 6% to 23.9% and presence of Ca concentrations as CaO,
from 0.3% to 2.3%. The general order of abundance of metals and arsenic in the tailings is Fe> Mn
>Zn> Cu>Pb >As>Cd. Manganese has minimum concentration of 3 966 mg/kg and a maximum of 87

3
640 mg/kg, arsenic a minimum of 617 mg/kg and a maximum of 1 578 mg/kg, zinc a minimum of 2
073 mg/kg and a maximum of 12 321 mg/kg. The concentration of cadmium varied from 24 to 106
mg/kg, copper from 712 mg/kg to 4 251 mg/kg, and lead from 967 mg/kg to 3 169 mg/kg. In the case
of waste rocks, the general order of abundance of heavy metals was Fe> Zn> Pb>Cu>Mn>As>Cd.
Iron has a minimum concentration of 2.4% (23 724 mg/kg) and a maximum of 11% (110 150 mg/kg).
Zinc had a range of concentrations from 212 mg/kg to 118 086 mg/kg, lead from 43 mg/kg to 49301
mg/kg, copper from 120 mg/kg to 62 739 mg/kg. The concentration of manganese varied from 123
mg/kg to 43 243 mg/kg, arsenic from 199 mg/kg to 26 497 mg/kg, cadmium from 6 mg/kg to 1 621
mg/kg. In the case of rock waste rocks, the most abundant metal was iron (Fe) 2.4% (23 725 mg/kg).
Copper had 61 mg/kg, manganese had 2 787.80 mg/kg, lead had 86.20, zinc had 64.40 mg/kg,
arsenic had 42.10 mg/kg and cadmium had 1.000 mg/kg. So, the general order of abundance of
heavy metals in rocks was Fe>Mn>Pb>Zn>Cu>Cd>As. The acid base accounting test (ABA) showed
a neutralization potential ratio of NP/AP<1; it means a high potential of AMD, for RV-01 (0.41), RV-
02 (0.35), R-3 (-1.21), R-4 (0.35) and R-5 (-0.59). In contrast, RV-3 (1.20), R-1 (1), R-2 (1) and R-6 (1.21)
had improbable potential of AMD.

R-1 R-2 R-3 R-4

R-5 R-6
RV-1

RV-2

RV-3

Figure 2 In-situ rock (R-1), waste rocks (R-2, R-3, R-4, R-5, R-6) and tailings (RV-1, RV-2, RV-3)

4
 Table 1 Concentrations of As, Cd, Cu, Mn, Pb, Zn and Fe listed in the mine waste piles

As Cd Cu Mn Pb Zn Fe
Label Description
mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg %
RV-1 Tailing 617.00 23.600 4 251.50 56 811.50 967.50 2 855.90 15.3
RV-2 Tailing 1 578.00 39.300 2 234.70 3 965.10 3 169.90 2 073.20 5.5
RV-3 Tailing 1 326.50 105.600 712.20 87 640.40 2 015.20 12 320.90 17.0
R-1 Waste rock 42.10 1.000 61.40 2 787.80 86.20 64.40 2.4
R-2 Waste rock 198.60 5.900 12 345.30 2 773.50 42.90 212.30 2.4
R-3 Waste rock 26 497.00 1 621.500 62 739.30 43 243.40 37 006.30 118 085.90 11.0
R-4 Waste rock 1 057.00 11.200 765.70 124.70 2 644.60 457.80 6.0
R-5 Waste rock 4 299.30 134.800 11 114.90 13 657.00 49 301.10 10 396.50 10.0
R-6 Waste rock 4 118.90 27.200 119.60 123.00 32 126.40 739.60 1.1
Detection Limit 0.06 0.001 0.02 0.05 0.02 0.06

Mineralogy: Figures 3-6 show the mineralogical composition of tailings samples. For example,
the mineral liberation analysis of the RV-1 comprises of hematite 70.59%, pyrite 90.91% and
chalcopyrite 0.18%. The hematite 2 of the sample RV-3 is a possible product of the alteration of
magnetite, pyrite, and chalcopyrite.

Sample R-1 is a sedimentary rock with bluish gray color and some zones with grayish brown color.
This rock is formed by carbonates with quartz grains, presence of fissures filled with iron oxides
and, carbonate veins surrounded by iron oxides. Oxidization, carbonate alteration and silicification
can be recognized (Fig. 7). Sample R-2 proceded from non-clastic sedimentary rock. It is
characterized by the presence of carbonate, iron oxides veins. The minerals present are goethite,
limonite and pyrite and there is a low oxidation alteration as indicated by Figure 7. These rocks
were located in the Ayabacas geological formation that is characterized as carbonate rocks. Sample
R-3 is from altered sedimentary rocks with blackish color. The rock shows high silicification,
fissures filled with calcite and oxides, mineralized by sphalerite, galena, pyrite and disseminated
chalcopyrite. The sample shows two assemblage of minerals. Arsenopyrite replaced by
chalcopyrite, and pyrite and sphalerite replaced by galena. Both assemblage of minerals are
replaced by tennantite-tetrahedrite. The probable paragenetic sequence is arsenopyrite, pyrite,
sphalerite, chalcopyrite, galena, tennantite-tetrahedrite as shown in Figure 8. The mineral liberation
analysis of R-5 sample present hematite 2 (96.17%), hematite 1 (70.71%), magnetite (84.91%),
sphalerite (100%) (occurs in free grains), pyrite and chalcopyrite present intergrown grains with
gangue (Fig. 8). Sample R-6 is from volcanic igneous rock, with yellowish grey color with brownish
tone. This is constituted by magnetite (asociated with ferromagnesian minerals), pyrite,
chalcopyrite and hematite (alteration of magnetite).

5
 Figure 3 Mineralogy of Tailings (RV-1, RV-2, RV-3)

Ccp

Py
Hem
Ccp

Figure 4 RV-1, Free hematite (Hem), pyrite (Py) and chalcopyrite (Ccp)

Py
Hem
Hem

Figure 5 RV-2, Free hematite (Hem) and pyrite (Py) grains

6
 Py-Hem2
Hem1

Ccp

Figure 6 RV-3, Free chalcopyrite (Ccp) and hematite1 (Hem1) grains, also pyrite reeplaced by hematite2 (Py-
Hem2)

Cb-OXsFe
bioclast
Qz

Gth

Cal. mic
Lm

Figure 7 R-1, bioclasts filled by calcite, quartz grains (Qz), disposal in micritic matrix (Cal.mic), crystals of
carbonate in veins with oxides of iron (Cb-OXsFe). Limonite (Lm) and goethite (Gth) pseudomorphs after
pyrite

Sp Gn
Hem2
Ccp

Py
Mag-Hem1
Ttr-Tnt

Figure 8 R-3, Tennantite-tetrahedrite (Tnt-Ttr) replaces pyrite (py), galena (gn), chalcopyrite (cp). The
sphalerite (ef) is replaced by galena (gn). R-5, altered magnetite to hematite (Mag-Hem1), and hematite 2 (hm2)

py
Water and sediments

The samples of water located upstream of the Aladino VI abandoned mine, 0174-154-031 and 0174-
154-032 showed in the Piper diagram a water type of Ca-Mg-SO4-HCO3. , the sample located
downstream 0174-154-033 was Ca-Mg-SO4 water type, and the sample located in a channel that did
not have any contact with the mine wastes was Ca-SO4 water type. The stream water sample (0174-
154-034) collected about 0.5 kilometres downstream from the tailings location showed similar
chemistry compared to those above and outside the mine with the pH in the range of 7.00 to 8.48,
which was in the near-neutral/low metal classification (Fig. 9). The conductivity of the sample
collected above the mine is 473µS/cm. In contrast, the samples after the zone of contact with tailings
are in range of 1 000 to 1 413µS/cm. The sulfate concentration in the downstream sample was 484
mg/L compared to 88 mg/L upstream from the site. A few pH measurements at drainage channels
at the base of old mine workings also showed near-neutral to alkaline property which indicates to
the buffering capacity of carbonate rocks. Additionally some elements had increased arsenic level,
from 0.003 mg/L to 0.01 mg/L, cadmium, from 0.0006 mg/L to 0.0011mg/L, copper, from 0.001mg/L
to 0.012mg/L, manganese from 0.0012mg/L to 0.0676 mg/L, lead, from 0.0003mg/L to 0.0197 mg/L.
Zinc concentrations decreased from 0.077mg/L to 0.0667 mg/L and the pH from 8.48 to 8.43. The
order of increase of cations and anions due to possible influence of the abandoned mine was
Fe>SO4>CaCO3>>As>Cd>Cu>Pb>Mn, and it appeared that Zn had precipitated.

Table 2 Results of water quality

EC SO4 As Cd Cu Fe Mn Pb Zn
LABEL pH
(µS/cm) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L)
0174-154-031 8.48 473.5 88.13 0.003 0.0006 0.001 0.035 0.0012 0.0003 0.0770
0174-154-032 7 1 000 103.29 0.025 0.0011 0.012 5.161 0.1744 0.0127 0.2086
0174-154-033 7.7 1 413 654.3 0.016 0.0003 0.002 0.739 0.0715 0.0086 0.0019
0174-154-034 8.43 1 125 484.46 0.010 0.0011 0.012 1.162 0.0676 0.0197 0.0667
Detection
Limit 0.01 0.01 0.001 0.0002 0.001 0.001 0.0006 0.0004 0.0008

8
Figure 9 Concentration of metals in stream water (mg/Lt) Figure 10 Concentration of metals in sediments (mg/Kg)
vS Ph at Aladino VI Abandoned Mine at Aladino VI Abandoned mine

The elements that have increased in sediments after river being in contact with the zone of mine
wastes are: iron from 23 765 mg/kg to 95 562 mg/kg, copper from 27.52 mg/kg to 700.09 mg/kg, lead
from 66.21 mg/kg to 843.48 mg/kg, arsenic from 96.97 mg/kg to 623.14 mg/kg, cadmium from 7.870
mg/kg to 7.360 mg/kg (Figure 10). In contrast, the elements that decreased in concentration were
manganese from 9 372 mg/kg to 1 029 mg/kg and zinc from 1 324 mg/kg to 584 mg/kg as well as the
paste pH from 3.80 to 7.70. Additionally, the acid base accounting test (ABA) showed that the
upstream sediments located away from the zone of influence of the abandoned mine do not have
potential AMD. Nevertheless, the sediments located in the direct zone of influence and downstream
indicated high potential of AMD and paste pH of 3.80. The order of increase of elemental
abundance was Fe>Cu>Pb>As>Cd whilst Mn, Zn and paste pH showed a decreasing trend.
Table 3 Results of sediments

Paste ABA As Cd Cu Fe Mn Pb Zn
LABEL
pH (PN/PA) (mg/kg) (mg/kg) (mg/kg) (mg/kg) (mg/kg) (mg/kg) (mg/kg)
0174-154-SED01 7.7 1.03 96.97 7.870 27.52 23 765 9 372.32 66.21 1 324.11
0174-154-SED05 5.0 0.07 621.17 8.120 615.78 83 326 881.70 856.52 39 609.34
0174-154-SED08 3.8 0.08 623.14 7.360 700.09 95 562 1 028.67 843.48 583.39
Ddetection Limit 0.1 -- 0.001 0.0002 0.001 0.001 0.0006 0.0004 0.0008

9
CONCLUSION
The mine waste materials at Aladino VI abandoned mine have been exposed to weathering and
oxidation for almost 50 years and contain remaining sulfide and residual acidity in secondary
minerals, locally generating acid mine drainage despite the presence of potential alkalinity in the
geology. The metals that showed elevated levels of concentrations were Fe (17%), As (26 497
mg/kg), Cu (62 739.3 mg/kg), Mn (87 640.4 mg/kg), Cd (1 621.5 mg/kg) and Zn (118 085.9 mg/kg).
The tailings mineralogy is enriched in secondary minerals which may act both as the sink and
source of heavy metals. The presence of calcite is due to the local Ayabacas geology. The ABA test
results confirmed that the tailings and overburden have a large capacity for generating AMD. The
presence of caclite in some waste rock samples highlights the potential buffering of pH which can
occur. This neutralization potential would be the responsible for the low increasing of metal
concentration in the water, nevertheless, tailings are particularly enriched in heavy metals which
are readily mobilised through physical and chemical weathering processes. It is recommended to
include catchment hydrology study in Illpa catchment to quantify the loads of contaminants to
surface and groundwater in order to complement the information for the future site remediation
programs.

NOMENCLATURE
AMD: Acid Mining Drainage
NP: Neutralization Potential (kg CaCO3 per ton)
NA: Acid Producing Potential (kg CaCO3 per ton )
NP/NA: Neutralization Potential Ratio

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was developed for the Instituto Geológico Minero y Metalúrgico (INGEMMET) with the
support of the Australian researchers from Sustainable Minerals Institute (SMI), who received a
grant from International Mining for Development Centre (IM4DC).

10
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11
Heavy Metal Contamination of Soils in the Vicinity
of Louis Moore Gold Mine, South Africa
Confidence Muzerengi
Department of Mining and Environmental Geology, University of Venda, South Africa

ABSTRACT

Pollution of soil from contaminated mine waste is a source of danger to the health of communities
around these mine sites. Anthropogenic pollutants accumulate in soil, water and plants leading to
mobilization of trace metal species to toxic levels in the food chain and ultimately endangering
human health. In order to assess the contamination of soil by toxic metal species in the vicinity of
the mine, samples were collected from top 15 cm layer of the soil and analysed for Ni, Cu, Co, Pb,
Mn, Zn, As, Cd and Cr. The data revealed significant toxic metal contamination in the soil around
the mine dump. The maximum concentration of Ni, Cu, Co, Pb, Mn, Zn, As, Cd and Cr were 375,
101, 54, 64, 759, 652, 50, 0.8 and 427 mg/kg while maximum tolerable levels in the country were 100,
100, 20, 56, 185, 2, 2 and 80 mg/kg respectively. Igeo rating ranged from practically uncontaminated
to strongly contaminated soil, with Zn being strong pollutant. Control measures of pollution routes
and remediation measures at the site are urgently required. There is also need to evaluate the levels
of toxic metal specie concentration in the inhalable range particles within the communities around
the mine dump.

1
INTRODUCTION
Mining can be a significant source of toxic metal species in the environment owing to activities such
as mineral excavation, ore transportation, smelting and refining, disposal of the tailings and waste
water around mines (Razo et al. 2004; Chopin and Alloway, 2007). These metals can accumulate to
phytotoxic levels, especially in low pH soils, which reduces plant growth and enter the food chain
when plants are consumed by animals (Chaney, 1994). Mine tailing disposal may also result in acid
mine drainage and the release of heavy metals that impact on human health and the environment
(Davies and Rice, 2001). Many studies such as Forstner (1985), Giller et al (1988), Kozak (1991) and
Grzebisz et al (2002) have shown that heavy metals are extremely persistent in the environment,
non-biodegradable and readily accumulate to toxic levels. They accumulate in soils and plants and
have a negative influence on physiological activities of plants such as photosynthesis, gaseous
exchange and nutrient absorption which result in plant growth reduction and dry matter
accumulation (Ruqia et al., 2015). Animals that graze on such contaminated plants and drink from
polluted waters, as well as marine lives that breed in heavy metal polluted environment also
accumulate these metals in their tissues.
Louis Moore gold mine operated intermittently from 1905 to 1978 with gold occurring in
association with sulphide quartz-veins (Van Reenen et al., 1994). The exposure of sulphides tailings
to weathering oxidants may lead to acidification and the release of toxic elements, such as Zn, Pb,
Cd, and As which are mainly associated with sulphide minerals. Louis Moore tailings dam is
currently not rehabilitated and has no vegetation, highly eroded and thus susceptible to wind
erosion. Consequently this can lead to mobilization of trace metals, which can then accumulate in
soils, natural waters and vegetation in the surrounding environment. The objective of the present
study was to assess the levels of Ni, Cu, Co, Pb, Mn, Zn, As, Cd and Cr in top soils in the vicinity of
Louis Moore tailings dam in the Giyani greenstone belt. Some statistical tools were also applied on
the data to study the relationship between metals, and level of pollution compared with
background, international and national threshold levels.

Description of the study area

Louis Moore is one of the six mines which produced more than 10 t of gold in the Giyani
greenstone belt (De Klerk, 2001) and is within the Giyani Greenstone Belt. It is situated in the far
north-east corner of Limpopo Province, adjacent to Kruger National Park and 70 km southeast of
Thohoyandou. Gan et al., (1986) was able to ascertain that gold mineralisation in the belt is
associated with shearing along with pyrrhotite (Fe1-XS), chalcopyrite (CuFeS2), pyrite (FeS2),
Sphelerite (ZnS) and arsenopyrite (FeAsS) being the main sulphide minerals. Lithological rock
assemblages consists of mafic and ultramafic units consisting of seperntinites and pyroxene. Mafic
to felsic volcanic rocks are the most abundant rock-types in the area, and a volumetrically minor
suite of sedimentary rocks including quartzite-muscovite schists, banded iron formation and minor
dolomites (Muzerengi, 2013).

2
METHODOLOGY
Sampling design, collection and preparation
A total of 24 topsoil samples (0 to 15 cm depth) were collected systematically within ½ km from the
tailings dam. Twenty samples were collected within radii of 100, 200, 300, 400, and 500 m on the
eastern, western, northern and southern part of the tailings dam (Fig. 1). Two samples were
obtained within the tailings dam represented as samples at zero meter. Two background topsoil
samples were also collected from a location about 10 km from the study area.

Figure 1 A map showing sampled areas in yellow dots

Samples were collected using a shovel and stored in polythene bags and transported to the
laboratory for analysis. Sampling implements and other work surfaces were always thoroughly
cleaned between samples during sampling, preparations and analysis. All samples brought were
sorted and oven dried at 105-110°C. Once completely dry, the samples were sieved through -2 mm
fraction sizes and milled to 85% -75 μm. The milled samples were placed in labelled sample bags
ready for analysis. Weights of 10 g of powder for each sample were placed into decomposition
beaker and 60 mL of aqua regia (1 part HNO3 and 3 parts HCl) was used for digestion. The samples
were then digested on a hot plate for at least 2 hours. The digested solutions were transferred to
100 mL volumetric flask and made up to the mark with de-ionised water (Milli-Q purified), filtered
with filter papers (no. 541 filtration papers) and ready for analysis. In addition, internal data quality
control procedures were followed, that included in-cooperation of certified reference standards
(SARM 46 and SARM 52) and blanks.

3
Flame atomic absorption spectrometer (Perkin Elmer Analyst 400, AAS) was used to analyse
samples at the Department of Mining and Environmental Geology, University of Venda. Standards
used to calibrate the AAS were obtained commercially from LASEC as stock metal solutions from
which working standards were prepared by appropriate dilution. Blank samples (sample
containing all reagents except the soil sample) were carried through all methods, analysed and
subtracted from the sample. This was done to check reagents and environmental interferences.

Assessment of toxic metal pollution

Geoaccumulation index (Igeo) was used to assess the extent of Ni, Cu, Co, Pb, Mn, Zn, As, Cd and Cr
pollution of the topsoil at the study area. Geoaccumulation index (I geo), first used by Muller in1969
is a tool that indicates the extent of pollution of soil with regards to the background concentrations
of the metals. This was calculated using Muller (1969) as follows:

Cn
I geo
 log 2
1.5 xBn

Where Cn is the average concentration of metal in the soil and Bn is the background concentration
of the metal. The factor 1.5 is introduced to minimize the effect of possible variations in the
background values which might be attributed to lithologic variations in the soils. To gauge the
degree of heavy metals concentration in the soil, the Igeo consists of 7 grades or classes (Table 1).
Table 1 The degree of metal pollution in terms of seven enrichment classes (modified by Abrahim and Parker,
2008)
Igeo Value Igeo Class Designation of sediment quality
>5 6 extremely contaminated
4-5 5 strongly to extremely contaminated
3-4 4 strongly contaminated
2-3 3 moderately to strongly contaminated
1-2 2 moderately contaminated
0-1 1 uncontaminated to moderately contaminated
<0 0 Uncontaminated

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The ranges and average concentration of Ni, Cu, Co, Pb, Mn, Zn, As, Cd and Cr in the soils are
listed in Table 2. The concentration of the metals showed a wide range of variation with variable
patterns in the order: Mn > Cr > Ni > Zn > Cu > As > Pb > Co > Cd. No defined pattern in the
variation for each metal with distance from the tailings dam could be established. This suggests that
the dispersion of metals from the source could have been, majorly, by wind which disperses dust
containing metals in all directions at different magnitude, space, and time.

Maximum concentration of potentially toxic metals for this study were compared with those from
different countries (Table 2). These study results were significantly higher than maximal permitted

4
threshold concentration in natural soils in the country as defined by Steyn (1996), and also higher
than the tolerable levels of other countries. In particular, the maximum concentration of Ni, Co, Zn,
As and Cr were 4 times higher than the tolerable levels in the country, Germany, Australia and
New Zealand (375, 54, 652, 50, 427 mg/kg respectively). However, the average concentration of all
the heavy metals analysed in this study was below threshold from this standpoint except Cr (131
mg/kg) and As (19 mg/kg). Mn concentration was significantly higher that background levels (759
vs 78 mg/kg) albeit the unavailability of threshold data for comparison during the course of this
study. The elements analysed may have been derived from sulphide minerals, such as CuFeS2, ZnS,
FeAsS and PbS which are associated with gold mineralisation in the Giyani greenstone belt.

Table 2 Statistical summary of heavy metals in top soils compared with maximum allowable concentration
(ppm) from different countries
Ni Cu Co Pb Mn Zn As Cd Cr
Minimum 13 7 4 7 46 9 3 0.1 30
Maximum 375 101 54 64 759 652 50 0.8 427
Mean 73 22 13 14 225 63 19 0.2 131
Median 37 18 10 12 164 22 17 0.2 105
Standard deviation 90 20 11 13 192 141 14 0.16 92
*Australia and New Zealand 60 60 - 300 - 200 20 3 50
*Germany 50 60 - 100 - 100 - 1.5 100
*South Africa 100 100 20 56 - 185 2 2 80
*Maximum permissible concentrations from different countries (after Steyn, 1996).

The mean concentrations of the heavy metals in the soil showed wide variations between samples,
and this was indicative of the heterogeneous distribution of heavy metals around the mine.
However, samples between 100 to 300 m from the mine dump appeared to show a higher mean
concentrations for Ni, Mn, Zn and Cr than samples farther away, probably because of their
closeness to the tailing dam and dispersion of these metals from the mine. Most importantly, the
metal concentrations within the vicinity of the mine were two or more times higher than
background values and consequently, indicative of pollution around the mine site. Cu
conspicuously indicated lower levels at the tailings dam (0 m) than areas around the mine and this
may be attributed to the local geology of the area.

Table 3 Mean distribution of heavy metals in the vicinity of Louis Moore mine (mg/kg)

Distance from Tailings Ni Cu Co Pb Mn Zn As Cd Cr

0 409 20 30 53 1290 94 49 0.58 333
100 90 18 13 17 267 58 14 0.23 153
200 145 42 23 28 377 197 20 0.38 207
300 100 28 17 17 385 85 18 0.27 184
400 57 22 12 13 231 38 25 0.19 137
500 69 26 14 14 178 31 39 0.20 143
Background 20 11 8 7 78 11 5 0.10 45

5
The Igeo was assessed based on the values proposed by Muller 1969 and their mean I geo values
estimated was found in the following increasing order: Zn > Ni = As > Cr > Mn > Cd = Pb > Cu > Co
(Table 4). The maximum Igeo values were also in the following increasing order: Zn > As > Ni > Mn >
Cr > Pb > Cd > Cu > Co respectively. The Igeo values showed an indiscernible trend with distance
from the tailings dam. Most sample locations fell in class 2 (moderately contaminated), except Ni
(200 m), As (500 m) and Zn (200 and 300 m interval respectively) which were found to be in class 3.
Consequently, Zn can be considered as a strong pollutant around the tailings dam with I geo classes
of 3 and 4. The Igeo values for Ni and As were in classes 1, 2 and 3 and this indicated that the soils of
up to 500 m from the tailings dam were uncontaminated to strongly contaminated by these metals.
Mn, Cr, Pb, Cd, and Cu showed less degree of pollution with Igeo classes of 1 and 2. The
contamination level of Co was negligible compared to other heavy metals with maximum Igeo value
of 0.95 at 200 m from the tailings dam.

Table 3 Geoaccumulation Index (Igeo) of heavy metals in top soil around Louis Moore
Distance from Tailings Ni Cu Co Pb Mn Zn As Cd Cr
100 1.58 0.11 0.10 0.67 1.19 1.81 0.93 0.58 1.18
200 2.27 1.34 0.95 1.41 1.69 3.58 1.40 1.35 1.62
300 1.74 0.75 0.51 0.71 1.72 2.36 1.24 0.85 1.45
400 0.92 0.39 -0.04 0.36 0.98 1.19 1.76 0.36 1.03
500 1.21 0.66 0.24 0.41 0.6 0.90 2.36 0.40 1.08
Mean 1.54 0.65 0.35 0.71 1.24 1.97 1.54 0.71 1.27
Minimum 0.92 0.11 -0.04 0.36 0.60 0.90 0.93 0.36 1.03
Maximum 2.27 1.34 0.95 1.41 1.72 3.58 2.36 1.35 1.62

CONCLUSIONS

The levels of Ni, Co, Zn, As and Cr in soils within the vicinity of Louis Moore mine were
significantly higher than the tolerable levels (375, 54, 652, 50 and 427 mg/kg respectively). The
concentration of the studied metals were heterogeneously distributed around the mine. Ni, Mn, Zn
and Cr were more than 2 times higher than background values and this was indicative of pollution
around the mine site. The Igeo rating ranged from practically uncontaminated to strongly
contaminated soil, with Zn being strong pollutant ((Igeo = 3). The pollution of soils within the vicinity
of Louis Moore by Cr, As and Zn is of concern because communities cultivate and livestock feed on
vegetation from this site. Continuous monitoring of toxic metals in the soil is important since they
can affect the health of people and animals if they enter the food chain. It would also be
recommended to evaluate the toxic metal specie concentration in the inhalable range (PM 10)
particles within the communities around the mine dump.

NOMENCLATURE
HNO3 Nitric acid
HCl Hydrochloric acid
μm Micrometer
AAS Atomic absorption spectrometer
Igeo Geoaccumulation index

6
REFERENCES

Abrahim. G. M .S. and Parker, R. J., (2008) Assessment of heavy metal enrichment factors and degree of
contamination in marine sediments from Tamaki Estuary, Auckland, New Zealand. Environmental
Monitoring and Assessment, vol. 136: pp. 227-238.

Alloway, B. J., (1995) Heavy Metals in Soils. Blackie and Son Ltd, Glasgow, London, pp 38-40.

Chaney R. L., (1993) Zinc phytotoxicity. In: Robson A.D. (ed.): Zinc in soils and plants. Kluwer Academic Pub-
lishers, Amsterdam, pp. 135-150.

Davies, M. P. and S. Rice., (2001) An alternative to conventional tailing management- “dry stack” filtered
tailings, AMEC Earth and Environmental, Vancouver, Canada, 10, pp. 411-420.

De Klerk, S, L., (2001) Gold Deposits in the SADC Region. Southern African Development Community,
Council for Geoscience, South Africa, 126 pp.

Forstner. U., (1985) Chemical forms and Reactivity of Metals in Sediments. In: Chemical Methods for Assessing
Bioavailability Metals in Sludges and Soils, Leschber, R. (ed.). Elsevier, London, pp. 1-30.

Gan, S. B., McCourt S., Barton, J. M, Van Reenen, D. D., Pretorius, A. I, and Ehlers, D. L.,(1986) The Regional
Geologic Setting of the Sutherland Belt, with particular reference to Gold Mineralization, Council for
Geoscience, Pretoria.

Giller. K. E, Witter. E, McGrath, S. P., (1988) Toxicity of heavy metals to micro- organisms and microbial
processes in agricultural soils. A review. Soil Biol. Biochem., 30, pp.1389-1414.

Grzebisz, W., Ciesla, L., Komisarek, J., Potarzycki, J., (2002) Geochemical assessment of heavy metals pollution
of urban soils. Polish J. Environ. Stud., 11 vol.5, pp. 493-499.

Kozak, J., (1991) Heavy metals in soil. In: Cibulka J. et al.: Lead, Cadmium and Mercury transport in the
biosphere. Academica, Praha, pp. 62-104.

Muller, G., (1969) Index of geoaccumulation in sediments of the Rhine River. Geojournal, 2, pp. 108-118.

Muzerengi. C., (2013) Exploration of gold-sulphide mineralisation in the Giyani greenstone belt: case studies at
Black Mountain and west-59 targets, Limpopo province, South Africa. MSc thesis, pp. 6-25.

Razo I., Carrizales L., Castro J., Diaz-barriga F., and Monroy M., (2004) Arsenic and Heavy Metal pollution of
soil, water and sediment in a semi-arid climate mining area in Mexico, Journal of Water, Air, and Soil
Pollution vol. 152, pp.129-152.

Ruqia. N., Muslim. K., Muhammad. M., Hameed. U.R., Naveed, U. R. R., Surrya. S., Nosheen. A, Muhammad.
S, Mohib. U, Muhammad. R and Zeenat. S., (2015) Accumulation of Heavy Metals (Ni, Cu, Cd, Cr, Pb,
Zn, Fe) in the soil, water and plants and analysis of physico-chemical parameters of soil and water
Collected from Tanda Dam Kohat. Journal of Pharm. Sci. and Res. Vol. 7(3), pp. 89-97.

Steyn, C. E and van der Wattf, H. V. H. and Claassenst A. S., (1996) On the permissible nickel concentration for
South African soils. South African Journal of Science Vol. 92, pp. 360.

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Van Reenen, D. D, Smit, C, A., Roering, C and Gan, S., (1994) The Southern Marginal Zone-Kaapvaal Craton
Contact; A Potential Target for Achaean Lode-Gold Deposits. Department of Geology. Rand Africans
University, Johannesburg, 121 pp.

8
Benefits of Geochemical Characterization for AMD
Prediction of Sulfide Waste Rock
Brenda Chan2, Tao Xu1 and Ruiyong Wang2
1. Mineralogy Division, Zijin Mining Group, China
2. Environmental Division, Zijin Mining Group, China

ABSTRACT
With decline in ore grade and stringent environmental regulation, nowadays mining business is as
much concerned with managing solid waste as it is with producing metals. Each year, large volume
of waste rocks are generated near mine site, releasing acidic drainage into the environment. A past
reactive and results-based approach in which remedial actions were taken after problems occurred
is prohibitively expensive and causing extensive environmental damages to aquatic resources. On
the contrary, a proactive approach for drainage chemistry prediction can save time, money and
provide guideline for future cost effective mitigation measures, minimize environmental impact
and long term liability. While geochemical characterization is usually conducted in early mine
planning stage and during operation in the West, it is not a common practice in China. This paper
discusses the benefits of carrying out geochemical characterization for AMD prediction in a waste
rock dump. Waste rock samples were subjected to static test, mineralogical analysis and kinetic test
to characterize acidity and acid generating potential. Waste rock samples with no apparent
neutralization potential, showed distinct positive correlation between Net Acid Generating (NAG)
potential and their sulphide content. Kinetic test result also indicated the onset of AMD depending
upon their inherent sulphide concentration. This was confirmed by microscopy showing more
exposed pyrite. Samples with very low sulphide content did not show any AMD generation during
the length of kinetic test carried out in this work. Sulphide content analysis in the waste rock
samples can provide a timely albeit crude method for AMD prediction in order to segregate low/no
acid generating waste rock. However, detailed characterization still remains vital for future
mitigation as environmental regulation will become tighter in China.

1
INTRODUCTION
With depleting resources and decline in ore grade, majority of mined ore nowadays will end up in
waste rock dump and tailings storage facility. Each year, large volume of waste rocks are generated
near mine site, releasing acidic drainage into the environment and causing extensive environmental
damages to aquatic resources. Acid mine drainage (AMD) remediation remains one of the greatest
challenges for mining companies. It is also prohibitively expensive. Being a common practice in the
West, geochemical characterization is usually conducted in early mine planning stage and during
operation to provide guideline for future cost effective mitigation measures, minimize
environmental impact and long term liability. However, this preventive measure is still unheard of
and has not practised in general in China. Due to the increasingly stringent environmental
regulations in air, water and soil in the country, it is inevitable that more investment into
downstream treatment would be required from industries. Detailed mine closure plan, mitigation
measures and restoration will become part of the ongoing procedure and requirement throughout
the exploration for mine operators. Therefore, a proactive approach for drainage chemistry
prediction will not only save time and money, but also provide guideline for future cost effective
mitigation measures, minimize environmental impact and long term liability. In view of this, a
detailed mineralogical and geochemical characterization for AMD prediction in waste rock dump
was undertaken according to guidelines from literatures (INAP, 2009, Price, 2009), with the
objective to evaluate the potential for acid generating and other constituents of potential
environmental concern in the waste rock dump. This paper also addresses the relationship between
geochemical and mineralogical composition of the waste rock in predicting acid and sulphate
drainage.
The samples in the waste rock dump come from Zijinshan opencast mine where gold and copper
have been mined since 1993 and 2005. The mine is based on low grade porphyry-type deposits
containing free gold in an upper (secondary oxidation) zone (600-1100 m elevation) and copper
sulphides, mainly chalcocite, covellite and pyrite, in a lower zone (elevation 600-700 m). Given the
tiny amounts of desired metals contained in most ores, average ore grade for copper 0.3%, majority
of the materials mined will become waste and deposited in the waste rock dump adjacent to the
open pit by end-tipping techniques.

METHODOLOGY
Test samples were taken from two locations: waste rock dump and open pit. Representative
samples from the open pit (36 samples) were obtained by cone and quartering from the original 3-5
kg to 300g, it was then pulverized to 200 mesh (-75m) for static test and mineralogical analysis.
Samples from the waste rock dump (19 samples) were first crushed to 2 mm and 1.5 kg of this size
was retained for kinetic test. The remaining sample followed the same procedure as that from the
open pit, with cone and quartering to 300g and pulverized to -75m for testing. Testing program is
shown in Table 1.

2
Table 1 Test program conducted on samples from two locations

Tests Open pit Waste rock dump

(36 samples) (19 samples)
Rinse pH & conductivity  

Total S, Total C  

Acid Neutralising Capacity (ANC)  

Single addition net acid generation (NAG) test  

X-ray diffraction XRD  

Mineralogical analysis (SEM & optical microscopy) x Selected 9 samples before and
after humidity cell test

Detailed procedures can be found in literatures (INAP, 2009, Jamieson, 2011, Acuña, 2011). Brief
description of some of the tests is provided below.

Rinse pH and conductivity

The rinse pH and conductivity measurement were performed on a 1:1 w/w sample: deionised water
slurry, weigh 20g of air dry test material and 20 mL of distilled water (Price, 2009, Page et al., 1982,
Sobek et al 1978). It allows the electrode to be immersed and measurement taken without contacting
the charged solid particles.

Acid Base Accounting

Acid Base Accounting is the most widely used assessment method to assess the acid forming
characteristics of mine waste rock materials. They are referred to as static procedures because they
only involve single measurement. It evaluates the balance between acid generation from oxidation
of sulfide minerals and acid neutralizing processes from dissolution of alkaline carbonate and
weathering of silicates (Managing acid and metalliferous drainage, 2007). This paper adopts the
commonly used methods in Australia and procedures include the followings:
The total S and C contents were analysed by Leco induction furnace with IR detector for
measurement of the gas generated. The total sulphur and carbon content of the sample was
calculated by the instrument and expressed in percentage.
The Maximum Potential Acidity (MPA) is calculated from the total sulphur content of the sample
assuming all of the sulphur in the sample as pyrite. However acidity can be overestimated due to
other forms of sulphur (sulphate-sulfur e.g. gypsum, alunite) are non-acid generating and sulphur
may occur as other metal sulphides (covellite, chalcocite) which yield less acidity than pyrite when
oxidised (Managing acid and metalliferous drainage, 2007). MPA (kg H2SO4/t) = (Total %S) x 30.6
Acid Neutralizing Capacity (ANC). The acid formed from pyrite oxidation will react with acid
neutralizing minerals within the sample. This inherent acid neutralization is quantified as ANC.
This method involves the addition of a known amount of standardized hydrochloric acid (HCl) to
an accurately weighed sample after initial fizz test, allowing the sample time to react (with heating),
then back titrating the mixture with standardized sodium hydroxide (NaOH) to pH 8.3 to
determine the amount of unreacted HCl. The amount of acid consumed by reaction with the sample
is then calculated. Net Acid Producing Potential (NAPP) is the balance between the capacity of a
sample to generate MPA and its capacity to neutralize acid (ANC), also expressed in kg H2SO4/t.

3
Negative NAPP indicates the sample may have sufficient ANC to prevent acid generation.
Conversely, positive NAPP indicates that the sample may be acid generating. NAPP = MPA – ANC

Net Acid Generation (NAG)

The single addition NAG test is used as a complementary test to address the uncertainty of Acid
Base Accounting. This will enhance the reliability of AMD prediction. It measures the geochemical
nature of a sample by allowing both the acid forming and acid neutralizing reactions to occur
simultaneously (AMIRA, 2002). The NAG test involves a single addition of 250 mL of 15% H2O2 to a
2.5 g of pulverized (< 75 m) sample. The peroxide is allowed to react with the sample overnight
and the following day the sample is heated to remove any remaining unreacted peroxide and
allowed to cool. After cooling, the pH is measured (NAGpH) before titrating the solution with a
standard NaOH solution to pH 4.5. Titration of the solution to a pH of 4.5 accounts for acidity due
to free acid e.g. H2SO4 and the release of Fe and Al. NAG is expressed as the net amount of acidity
produced per unit weight of sample kg H2SO4/t.

Humidity Cell Test

Kinetic tests provide additional information on the rate of acid generation and neutralizing
processes. Humidity test is not a direct indication of on-site drainage chemistry, but is designed to
simulate accelerated rock weathering rates of sulfides. Detailed procedure can be found in literature
(Sobek 1978) and experimental set up is shown in Fig 1. Test could not be carried out for core
samples from the open pit due to their apparent fine size after blasting. Ten humidity cells were set
up for 9 samples (plus 1 duplicate) with high pyrite content (1.6 – 2.8 %) and low pyrite content
around 0.7 % from the waste rock dump in different elevations. 1 kg each of the crushed sample
(2mm) was exposed to alternating 3 days of dry air, 3 days of moist air and 750 mL of deionised
water soaking for 2 hours. After each cycle of 7 days, the weekly drainage produced was filtered
with 0.2m membranes prior to analyses for pH, conductivity, acidity and sulphate. ICP analyses in
the leachate were performed every week in the first three weeks, then reduced to every three weeks
from week 4 – 11, and one final reading on week 21. Surface and bulk mineralogy testing of the
waste rock samples including optical microscopy and Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) were
performed before and after humidity cell test. A total period of 21 cycles was performed.

Figure 1 Experimental set up of the humidity

cell test in the laboratory

4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Mineralogy and Acid Forming Characteristics

A total 55 samples from two locations were analysed for their mineralogy and acid forming
characteristics. A summary of the pH tests, acid base accounting, single addition NAG tests and
mineralogy on solid samples are presented in Table 2. The pH of the samples indicated 84% from
waste rock dump having pH < 4.5 with average pH of 3.42. In contrast, only 6% from the open pit
samples were acidic with average pH of 5.19. This agrees with the average total S in the samples.
The average total S from open pit samples was relatively low (0.97%) as opposed to 2.35% in
samples from waste rock dump. Samples from both sites showed very low total C and even
negative ANC from laboratory measurement which indicated samples had very little (or even none)
ability to buffer acidity. The average net acid producing potential (NAPP) from waste rock dump
samples were 2.5 times higher than samples from open pit. It was confirmed by the similar trend
from the average NAG at pH 4.5. The difference could be contributed by the different amount of
pyrite in the samples.

Mineralogical study from XRD showed that pyrite was the main sulfide mineral and being more
abundant in the waste rock samples than open pit samples. The main silicate minerals were quartz
and dickite. Haematite was observed in some samples in the two locations. 84% of the samples from
waste rock dump contained alunite as compared to 25 % in open pit samples. This also contributed
to the total S detected in the sample. Therefore, MPA could have been over estimated in samples
from waste rock dump. Accessory carbonates were rarely observed.

Table 2 Acid forming characteristics of waste rock samples from open pit and waste rock dump

Parameters Units Open pit Waste rock dump

(36 samples) (19 samples)
Average rinse pH 5.19 3.42
pH < 4.5 6% (2 samples) 84% (16 samples)
Average total S % 0.97 2.35
Average total C % 0.01 0.018
Average Acid Neutralising Capacity (ANC) kgH2SO4/t -1.63 -7.97
Average Net Acid Producing Potential kgH2SO4/t 31.31 79.96
(NAPP)
Potentially Acid Forming (PAF) % 100 100
Average NAGpH 2.72 2.33
Average NAG pH4.5 kgH2SO4/t 11.64 31.79
Quartz % 100 100
Dickite % 94 100
Pyrite % 22 58
Alunite % 25 84

5
 Haematite % 28 16

The single addition net acid generation (NAG) test results confirmed all the samples from two
locations are potentially acid forming (PAF) as seen in Fig 2. Due to no inherent total carbon content
in the samples, the plot NAPP vs NAGpH showed very clear distinction that no samples were in
the uncertain category. Despite all samples were acid generating, open pit samples showed less acid
generating potential albeit the NAG pH was below 4.5.
The rinse pH and NAGpH can be used to provide indication the extent of the oxidation from the
samples (Tran et al., 2003). Fig 3 compares the rinse pH with NAGpH. Samples plotting near the
NAGpH = rinse pH line have most likely undergone significant in-dump weathering and are
relatively advanced with respect to acid generation. Samples where pH > NAGpH are either
unweathered or still within the lag phase of the AMD evolution. But in the case of very little
carbonate in the samples, the samples are mainly unweathered in particular true for open pit
samples. Given pH of the open pit samples lied between 5.0 – 6.0 and plot well to the right of the
line, it can be concluded the samples are still at an early stage of ARD generation for samples
containing a considerable amount of sulfide. However, data showed very low TS from the samples
(as low as 0.04%), acid generation would be unlikely. For samples from the waste rock dumps, the
majority were likely to have undergone significant weathering which can be seen from data points
being near to the pH=NAGpH line.

7,0
6,5
NAF - Non Acid
6,0 Uncertain
Forming
5,5
5,0
4,5
4,0
NAGpH

3,5
3,0
2,5
2,0
1,5
Uncertain PAF - Potentially Acid
1,0
Forming
0,5
0,0
-100 -50 0 50 100 150 200
NAPP (kg H2SO4/t)

waste rock samples open pit core samples

Figure 2 Geochemical classification for samples from waste rock dump and open pit showing NAPP versus
NAGpH

6
 8,5
8
7,5 NAGpH = Rinse pH
7
6,5
6
5,5
5
NAGpH

4,5
4
3,5 3
2 1
3
2,5
2
1,5
1,5 2,0 2,5 3,0 3,5 4,0 4,5 5,0 5,5 6,0 6,5 7,0 7,5 8,0 8,5
Rinse pH

waste rock samples open pit core samples

Figure 3 Comparison between the rinse pH and NAGpH of all the PAF samples from the two locations

Sulfide in samples showed positive correlation with the NAG as seen from Fig 4. In other word, if
waste rock samples have no apparent neutralization potential, a simple test on the sulphide content
will show the extent of the Net Acid Generating (NAG) potential. Together with mineralogical
analyses, it can provide relatively accurate prediction. Mineralogy of samples 1-3 from waste rock
dump in Fig 3 showed no pyrite in the samples, they were mainly quartz and dickite, and alunite
was the main contributor to the total S content (0.17 – 0.4%) in the samples. The likelihood of these
samples will generate AMD is low. It is still worth separating this low acid generating waste rocks
from the high acid generating ones. This crude measurement can provide information for future
onsite disposal strategy.

90
80
70
60
NAG (kgH2SSO4/t)

50
40
30
20
10
0
0 1 2 3
Sulfide % Figure 4 Correlation between sulphide content in
the sample and NAG

7
Humidity Cell Test

Humidity cell test has been in operation for a period of 21 weeks. Leachates collected every week
were analysed for pH, conductivity, acidity and sulfate. Fig 5 presents the variation of pH from the
ten cells throughout the 21 week period. Initially, increase in pH was observed for all the cells. It
was probably due to the dilution effect from the rinse leachate collected in the first few weeks. pH
from cells 5 & 6 started to decrease and continued a downward trend to below 2.5 half way through
the leaching cycles. The pH oscillated between 2.5 to 3 towards the end of the leaching cycle. Cells 8
– 10 followed the same pattern with pH started to decline in week 11 and stayed around 3 for the
remaining period. pH in the rest of the other cells varied between 3.5 – 4. Comparison of these pH
variations with Fig 6, to some extent it is related to the sulfide contents in the samples. High sulfide
in cells 5 & 6 led to the low pH in the leachate, it then followed by cells 8 – 10 with a delay for the
onset of oxidation. Given longer experimental period, pH in cells 1 - 3 might follow the same
decline. Due to the low sulfide contents in cells 4 & 7, pyrite oxidation will have a longer lag period
or might not be happening if the minerals are locked into the silica minerals. Longer experimental
period is needed to confirm this hypothesis.

Cell 1
5
4,5 Cell 2

4 Cell 3

3,5 Cell 4
pH

3 Cell 5
2,5 Cell 6
2 Cell 7
1,5
Cell 8
1
Cell 9
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
Cell 10
Week

Figure 5 pH variation of the leachate collected from 10 cells over a period of 21 weeks

3
Sulfide content %

0
cell 1 cell 2 cell 3 cell 4 cell 5 cell 6 cell 7 cell 8 cell 9 cell 10

Figure 6 Sulfide content of the waste rock samples in the humidity cells

8
Fig 7 shows sulfate content in the leachate. Acidity (data not shown) and sulfate from humidity
cells plots mirrored the trend in pH. The release of iron and sulfate together with the low pH
(around 2.5) recorded on the leachates from cells 5 & 6 suggests that the oxidation of pyrite started
taking place in week 4, followed by cells 8 – 10 in week 11. Part of the dissolved sulfate would also
come from the dissolution of evaporate minerals (e.g. gypsum) after weathering in the waste rock
dump for some time. This was evidenced by minor increase in calcium content in the leachate in
cells 5 & 6 from week 4 – 7. This cation could come either from the evaporate minerals and/or from
the dissolution of silicates, enhanced by the acidic porewater. No oxidation was observed from cells
4 & 7 during the course of the experimentation.

Sulfate in leachate
2.500 cell 1

2.000 cell 2
cell 3
SO4-2 (mg/L)

1.500
cell 4

1.000 cell 5
cell 6
500
cell 7

0 cell 8
1 2 4 9 11 14 15 16 19 21 cell 9
Week cell 10

Figure 7 Sulfate in the leachate from the humidity cells

Kinetic test result also indicated the onset of AMD depending upon their inherent sulfide
concentration. This was confirmed by SEM microscopy showing more iron hydroxide formation in
the samples from cells 5 & 6. Samples with very low sulfide content (cells 4 & 7) showed very little
of oxidation products on the sample surfaces. AMD generation has not been evidenced yet during
the length of this kinetic test.

CONCLUSION
The geochemical characterization of the samples from waste rock dump and open pit has provided
evidence of acid generation potential. Samples from waste rock dump were more weathered in
comparison to the core samples from the open pit. The neutralizing capacity in mineral phases
belongs to carbonates was found to be very scarce in the studied samples. The acid generation
potential was directly proportional to the sulfide content in the samples. The presence of pyrite was
the major sulfide mineral as confirmed by mineralogical studies. Samples with very low sulfide
content showed no sign of acid generation from the humidity test. However, longer experimental
run should be carried out in order to verify if there is dissolution of oxy-hydroxides or silicates to
neutralize the acidity in this respect, though according to literature (Lasaga, 1998), the slow

9
dissolution of crystalline oxides and silicates will be unlikely to contribute to the neutralizing
effects of the waste.
Characterisation combined with mineralogical analysis can provide insights into acid generation of
mine waste through weathering, in particular whether it will provide acid, sulphate and metal rich
drainage. Waste rock samples with no apparent neutralization potential, showed distinct positive
correlation between Net Acid Generating (NAG) potential and their sulfide content. Therefore,
sulfide content analysis in the waste rock samples can provide a timely albeit crude method for
AMD prediction. Due to the potential risk of AMD, focus should be placed on prevention and
minimisation. From this simple assessment, even segregation of low/no acid generating waste rock
can be beneficial and continuous assessment is deemed necessary throughout the mine operation.
In conclusion, detailed characterization is still vital for future mitigation,

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are grateful to individuals from the mine site for arranging visits and providing
samples. Thanks also go to Zijin Testing Laboratory for assisting in the analytical testwork and
Zijin Mining Group for their financial support to facilitate this work.

10
REFERENCES
Acuña, A., Flores, L.G., Arcos, D., Piqué, À. and von Igel, W. (2011) Geochemical characterization of
geoenvironmental units from Rosario waste dump in Collahuasi, Proceedings of 2 nd International Seminar
on Environmental Issues in the Mining Industry, Environmine2011, 23-25 Nov 2011, Santiago, Chile.

AMIRA International. (2002) Project P387A Prediction & Kinetic control of Acid Mine Drainage, ARD Test
Handbook, Ian Wark Research Institute, May 2002.

International Network for Acid Prevention (INAP) (2009) The Global Acid Rock Drainage (GARD) Guide,
http://www.gardguide.com assessed on 14th July 2015.

Jamieson, H.E. (2011) Geochemistry and mineralogy of solid mine waste: essential knowledge for predicting
environmental impact, Elements, 7, p. 381-386.

Lasaga, A.C. (1998) Kinetic Theory, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ., 811 pp.

Managing Acid and Metalliferous Drainage (2007) Leading Practice Sustainable Development Program for the
Mining Industry, Department of Industry Tourism and Resources, Australian Government.

Page, A.L., Miller, R.H. and Keeney, D.R. (1982) Methods of Soil Analysis. Part 2 – Chemical and
Microbiological properties. American Society of Agronomy Inc., Soil Science Society of America Inc.
Second Edition, pp. 199-209.

Price, W.A (2009) Prediction Manual for Drainage Chemistry from Sulphidic Geologic Materials, MEND
Report 1.20.1.

Sobek, A.A., Schuller, W.A., Freeman, J.R. and Smith, R.M. (1978) Field and Laboratory Methods Applicable to
overburdens and minesoils, US Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio, 45268. EPA-600/2-78-
054, 47-50.

Tran, A.B., Miller, S., Williams, D.J., Fines, P. and Wilson, G.W. (2003) Geochemical and Mineralogical
Characterisation of Two Contrasting Waste Rock Dumps – The INAP Waste Rock Dump Characterisation
Project, Proceedings of the 6th ICARD, Cairns, Queensland, 12-18 July 2003.

11
 C HAP T E R 5

HAZARDOUS WASTES
AND TAILINGS
MANAGEMENT
The Milluni Project: It is not Over When it is Over
Agustín Cárdenas
Environment/Metallurgy and Materials Institute/, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, Bolivia

ABSTRACT
In the last 2 decades several mining projects have been executed in Bolivia without complying
environmental regulations, leaving behind major negative environmental and social impacts. One
of those mines is Milluni mine, located 20 km north of El Alto Bolivia and approximately 35 km
from La Paz city. The Project is accessible by a good dusty road year around. The Milluni tailings
are as a result of over 40 years of tin production from the Milluni underground tin mine. The
tailings are deposited in a narrow flat valley and the main problem is the Acid Rock Drainage
(ARD). The last operator of the mine was COMSUR. The mine was abandoned in 1986 due to low
ore reserves and a low tin price.
In 1986 COMSUR performed a drilling exploration of the tailings deposit. The results shown that a
reserve of 2.5 million tons of tailings exists in the impoundment area, laboratory results showed a
value of 0.51%Sn and 3% Zn. At today’s prices the total mineral value there would be around USD
405,000,000.
This work reviews the possibility to reprocess these tailings with a clean-up approach taking into
account that estimated future tin prices in the coming years could be good. The technical, economic,
environmental and social benefits to clean up this polluted site are discussed.

1
BACKGROUND
Between 1890 - 1900 a British company was operating in Bolivia the Fabulosa Mine, the Duke of
Edinburgh visited the mine site on 1894. In this early period, production methods were primitive
and not very different from those used in the 18th and 19th centuries. With very few exceptions,
exploitation was unsystematic; there were no geological maps and production was undertaken
without previous planning, exploiting only the richest and most accessible veins, with the least
possible capital and until the mineral deposit deteriorated, before moving on to a new one. The
very wealth of the tin deposits allowed this type of work. Tin minerals were exploited from the
deposit using a shaft and a couple of mine adits. Mineral processing plant was composed only by
gravity circuits because they use to mine mainly the rich tin veins.
Mining and processing a series of tin-bearing veins from the Fabulosa Mine in the Milluni Basin of
northern Bolivia has resulted in the accumulation of 2.5 million tons of flotation tailings disposed or
better abandoned near to the mine site. The tailings lie in the valley trough and have assumed a
flattened surface with a nominal fall down the valley. The tailings are restrained by several dams
though all but the lowest downstream have become infilled both upstream and downstream by
tailings. The deposit is situated near to the head of the valley and is, therefore, not subject to heavy
water flows. An artificial ditch carries the run-off around the edge of the tailings area.
The tin content of the tailings material was recognized to be high by comparison with present day
standards and the possibility of reprocessing the deposit to recover tin was contemplated.
During 1976 - 1986 Milluni used to be a thriving mining town with a total population of 4000
people, out of that 500 used to be miners mainly of COMSUR. In 1986 and because the tin price fell
down from 8,000 a 4,000 British Pounds per ton of fine tin, the Milluni mining town became a ghost
town. However, nowadays 2015, the Milluni mines are still on production but on a very small scale,
only by small artisanal cooperative miners, who are only mining the rich veins and are not using
mineral processing plants (Pastor 2015).

LOCATION
Bolivia is a country located in the middle of South America, divided into 9 departments including
the department of La Paz. In the department of La Paz, the city La Paz and the city El Alto are
situated next to each other. La Paz is located on the slopes of the Andes, while El Alto is located at
the flat area on top of the Altiplano Highlands. La Paz is considered to be the administrative capital
city and also the largest city of Bolivia. With the altitude of 3,650 meters, La Paz also contains the
title of highest located capital city all over the world.
El Alto is considered to be the suburb of La Paz with almost a million of inhabitants. The Milluni-
area is situated at an altitude of 4,600 meters above sea level in the North of the province of Murillo,
canton Achocalla, about 20 kilometers North of the capital city La Paz. It has the typical
geomorphologic U-shape, characteristic of glacier regression, and exists of several small lakes and
their effluent elongated over 30 km. Milluni Tin Mine was on the western slope of Nevado
Chacaltaya, to the south of the Huayna Potosi snow mountain (Photo 1).

2
 Photo 1 Location of the Milluni Mine, just next to the right of Laguna Milluni

MILLUNI PROJECT
The Milluni tin deposit is located between the Huayna Potosi and Chacaltaya mountains. These two
peaks consist of a rocky structure and reach an altitude of 6,000 masl and more. In the South the
depression of the Altiplano is filled with sediments. The Milluni-area is located between those two
regions. The area is dominated by wide U-shaped valleys with a glacial character and with
relatively small slopes (Salvarredy-Aranguren, 2008).
The Milluni Valley is part of the Bolivian Tin Belt. Because of this natural resource Bolivia became
the biggest tin-producer in the world for almost all of the 20st century. The Milluni Mine, also
known as “Fabulosa Mines”, was operated between 1976 and 1986 by the COMSUR Company. The
most important extracted minerals were tin and zinc (Photo 2).
Two lakes just above the Milluni mining area are the principal reservoirs of drinking water for the
population of the El Alto - La Paz. This clean water runs around the Tailing Storage Facility (TSF) of
Milluni and is being fed into a treatment water plant to supply potable water to some population of
El Alto. However, especially during rainy season and due to the acid rock drainage coming out
from the TSF, sometimes this water is polluted with metals such as Fe, Mn, Zn, As, Cd, Cu and Sn.
In the North, a granitic terrain partially covered by glaciers can be observed. Going further down to
the South, the Milluni Valley consists of fine-grained sandstone. The main ore minerals in the
region are pyrite, marcasite, sphalerite, arsenopyrite and cassiterite (Salvarredy-Aranguren, 2008).
The Milluni site experiences a climate of high mountains which most part of the year are covered
with snow or ice. The hydrological and climatic characteristics of the Milluni basin can be
considered as similar to those of the nearby Zongo valley. At this area, the annual average
precipitation level amounts to 800 mm and the annual average temperature amounts to 5,4°C at
4310 meters above sea level (Rios, 1985).

3
 Photo 2 Extracting tin mineral at Milluni Mine using cable cars

MILLUNI TIN TAILINGS PROJECT

The Milluni TSF is as a result of over 40 years of tin production from the Milluni Underground Tin
Mine. The last operator of the mine was COMSUR. The mine was closed in 1986 due to low ore
reserves and a low tin price. The tailings are deposited in a narrow flat valley (Photo 3).
In 1978 Rio Tinto Zinc (RTZ) was hired by COMSUR to perform a drilling exploration program of
the tailings deposit. The results of the study have shown that there is a proven reserve of 2.5 million
tons of tailings minus 6 mesh with 0.5% of tin as an average in the impoundment area (Wink 2014).
Future retreatment process could start with screening to 4 mesh, pre-concentrating with Falcon
Continuous concentrator for Sn recovery, followed by sink and float for Zn. Estimated Equipment
and Plant Costs: 10 million USD. The tailings were evaluated by Rio Tinto Zinc (RTZ), a mining
circuit has been developed, along with plant costs, NSR values are estimated between $90m to
$100m US Dollars after costs. Re-mining will take 6 years to complete, using state of the art
continuous gravity recovery equipment for the Sn, with flotation for the zinc recovery. Estimated
plant and equipment costs are 10 million US Dollars, depending on availability of equipment. The
Project will be worked as tailings clean up. The surface property is community owned, the mineral
concessions are in good standings, and all documents are up to date with the Bolivian Government.

4
 Photo 3 Tailings Storage Facility containing the tin tailings but generating ARD

PROBLEMS OF THE TSF

COMSUR used to get clean water from the run-off of melting of glaciers or lakes above its mine.
This water was used to concentrate tin by gravity using shaking tables or by flotation to recover
zinc. The residual water of these processes was discharged together with the tailings into the
Milluni Valley without any water treatment (Photo 4).

Photo 4 Overview of the Milluni TSF, high levels of Fe, Mn, and zinc due to ARD

The abandoned tailings on the TSF at present have the following environmental and social
problems:
- Environmental visual impact.
- ARD drainage along the Milluni Valley.
- Metal mobilization and pollution of soils.
- Dissolved metals incorporated into the potable water treatment plant. This plant is located
further down the TSF. It uses a lot of lime to precipitate heavy metals, so the treatment cost
to become drinking water is very high.

5
The main sources of pollution can be identified as follows: Acid Rock Drainage still coming from
underground operations; ARD coming out from the deposited tailings with heavy metals such as
Fe, Cu, Zn and Cd high above permissible levels polluting the water source for the potable water
treatment plant; Mine Wastes disposed without any plan and inadequate disposal of Domestic
Solid Waste.

OPPORTUNITIES
At the TSF there are around 2.5 million tons of tailings containing as an average 0.5% Sn, plus other
metals such as zinc, silver and even small amounts of gold (Robertson 1976). Tin can be recovered
using modern technology with a positive cost-benefit ratio. At today’s prices the total mineral value
there would be around USD 405,000,000. The new project can provide a substantial employment for
the mining community people, training, services, infrastructure and booster the regional and
national economy of the country. Some sustainable development projects can be developed around
the mining district. For example: trout farming on the clean lakes, ecotourism projects around
Huayna Potosi mountain, trekking, canoeing, horse riding, etc. So it is true that it´s not over when
it´s over, there are environmental liabilities to be solved but also very attractive economic benefits
(World Bank 2002).

CONCLUSIONS
Unfortunately the company that operated the Milluni Tin Mine Project from 1976 to 1986 did not
implemented closure measures to leave the site, instead they left the site with abandoned tailings
and opened mine adits. As a result of that today many environmental and social legacies are
presented at this mine site. So it was not over when it was over.
The water treatment plant that provides drinking water to the El Alto population is facing the
impacts of the abandoned tailings. The clean water coming out from pristine lakes above the mine
site, sometimes get mixed with the polluted water. This in turn gives technical problems to the
plant but also demand higher operating costs.
Nowadays there are many new equipment and technology environmentally friendly that can be
used to reprocess the Milluni tin tailings with a low operating cost and eventually giving the
investor some economic benefit. Nearby communities can be benefited of the implementation of
this cleanup project.
The Environmental Regulations for Mining Activities must be fulfilled by all the mining operators.
In this way communities will not face environmental and social problems. On the contrary, they
will be important players to promote and execute sustainable mining projects.

6
REFERENCES
Driesen, K. 2012. ´Contamination of surface water by the former mining industry in the Milluni Valley
(Cordillera Real, Bolivia) and the application of the water planning model WEAP´

Pastor, W. 2015. ´Personnel communication´. Mr. Pastor was Administrative Manager of COMSUR during the
period of 1976 to 1986.

Rios, 1985. ´Estudio contaminación ambiental por las descargas mineras de COMSUR en la represa de Milluni´,
UMSA.

Robertson Research International Limited, 1976. ´Tin tailing re-treatment project. Fabulosa Mine, Milluni-
Bolivia. Feasibility Report´.

Salvarredy-Aranguren, 2008. ´Contamination of surface waters by mining wastes in the Milluni Valley´.

World Bank, 2002. ´It´s Not Over When It´s Over: MINE CLOSURE ARUND THE WORLD´.

Wink, B. 2014. ´The Milluni Tin Project´. Executive summary for project development.

7
Growth of Selected Plant Species in Biosolids-
Amended Mine Tailings
Hannah Alcantara1, Augustine Doronila2, Marc Nicolas3, Stephen Ebbs4 and Spas Kolev5
1. School of Chemistry, The University of Melbourne, Australia
2. School of Chemistry, The University of Melbourne, Australia
3. Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Australia
4. Department of Plant Biology, Southern Illinois University, USA
5. School of Chemistry, The University of Melbourne, Australia

ABSTRACT
Biosolids stockpiles from sewage treatment plants are a valuable source of organic matter which
could be utilized to improve the nutritional status and physical properties of gold mine tailings and
allow their vegetation. However, biosolids often contain elevated concentrations of heavy metals
including mercury (Hg) while gold mine tailings would usually contain residual gold (Au).
Therefore, it would be beneficial to select plants capable of phytoextracting Hg and/or Au.
This paper reports on a glasshouse-based screening study aimed at selecting plant species known
for their ability to phytoextract Hg and/or Au which can grow on substrates consisting of biosolids,
Au mine tailings or different combinations of both. The study involved germination and plant
growth for 8-12 weeks of Brassica juncea, Lupinus albus, Daucus carota, Beta vulgaris, Solanum
tuberosum, and Manihot esculenta.
Substrate characteristics such as texture, stability, pH, and organic matter content were measured
for each substrate combination. Each plant species exhibited differential growth responses in terms
of germination, seedling quality, leaf area, specific leaf area, root and shoot biomass, and
percentage dry matter partitioning to the roots. Brassica juncea and Daucus carota were found to
thrive in the biosolids-mine tailings substrate combinations while Lupinus albus, Beta vulgaris,
Manihot esculenta, and Solanum tuberosum failed to grow in most of the substrate combinations.
The most suitable biosolids-mine tailings combination was determined to be 75% biosolids – 25%
mine tailings, wherein most of the abovementioned growth parameters did not differ significantly
from those of the plants grown in the control potting mix.

Keywords: Phytoremediation, phytoextraction, mercury, gold, biosolids, gold mine tailings

1
INTRODUCTION
The use of plants to remove, detoxify, and contain heavy metals is called phytoremediation
(Chaney et al., 1997). A metal hyperaccumulator plant is typically defined as a plant species that
accumulates a metal to a concentration in the aboveground tissues 100-fold higher than what is
normally observed for plants. The accepted criteria for heavy metal hyperaccumulating plants are
at least 100 mg/kg (0.01% dry wt.) for Cd, or As, 1000 mg/kg (0.1 dry wt.) for Co, Cu, Cr, or Pb; and
10,000 mg/kg (1 % dry wt.) for Zn, Mn, or Ni (Reeves & Baker, 2000).
Mine tailings are generally the fine-grained solid material remaining after the metals and minerals
have been extracted from mined ore and the process water. In the case of gold ore, the tailings can
contain residual gold which can be extracted using a variation of phytoremediation called
phytomining (Anderson et al., 1999, Piccinin et al., 2007). However the success of phytoextraction or
phytomining depends first and foremost on whether that substrate can support plant growth. Mine
tailings often have physicochemical characteristics that are not conducive to plant growth. There
has been considerable work showing that tailings can be improved if blended with other substrates
(Madejón et al., 2010). The use of soil amendments like composts, sewage sludge, manure and plant
cover provides cost-effective and environmentally sustainable methods to manage landscapes in
mined areas (Tordoff, Baker, & Willis, 2000; Wong, 2003).
Historical gold mining activities especially in the state of Victoria have also left a legacy of Hg
contamination of soils, surface and sediments with concentrations up to 130 mg kg-1 in soils of
residential areas of mining towns (Bycrof et al., 1982). Normal, non-polluted soils usually contain
20-150 g Hg kg-1 (WHO, 1976). In a later report, the concentration of Hg in natural soils, which
comprises 93% of all land surfaces, was reported to be approximately 0.05 to 0.08 mg kg-1 (World
Bank Group, 1998). Because of the elevated levels of Hg in gold mine tailings in the goldfields,
exposure to this heavy metal has been considered a potential health risk. Mercury is also very
phytotoxic (Boney, 1971; De et al., 1985; Godbold & Huttermann, 1986; Suszcynsky & Shann, 1995;
Israr et al., 2006; Zhou et al., 2007; Shiyab et al., 2008; Shiyab et al., 2009). The physiological processes
of plants exposed to Hg-contaminated soil, water, or air are generally negatively affected. If Hg is
also present in tailings targeted for Au phytomining, then Hg phytotoxicity could limit plant
growth.
Biosolids are stabilised organic solids, resulting from the treatment of domestic and industrial
wastewater (Bright & Healey, 2003). The reuse of biosolids is being promoted due to the excessive
space taken up by these materials in treatment plants and landfills, not to mention the large cost of
disposal. Typical biosolids are rich in organic matter as well as macro- and micronutrients essential
for plant growth and development. Biosolids can also be used to re-establish and sustain vegetation
at mine sites (Tian et al., 2006). Reutilization of biosolids also reduces or eliminates issues associated
with their disposal (Fresquez, Francis, & Dennis, 1990). Among the heavy metals frequently present
in biosolids, Hg is arguably of the highest environmental and public health concern. This is due to
the extreme toxicity of both the organic and inorganic Hg species and their potential for
bioaccumulation (Sloan et al., 2001). Gold can also be present in biosolids as a result of the discharge
of waste materials from manufacturing processes (Reeves et al, 1999).
Mining activities produce large quantities of waste materials and tailings that frequently contain
toxic concentrations of heavy metals and metalloids. Currently, many strategies and health and
safety policies are used to minimize the production, emission and dispersion of pollutants from
mine sites. Biosolids stockpiles from sewage treatment plants are a valuable source of organic

1
matter which could be utilized to improve the nutritional status and physical properties of
sulphidic tailings.
Most plants are sensitive to heavy metals, especially Hg. However, certain plant species can grow
on contaminated habitats because they have developed a range of avoidance and/or tolerance
mechanisms by which the excess of heavy metals can be rendered harmless. Mercury compounds
have very limited solubility in soil leading to low Hg availability for plant uptake. In addition, Hg
does not have any known biological function (Beauford, Barber, & Barringer, 1977). This may
explain why any Hg-hyperaccumulating plant has yet to be identified. Limited uptake of Hg has
been shown in mosses, lichens, fungi and in wetland, woody and crop plants (Patra & Sharma,
2000). In order to find the best plant species for future phytoextraction or phytomining studies,
several candidate plant species known for Hg and/or Au uptake have been identified and they
include Indian mustard, white lupin, sugar beet, carrot, cassava, and potato.
Indian mustard has been one of the most-studied plant species for metal phytoextraction. This
species has high biomass and rapid growth, both of which are desirable for an effective
phytoremediation approach. Hg uptake/phytoextraction or Au uptake/phytoextraction have
already been studied using this plant (Anderson, Moreno, & Meech, 2005; Shiyab et al., 2008;
Lomonte et al., 2010), but not both elements together. White lupin is also known to take up Hg
(Esteban et al., 2008). While not a Hg hyperaccumulator, this species nonetheless shows potential as
the roots of this plant do not show any Hg toxicity upon exposure to as high as 10 µmol Hg L -1 in
solution. Carrot is a root crop with high biomass yields. It has been shown to have Au uptake
capabilities, accumulating as much as 48.3 mg Au kg-1 in its tap root (Msuya, Brooks, & Anderson,
2000). Lupin is a legume, fixing atmospheric N2 in its root nodules, which makes this species
suitable for revegetation of mine tailings and for improving soil quality for future reclamation.
Sugar beet is another plant with very large storage tap roots. It has also known Hg uptake
capabilities, with the Hg ions mainly concentrated in the storage root (Greger, Wang, & Neuschutz,
2005). Cassava and potato are other crops which have been selected for propagation based on their
underground storage organs, ease of planting and cultivation, and their high biomass. Both of these
crops have no known Hg or Au uptake capabilities.
The use of vegetation cover on unstable degraded land, such as mine-spoils and tailings sites, has
been determined to provide an in situ cost-effective and environmentally sustainable method of
stabilizing and reclaiming waste lands (Tordoff, Baker, & Willis, 2000). Revegetation of mine sites is
a well documented tool for long-term surface stabilization as tailings wastes are usually almost
completely devoid of vegetation, which increases the likelihood of serious pollution resulting from
wind and water erosion of the bare tailings surface (Baker, 2002; Tordoff, Baker, & Willis, 2000).
This research aimed at investigating the impact of biosolids and mine tailings mixtures on the
growth and establishment of Indian mustard, white lupin, sugar beet, carrot, cassava, and potato in
biosolids, tailings, or mixtures of these substrates. The goal was to identify from the plants
mentioned above those that establish successfully when propagated in these substrates. Any
potential phytoremediation effort with these species would depend on adequate biomass
production, ideally with significant production of the most easily harvestable tissue.

2
MATERIALS AND METHODS

Substrate collection, preparation, and characterisation

Historic and current mine tailings materials and oxidic ore were collected at the Stawell Gold Mine
(Victoria, Australia). Historic mine tailings, or tailings that were the result of close to 150 years of
mining operations, recorded to have an elevated Hg content, were collected from three abandoned
sites (i.e., Newington, Magdala, and Big Hill) while current or recent tailings from an operational
gold mine were collected from the Davis stockpile. Biosolids samples (i.e., moisture content > 60-
70%) were collected from three sites at the Melbourne Water-Western Treatment Plant (Victoria,
Australia).
Two wet digestion methods were performed and compared to determine the digestion procedure
appropriate for both mine tailings and biosolids. Mine tailings and biosolids samples were digested
in aqua regia (3:1 conc. HCl: conc. HNO3) and reverse aqua regia (1:3 conc. HCl: conc. HNO3) as
described by Lomonte et al (2008). Acid digests were analysed for Hg by atomic fluorescence
spectrometry (PS Analytical Millenium) and for Au by graphite furnace atomic absorption
spectrometry (Hitachi Z-2000 Atomic Absorption Spectrometer).
The biosolids and mine tailings samples determined to have the highest Hg and Au concentration
were used for plant growth studies. The substrates were air-dried and prepared, consisting of a
mixture of biosolids and mine tailings (v/v %): 0% biosolids-100% mine tailings (0%BS); 10%
biosolids-90% mine tailings (10%BS); 25% biosolids-75% mine tailings (25%BS); 50% biosolids-50%
mine tailings (50%BS); 75% biosolids-25% mine tailings (75%BS); and 100% biosolids-0% mine
tailings (100%BS). A seed raising mix and garden potting mix served as the control growth
substrates. The following physicochemical characteristics were measured for each substrate
combination: soil texture, soil stability, pH (Multiline P4 universal meter), and organic matter
content.

Plant growth studies

This study investigated the growth and establishment of the six plant species on these substrate
mixtures in order to select best plant species and substrate combination for future phytoextraction
studies. The first part of the study assessed the germination of the species that could be grown from
seeds. 100 seeds of Indian mustard, carrot, and sugar beet, and 150 seeds of white lupin were sown
into shallow 30 x 30 cm planters containing the various biosolids and mine tailings mixtures
mentioned above, with 3 replicates per substrate combination. After 5-7 days, the number of
emerged seedlings was counted and expressed as percent germination. Two other species, potato
and cassava were propagated vegetatively, planted as small seed potatoes or as stem cuttings,
respectively. Potato and sugar beet showed 97-100% mortality for all of the tailings-biosolids
mixtures so these species were not included in any subsequent plant growth experiments. The
cassava stem cuttings did not root at all, suggesting that a prior rooting treatment was required.
Two week-old healthy and vigorous seedlings of Indian mustard, carrot, and lupin from the
germination experiment described above were then transplanted into the surface of 1-L PVC pots
filled with the different growth substrates. Plants were allowed to grow for 8-12 weeks under the
same glasshouse conditions. At harvest each plant species was separated into roots, stems and
leaves. The leaf area for each plant was measured before oven-drying for two weeks at 60°C. Each
sample was then weighed to determine total dry biomass.

3
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Pure mine tailings were dark reddish brown to dark brown in colour and was equivalent in texture
to a fine to heavy silty loam. The tailings had pH of 2.8 and 0.67 wt% organic matter (Table 1), and
contained 11.67 mg Hg kg-1 and 3.37 mg Au kg-1 (Table 2). Pure biosolids were pale yellowish to
brown sandy particles with pH 6.6 and 64.7 wt% organic matter (Table 1). Table 1 also provides
information about the texture, pH and organic matter concentration of the different mine tailings
with biosolids amendments used in this study. The concentrations of Hg and Au were found to be
5.74 mg kg-1 and 2.39 mg kg-1, respectively (Table 2). Both pure substrates are highly unstable and
would likely be problematic substrates for plants (Emerson, 1991).

Table 1 Physicochemical characteristics of the mine tailings with biosolids amendments (PM - potting mix; BS
- biosolids; MT - mine tailings; s.e. – standard error (N=3))

Substrate Texture Stability pH s.e. Organic s.e.

matter
(wt %)
PM sandy clay debris Unknown – 6.8 0.09 86.3 0.15
no soil aggregates
0% BS+100% MT silty loam Class 1 – 2.8 0.03 0.67 0.00
unstable
25% BS+75% MT silty loam Class 2 – 3.2 0.11 4.2 0.09
partly stable
50% BS+50% MT loamy sand Class 3 – 4.7 0.09 28.1 0.09
stable
75% BS+25% MT loamy sand Class 3 – 5.5 0.03 55.3 0.20
stable
100% BS+0% MT sandy debris Class 1 – 6.6 0.06 64.7 0.15
unstable

Table 2 Hg and Au concentration in biosolids and mine tailings (s.e. – standard error (N=3))

Substrate Hg (mg kg-1) s.e. Au (mg kg-1) s.e.

Pure mine tailings 11.67 0.36 3.37 0.27
Pure biosolids 5.74 0.33 2.39 0.47

There were no significant differences across the different substrate types for the germination
percentage of Indian mustard, except for the ones grown in the 25% biosolids – 75% mine tailings
substrate and 50% biosolids – 50% mine tailings (Table 3). Carrot germinated well in the 100%
biosolids substrate, similar to the seeds sown in both the seed-raising mix and potting mix,
followed by the ones grown in the 75% biosolids – 25% mine tailings substrate and declining as the
amount of mine tailings material was increased (Table 3). Despite good germination rates, white
lupin seedlings exhibited early onset of senescence symptoms.

4
 Table 3 Germination percentage of the Indian mustard, carrot, and white lupin seeds. Within a plant species,
treatments with the same letter are not statistically different from each other

Germination percentage (%)

Substrate
Indian mustard s.e. Carrot s.e. White lupin s.e.

Seed-raising mix 91.3a 1.76 72.3a 1.66 98.7a 0.20

Potting mix 93.0a 1.00 73.3a 0.91 91.3a,b 0.61
0% BS+100% MT 92.3a 0.67 25.3b 0.86 74.0c 1.27
25% BS+75% MT 81.7b 1.33 30.3c 0.81 80.0b,c 1.09
50% BS+50% MT 82.3b 0.33 36.3d 0.15 68.7c 1.32
75% BS+25% MT 87.0c 2.08 57.3b 1.07 90.0a,b 0.38
100% BS+0% MT 93.3a 1.20 71.0a 0.93 72.7c 1.26
N 3 3 15
p-value < 0.05 < 0.05 < 0.05
Fisher’s LSD 4.0 12.0 1.2

The total leaf area of Indian mustard plants increased with increasing the amount of biosolids
material but there was no significant difference between the leaf area of the plants grown in the 50%
and 75% biosolids substrate (Table 4). The same was observed for the carrot plants, which peaked
at 75% biosolids – 25% mine tailings substrate but drastically declined when 100% pure biosolids
were used (Table 4). Leaf area was also significantly larger in the substrate-grown carrot plants
than in the potting mix-grown plants. White lupin plants exhibited a reduced leaf area when grown
in all of the substrates as compared with the control (Table 4). Overall, the presence of biosolids-
amended mine tailings enhanced plant leaf area of Indian mustard and carrot but the use of pure
biosolids was not beneficial.
Both Indian mustard and carrot showed increased shoot and root biomass as the amount of
biosolids was increased from 0 to 75%, and declined sharply when grown in 100% biosolids (Table
4). Plants grown in the substrates generally had higher biomass than those grown in the control
potting mix, indicating possible tolerance or coping mechanisms or some growth promoting effect
of the biosolids-mine tailings mixtures. White lupin plants on the other hand had significantly
lower shoot and root biomass when grown in the different substrates as compared to those grown
in the potting mix (Table 4). No trend was observed between the different substrate combinations.
The percentage dry matter partitioning to roots (Fig. 1) is of interest as heavy metals mainly
accumulate in roots or underground storage organs (Msuya, Brooks, & Anderson, 2000; Anderson,
Moreno, & Meech, 2005; Esteban et al., 2008; Shiyab et al., 2008; Lomonte et al., 2010). In terms of
biomass allocation to roots, there was no significant difference among the Indian mustard plants
grown in the different substrates, ranging from 6-13% only (Fig. 1a). Dry matter partitioning to the
roots of carrot plants was statistically significantly higher (95% confidence level) in the biosolids-
amended mine tailings than in pure biosolids or mine tailings. For the plants grown in the 75%
biosolids- 25% mine tailings combination (Fig. 1b) the partitioning was 63% which did not differ
statistically (95% confidence level) from the partitioning in plants grown in the control potting mix.
Lastly, white lupin plants grown in the substrate combinations allocated significantly more biomass
to the roots compared to those grown in potting mix, with the exception of the plants grown in pure
biosolids (Fig. 1c). In the plants grown in the 25% biosolids- 75% mine tailings combination the
highest percentage of dry matter partitioned to roots was 24% only. This gives an indication of the
possible efficiency of the roots of carrot plants for metals accumulation.
5
Table 4 Leaf area, shoot biomass, and root biomass of Indian mustard, carrot, and white lupin plants grown in
the biosolids-amended mine tailings. Within a plant species and for each measurement, treatments with the
same letter are not statistically different from each other

Plant species Substrate Leaf area (cm2) Shoot biomass (g) Root biomass (g)

Indian mustard PM 270.71b 1.30d 0.20b

0% BS+100% MT 267.69b 0.90e 0.06c
25% BS+75% MT 449.61 b 2.26 c 0.21b
50% BS+50% MT 1180.39a 2.83b 0.23b
75% BS+25% MT 1165.68a 3.99a 0.52a
100% BS+0% MT 121.03c 0.38e 0.05c
N 3 5 5
p-value < 0.05 < 0.05 < 0.05
Fisher’s LSD 81.8 0.35 0.16

Carrot PM 307.78d 1.51d 3.45d

0% BS+100% MT 287.62d 3.17c 2.06e
25% BS+75% MT 659.69c 4.52b 6.63c
50% BS+50% MT 792.31b 6.24a 9.85b
75% BS+25% MT 1030.25a 6.58 a 11.58a
100% BS+0% MT 328.07d 1.81d 2.21e
N 3 5 5
p-value < 0.05 0 0
Fisher’s LSD 52.5 0.47 0.72

White lupin PM 958.38a 3.40a 0.22b

0% BS+100% MT 253.25e 1.31c 0.26b
25% BS+75% MT 371.75 c,d 1.59 b,c 0.48a
50% BS+50% MT 303.04d,e 2.03b 0.43a
75% BS+25% MT 527.38b 2.22b 0.22b
100% BS+0% MT 439.75b,c 2.99a 0.10c
N 3 5 5
p-value < 0.05 < 0.05 < 0.05
Fisher’s LSD 93.5 0.43 0.09

6
 (a)
16

Dry matter partitioning

14
12

to roots [%]
10
8
6
4
2
0
PM 0% BS 25% BS 50% BS 75% BS 100% BS
% Biosolids
(b)
80
70
Dry matter partitioning

60
50
to roots [%]

40
30
20
10
0
PM 0% BS 25% BS 50% BS 75% BS 100% BS
% Biosolids
(c) 35
30
Dry matter partitioning

25
to roots [%]

20
15
10
5
0
PM 0% BS 25% BS 50% BS 75% BS 100% BS
% Biosolids

Figure 1 Percentage dry matter partitioning to roots in (a) Indian mustard, (b) carrot, and (c) white lupin
plants grown in the biosolids-amended mine tailings. The Fisher LSD bar is shown for multiple comparisons
(PM = potting mix, BS = biosolids)

7
 CONCLUSIONS
The results of this study demonstrated that Indian mustard and carrot can be successfully
established in mine tailings amended with biosolids. Overall, the most suitable biosolids-mine
tailings combination was determined to be 75% biosolids - 25% mine tailings. The experimental
results demonstrate that the addition of biosolids to mine tailings improved the physicochemical
properties of the substrate in terms of it better supporting plant growth and development. These
results indicate that future phytoextraction studies with the selected plant species Indian mustard
and carrot should use the 75% biosolids - 25% mine tailings combination to maximize plant growth,
and potentially also maximize Hg and Au phytoextraction.

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phytomining of heavy metals. Publications-Australasian Institute Of Mining And Metallurgy 127-136.
Anderson, C., Moreno F., Meech, J. (2005) A field demonstration of gold phytoextraction technology. Minerals
Engineering 18(4): 385-392.
Baker, A. (2002) Conserving biodiversity: Mining, metallophytes and land reclamation. Mining Environmental
Management 10:11-16.
Beauford, W., Barber, J., Barringer, A.J. (1977) Uptake and distribution of mercury within higher plants.
Physiologia Plantarum 39:261-265.
Boney, A.D. (1971) Sublethal effects of mercury on marine algae. Marine Pollution Buletin 2:69-71.
Bright, D.A., Healey, N. (2003) Contaminant risks from biosolids land application: contemporary organic
contaminant levels in digested sewage sludge from five treatment plants in Greater Vancouver, British
Columbia. Environmental Pollution 39-49.
Bycroft, B.M., Coller, B.A.W., Deacon, G.B., Coleman, D.J., Lake, P.S. (1982) Mercury Contamination of the
Lerderderg River, Victoria, Australia, from an abandoned gold field. Environmental Pollution (Series A)
28:135-147.
Chaney, R.L., Malik, M., Li, Y.N., Brown, S.L., Brewer, E.P., Angle, J.S., Baker, A.J. (1997) Phytoremediation of
soil metals. Current Opinion in Biotechnology 8: 279-284.
De, A., Sen, A., Modak, D., Jana, S. (1985) Studies of toxic effects of mercury (II) on Pistia stratiotes. Water Air and
Soil Pollution 24: 351-360.
Emerson, W.W. (1991) Structural decline of soils, assessment and prevention. Australian Journal of Soil Research
29: 905-921.
Esteban, E., Moreno, E., Penalosa, J., Cabrero, J., Millan, R., Zornoza, P. (2008) Short and long-term uptake of Hg
in white lupin plants: Kinetics and stress indicators. Environmental and Experimental Botany 62(3): 316-
322.
Fresquez, P.R., Francis, R.E., Dennis, G.L. (1990) Sewage sludge effects on soil and plant quality in a degraded
and semiarid grassland. Journal of Environmental Quality 19:324-9.
Godbold, D., Huttermann, A. (1986) The uptake and toxicity of mercury and lead to spruce seedlings. Water Air
and Soil Pollution 31:509-515.
Greger, M., Wang, Y., Neuschutz, C. (2005) Absence of Hg transpiration by shoot after Hg uptake by roots of six
terrestrial plant species. Environmental Pollution 134: 201-208.
Israr, M., Sahi, S., Datta, R., Sarkar, D. (2006) Bioaccumulation and physiological effects of mercury in Sesbania
drummondii. Chemosphere 65:591-598.
Lomonte, C., Gregory, D., Baker, A.J.M., Kolev, S.D. (2008) Comparative study of hotplate wet digestion
methods for the determination of mercury in biosolids. Chemosphere 72(10):1420-1424.
Lomonte C., Doronila, A.I., Gregory, D., Baker, A.J.M., Kolev, S.D. (2010) Phytotoxicity of biosolids and
screening of selected plant species with potential for mercury phytoextraction. Journal of Hazardous
Materials 173:494-501.

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Madejón, E., Doronila, A.I., Sanchez-Palacios, J.T., Madejón, P., Baker, A.J.M. (2010) Arbuscular Mycorrhizal
Fungi (AMF) and Biosolids Enhance the Growth of a Native Australian Grass on Sulphidic Gold Mine
Tailings. Restoration Ecology 18:175-183.
Msuya, F.A., Brooks, R.R., Anderson, C.W.M. (2000) Chemically-induced uptake of gold by root crops: Its
significance for phytomining. Gold bulletin 33(4): 134-137.
Patra, M., Sharma, A. (2000) Mercury toxicity in plants. Botanical Review 66:379-422.
Piccinin, R.C.R., Ebbs, S.D., Reichman, S.M., Kolev, S.D., Woodrow, I.E. Baker, A.J.M. (2007) A screen of some
native Australian flora and exotic agricultural species for their potential application in cyanide-induced
phytoextraction of gold. Minerals Engineering 20: 1327-1330.
Reeves, R.D. and Baker, A.J.M. (2000) Metal-accumulating plants. In Raskin, I. and Ensley, B.D. (Eds.)
Phytoremediation of toxic metals: using plants to clean-up the environment. 193-230. New York: John Wiley
and Sons.
Shiyab, S., Chen, J., Han, F.X., Monts, D.L., Matta, F.B., Gu, M., Su, Y., Masad, M.A. (2008) Mercury-induced
oxidative stress in Indian mustard (Brassica juncea L.). Environmental Toxicology 24:462-471.
Shiyab, S., Chen, J., Han, F.X., Monts, D.L., Matta, F.B., Gu, M., Su, Y. (2009) Phytotoxicity of mercury in Indian
mustard (Brassica juncea L.). Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 72:-619-625.
Sloan, J.J., Dowdy, R.H., Balogh, S.J., Nater, E. (2001) Distribution of mercury in soil and its concentration in
runoff from a biosolids-amended agricultural watershed. Journal of Environmental Quality 30:2173-2179.
Suszcynsky, E., Shann, J. (1995) Phytotoxicity and accumulation of mercury in tobacco subjected to different
exposure routes. Environmental Toxicology & Chemistry 14:61-67.
Tian, G., Granato, T.C., Pietz, R.I., Carlson, C.R., Abedin, Z. (2006) Effect of long-term application of biosolids for
land reclamation on surface water chemistry. Journal of Environmental Quality 35:101-113.
Tordoff, G.M., Baker, A.J.M., Willis, A.J. (2000) Current approaches to the revegetation and reclamation of
metalliferous mine wastes. Chemosphere 41:219-228.
WHO [World Health Organization]. (1976) Mercury. In Environmental Health Criteria 1p. 1-31. World Health
Organization, Geneva.
Wong, M.H. (2003) Ecological restoration of mine degraded soils, with emphasis on metal contaminated soils.
Chemosphere 50: 775-780.
World Bank Group. (1998) Mercury. In Pollution Prevention and Abatement Handbook. The World Bank,
Washington DC. pp. 219-222.
Zhou, Z.S., Huang, S.Q., Guo, K., Mehta, S.K., Zhang, P.C., Yang, Z.M. (2007) Metabolic adaptations to mercury-
induced oxidative stress in roots of Medicago sativa L. Journal of Inorganic Biochemistry 101:1-9.

9
Linear Sweep Voltammetry as a Technique to
Characterize Mining Wastes
Francisco Carranza1, Pablo González1, Rafael Romero1, Nieves Iglesias1 and Manuel
García2
1. Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Seville, Spain
2. AGQ Mining & Bioenergy, Spain

ABSTRACT
The characterization of mine waste, such as low-grade ores, tailings and dumps, requires the
development of methods that predict the behaviour over time and the possible degradation and,
consequently, the generation of acid water and the contaminating leachate production. The current
predictive techniques are mainly based on static and dynamic leaching tests.
For long-term prediction, methods, like humidity cells test, take very long time, which becomes
several months. The aim of this study is the development of a methodology for the mining waste
characterization and the prediction of their potential long-term degradation, based on
electrochemical tests. In minutes, these techniques can simulate the long-term weathering of mining
residues.
As linear sweep voltammetry is a simple technique that generates parameters directly related to the
reactivity of the material, it was selected to perform this study. Different kinds of working
electrodes from residues were prepared in order to determine the most suitable one. Linear
voltammetry was applied in a potentiostat after different pre-treatments: none, washing and anoxic
washing.
The study of the electrochemical response of the different materials together with the analysis of
dissolved metals in these tests can establish a classification of waste as susceptible to weathering,
acid generator and inert. The comparison of these results with the information provided by
traditional tests shows a good agreement between both methodologies.

1
INTRODUCTION
The characterization of mine waste, such as low-grade ores, tailings and dumps, requires the
development of methods that predict the behavior over time and the possible degradation and,
consequently, the generation of acid water and the contaminating leachate production. The current
predictive techniques are mainly based on static and dynamic leaching tests that use aqueous
solutions of leaching agents, especially acids, alkalis and oxidizers.
For long-term prediction of the pollution potential of waste, the application of these methods raises
the problem of the excessive length of the tests, which take several months.
The aim of this study is the development of a methodology for the mining waste characterization
and the prediction of their potential long-term degradation, based on electrochemical tests of short
duration.

The covalent nature of most of the sulfides provides charge delocalization, which results in an
appreciable intrinsic electronic conductivity. Furthermore, the ability of many sulfides to form non-
stoichiometric compounds causes increased conduction by holes or electrons mobility. Such
electrochemical processes play an important role in sulfides natural weathering (Nickel et al., 1974)
and hence the study of the electrochemical properties of metal sulfides is a subject of interest in the
environmental management of mining waste (Lehner et al., 2007). The voltammetry offers tools to
measure the reactivity of a waste material, even in the case of materials that do not show potential
reactivity in conventional tests such as the acid base accounting (ABA) and kinetic assays in wet
cells (American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), 1976; Morin & Hutt, 1997; Bortnikova et
al., 2010; Sapsford et al.,2010). These techniques are not mutually exclusive and may be combined
in the residue evaluation. Voltammetric measurements were applied to evaluate the reactivity of a
material before, during and after treatment simulating natural environmental conditions, such as
the kinetic assays in wet cell (Cruz et al., 2001). This approach provides quantitative arguments to
model residue reactivity when subjected to alteration.

The voltammetric techniques are often additionally supported on mineralogical characterization

assays (Parbhakar et al. 2011) and chemical analysis leachate.

The linear voltammetry is the electrochemical technique used in this study. This technique involves
obtaining records of electric current from an imposed sweep potential. Such technique generates
parameters directly related to sulfide material reactivity.

METHODOLOGY

Materials

In this work, ten different materials from tailings and mining waste deposits are studied. The table
1 shows the chemical composition of each residue.

2
Table 1 Chemical composition of wastes

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Sample Carbonated Gossan Massive Arseno- Low-grade Copper

Marl Stockwork Slate Porphyry
sulfide sulfide sulfide pyrite sulfide pyrite

Ag (mg/kg) 29,2 26,6 41,4 127,2 18,2 6,8 25,0 36,7 51,1 5,5
As (mg/kg) < 50 1358,7 1807,6 2109,4 1712,6 1436,5 3300,8 1676,3 679,6 < 50
B (mg/kg) 0,9 0,2 0,2 0,1 0,1 0,0 1,3 0,2 0,0 0,2
Bi (mg/kg) < 20 < 20 89,9 823,4 72,3 < 20 57,1 301,5 436,0 < 20
Ca (%) 10,17 < 0,01 < 0,01 1,49 0,13 0,01 0,12 0,49 < 0,01 7,44
Cd (mg/kg) < 20 < 20 20,0 < 20 < 20 < 20 33,6 80,4 < 20 < 20
Co (mg/kg) 11,4 48,4 127,3 20,3 62,4 15,5 133,1 116,9 25,5 19,5
Cr (mg/kg) 43,0 79,1 50,2 57,6 81,4 67,1 45,0 27,4 84,1 73,7
Cu (%) 0,004 0,071 0,565 0,260 1,608 0,013 0,584 1,066 0,697 0,003
Fe (%) 3,4 28,2 39,9 20,4 16,5 4,0 14,5 15,1 7,6 5,3
Hg (mg/kg) < 5,0 < 5,0 < 5,0 < 5,0 < 5,0 8,9 < 5,0 < 5,0 < 5,0 < 5,0
Li (mg/kg) 22,8 22,9 108,8 < 10 < 10 < 10 45,1 < 10 < 10 < 10
Mn (mg/kg) 875,3 994,9 1182,8 208,8 264,0 516,8 458,3 288,1 21,9 724,8
Mo (mg/kg) < 10 < 10 < 10 59,3 < 10 < 10 < 10 32,1 < 10 < 10
Na (mg/kg) 1112,9 < 100 < 100 < 100 < 100 < 100 < 100 < 100 < 100 75,7
Ni (mg/kg) 36,7 38,7 < 20 < 20 < 20 38,0 < 20 35,6 46,6 < 20
Pb (%) 0,003 0,033 0,426 4,065 0,174 0,000 0,182 0,501 0,132 0,000
Sb (mg/kg) 60,9 66,1 689,3 1170,0 141,2 11,4 563,9 716,5 75,4 143,7
Se (mg/kg) < 50 < 50 < 50 < 50 361,3 < 50 < 50 < 50 57,5 < 50
Sn (mg/kg) 30,9 310,8 485,7 155,1 455,1 39,2 458,8 393,2 72,4 48,4
Tl (mg/kg) < 50 < 50 < 50 < 50 < 50 < 50 < 50 < 50 80,8 < 50
V (mg/kg) < 50 53,5 65,4 < 50 < 50 < 50 < 50 < 50 < 50 < 50
Zn (%) 0,008 0,071 1,299 0,012 0,009 0,010 0,620 0,930 0,018 0,008

Tests

Washing tests
As a preliminary step to electrochemical tests, the residues are washed both in air and nitrogen
atmosphere. For this purpose, 5 g of residue and 150 g of electrolyte are placed in a flask that is
agitated at 180 rpm for 3 days. Periodically, samples are taken and filtered for metals analysis by
ICP.

Electrochemical tests
Electrochemical tests are performed in a potentiostat (CV-27 de Bioanalytical Systems) coupled to a
data acquisition and processing system.
A 3-electrode cell is used: the working electrode, the counter electrode (Pt 1mm) and the reference
electrode (calomel, +0.2444V vs. standard H electrode).
A Luggin capillary is used to minimize the potential drop between the working electrode and the

3
reference electrode.
The electrolyte is a solution of pH 1.5 (sulfuric acid in ultrapure MilliQ quality water).

Preparation of working electrode

Carbon in paste (CPE) and pressed electrodes (PE) are prepared from pulverized mining residues
and used as working electrodes. CPE is prepared following the method described by Svancara et
al., 2009. Blank electrodes are also prepared, only with carbon paste.

For the preparation of PE, pulverized waste is compressed in a hydraulic press (under vacuum),
imbibed in a low viscosity resin (180 cp) and cured at 70 ° C under vacuum for three hours.

To facilitate handling of the electrode and to isolate the faces of the electrode that must not be
exposed to the electrolyte, the pellet is imbibed in epoxy resin.

Linear Voltammetry
To perform linear voltammetry tests, an increasing potential, which varies linearly with time, is
applied to the working electrode, and the current intensity generated is recorded. The resulting
current density, i.e. the intensity of current per unit electrode area, is plotted versus potential.

Experimental conditions are the followings:

- Potential applied: from -0.1 V to +2.5 V

- Distance between working and reference electrodes: 1-2 mm
- Sweep rate: 5 mV/s.
- Electrolyte volume: 25 mL
- Atmosphere: Nitrogen is bubbled for 1 minute before each test.

Chemical Analysis
Metal concentrations in solution are determined by Atomic Absortion Spectrophotomectry (Perkin
Elmer 2380) or by Inductivelye Coupled Plasma (Agilent Technologies 715ICP OES)

4
RESULTS AND DICUSSION

Previous tests
Figure 1 shows the voltammetry of Carbon Paste Electrode of each residue. All materials tested,
including the blank test, show current passing therethrough.

Figure 1 Linear voltammetry of CPE

This means that electron transfer chemical reactions are occurring at the electrode-solution
interface, although not necessarily exclusively related to processes of oxidation of the mineral. The
only possible anodic reaction in the blank test is the discharge of oxygen. It starts at the potential
value that satisfies the equilibrium potential and required overpotentials (anodic, cathodic,
electrolyte resistance and external electric system resistance). This potential is close to 1.3 V. At
potential values lower than this, current generated produces anodic oxidation reactions of the
mineral species in the electrodes. It is important to know the beginning of the current flow, as it is
related to the corrosion threshold of each residue studied.
Table 2 shows a list of residues sorted in order of increasing corrosion threshold, established as the
potential at which the current is 1 mA.

Table 2 Residues sorted in order of increasing corrosion threshold

Material Potential (V)

Copper pyrite 0.06

Massive sulfide 0.23

Carbonated sulfide 0.32

Gossan/sulfide 0.41

5
 Arsenopyrite 0.46

Low-grade sulfide 0.48

Slate 0.50

Porphyry 0.56

Marl 0.57

Blank 0.91

Stockwork 0.98

Copper pyrite is the waste that requires lower potential to start its degradation; it is followed by
massive sulfide, carbonated sulfide and gossan/sulfide. All materials, except the stockwork, are
susceptible to oxidation and corrosion as their thresholds are below the limit potential for
electrolysis of water (blank); stockwork shows a threshold higher than blank.
Table 3 shows the wastes sorted in order of current intensity recorded at 1V. At this potential
hardly water electrolysis occurs; therefore, these values represent the kinetics of oxidation of each
residue to that voltage. Again, copper pyrite is in first position. This material is the one that lower
potential requires starting its degradation and it degrades more quickly than the others do. This
means higher polluting capacity. It is followed by sulfides in an order similar to table 2, except
arsenopyrite that is between the most inert wastes. In view of the results of exploratory assays, we
selected the following materials to carry out the study: Massive sulfide, low-grade sulfide, copper
sulfide and carbonated sulfide

Table 3 Residues sorted according intensity of degradation

Material Intensity at 1 V (mA)

Copper pyrite 70.1

Carbonated sulfide 19.6

Massive sulfide 15.8

Low-grade sulfide 14.7

Gossan/sulfide 10.9

Slate 8.6

Marl 5.8

Arsenopyrite 4.3

Porphyry 3.2

Stockwork 1.2

Blank 1.4

6
Washing

The use of PE prevents the inhomogeneity introduced by the presence of carbon in CPE, but reduces its
conductivity to the conductivity of the particles constituting the residue. Depending on the grade of
weathering of waste, the electric contact between particles may be inefficient due to the degradation products
around the particles, in most cases soluble salts that the rain naturally dissolves.
In order to avoid this effect, a washing before voltammetry test was included.
Table 4 shows the evolution of Cu, Fe and Zn concentrations in washing tests performed in air atmosphere.
You can see that in 24 h, Cu and Fe concentrations are stabilized, however Zn concentration increases during
all the washing time.

Table 4 Evolution of Cu, Fe and Zn concentrations in air washing

time, min
Sample ppm 30 195 560 1315 1875 2910 4308
[Cu] 582,5 610 595 645 465 650 635
Massive
[Fe ] 150,5 254,5 332,5 402,5 382,5 417,5 467,5
sulfide
[Zn] 0,56 0,58 0,6 0,65 0,72 0,76 0,85
[Cu] 5,96 9,16 8,4 22,5 29,2 40,1 52,8
Low-grade
[Fe ] 218,5 755 1150 1175 1205 1235 1235
sulfide
[Zn] 31,5 50 72,5 100 125 140 160
[Cu] 25,6 55,4 76,5 99,75 101,75 110,5 120,5
Copper
[Fe ] 127,5 156 187 237,5 225 257,5 295
pyrite
[Zn] 30 47 70 137,5 150 175 202,5
[Cu] 1,63 2,95 3,75 20,7 28,64 45,6 59
Carbonated
[Fe ] 154,5 617,5 572,5 607,5 542,5 1040 1080
sulfide
[Zn] 17,5 55 50 77,5 82,5 200 240

Anoxic washing
Figures 2, 3 and 4 show the evolution of Cu, Fe and Zn concentrations respectively in washing test performed
in presence of nitrogen.

7
 1600
[Cu]
(ppm) 1400 Massive sulfide
1200
1000
800
600
400
200 Low-grade sulfide

0 Copper pyrite Carbonated sulfide

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
t (min)

Figure 2 Evolution of Cu concentration in anoxic washing

1600
[Fe]
(ppm) 1400 Copper pyrite

Carbonated sulfide
1200

1000 Masive sulfide

800

600

400

200 Low-grade sulfide

0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
t (min)

Figure 3 Evolution of Fe concentration in anoxic washing

120
[Zn]
100 Massive sulfide
(ppm)

80
Copper pyrite
60

40 Carbonated pyrite

20
Low-grade sulfide
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
t (min)

Figure 4 Evolution of Zn concentration in anoxic washing

8
In view of these results, it can be said that anoxic washing (under nitrogen) prevents further degradation of
residue during the washing itself.

Linear Volmmetry
Figure 5 shows the voltammetric response of copper pyrite PE with and without previous washing. It is noted
that this material is electroactive when is subjected to oxidizing conditions. The slopes of I/V curve are
different for the unwashed and washed material.

Figure 5 Linear voltammetry of copper pyrite PE

Figure 6 shows the voltammetry curves of linear scan for massive sulfide. Again, the material responds to
electrochemical stimulation. Different slopes of the curve I/V as a function of pretreatment are observed, it is
evident that washing enhances the electroactive response.

It can be postulated that the effect of washing does not change the nature of the residue and which essentially
consists in removing deposits soluble substances that passivize the external surface of the particles. This
hypothesis is based on the fact that although very different slopes are observed, the threshold corrosion
potential is the same in both cases, 0.67 V.

9
 Figure 6 Linear voltammetry of massive sulfide PE

Figure 7 Linear voltammetry of low-grade sulfide PE

10
 Figure 8 Linear voltammetry of carbonated sulfide PE

Figures 7 and 8 show the voltammetry of low-grade sulfide and carbonated sulfide respectively.

In the potential range studied, the slopes of I/V curves are well below the cases of massive sulfide and copper
sulfide. The pretreatment increases the electroactivity of the material but not enough to find differences
between aerobic or anoxic washing. In all cases, the threshold potential is close to 0.7V.

CONCLUSIONS
A low intensity signal corresponds to relatively insulating materials that are not susceptible to weathering and
therefore do not generate acid mine drainage.

A threshold potential higher than 1.3 V (electrolysis of water potential) corresponds to non-electroactive
materials at ambient conditions that will not generate acid mine drainage.

The materials which threshold potential below 1.3 V are electroactive materials that are susceptible to
environmental weathering and generation of acid mine drainage. Among them, the most active are the
massive copper sulfide and pyrite.

The use of Press Electrodes prevents the inhomogeneity introduced by the presence of carbon in Carbon Paste
Electrodes, but the electric contact between particles may be inefficient due to the degradation products
around the particles. In order to avoid this effect, a washing before voltammetry test is needed.

11
REFERENCES
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), 1996.

Bortnikova, S.B. et al., (2010). Geochemistry International 48 (3), 280–294.

Cruz, R. et al., Applied Geochemistry 16 (2001) 1631–1640

Lehner, S. et al., Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 71 (2007) 2491–2509

Morin K.A. & Hutt, N.M. (1997), Copper Fox Metals Inc.

Nickel, E.H.; Ross, J.R. & Thornber, M.R., (1994) Econ. Geol., 69, 93.

Parbhakar, A.K. et al., (2011) Minerals Engineering 24 1277–1287.

Sapsford, D.J. et al., (2009). Miner. Eng. 22, 25–36.

Svancara, I. et al., (2009) Electroanalysis, 21, 1, 7-28

12
Review of Tailings Management in Chile: Lessons
Learned, Incipient Progress of a Holistic
Management, and Future Challenges in Reducing
Socio-Environmental Impacts
Carlos Cacciuttolo
Universidad de Chile

ABSTRACT
The way in which tailings are managed reflects the history, the regulatory framework and the
environment of the country and locale of the mine. In spite of many attempts to find an
environmentally friendly strategy for tailings management that considers a balanced relationship
between society – ecosystem, there is no world-wide agreement regarding the best available
practices of tailings management. This paper reviews the evolution of tailings management in
Chile, current practices, and changes that could or may need to be made to improve practices, as a
response to local environmental conditions, and local tolerance for risk. The paper also examines
current development of an incipient progress of a holistic tailings management, changing the classic
reductionism focus to a new holistic paradigm, which describes a more cross-disciplinary, and
whole-systems approach to tailings management. The paper also describes recent proposals of best
available technologies (BAT), examining briefly case histories of Chilean tailings facilities using
conventional technology; the use of thickened tailings; filtered tailings; water use reduction; and
ways to avoid failure in a seismic region. Finally the paper concludes analysing the Chilean tailings
industry’s pending issues; the future challenges in reducing socio-environmental impacts,
incorporating advances and lessons learned that may lead to more environmentally friendly
solutions.

1
INTRODUCTION
Mining is an important contribution to the economy of many developing regions in Chile. Many
sites of mining interest in the country have abrupt geographies and potentially-limited land areas.
While the limited land areas may drive consideration of tailings disposal to the ocean, it is
important to recognize that local communities depend on the ocean as a major supplier of food and
relevant element of livelihoods. Impact assessment of tailings disposal on land and at the bottom of
the ocean are usually limited by budgets and time frames, that result in a limited capacity to
understand longer-term environmental risks to underground waters and marine ecosystems,
including the interactions between land and sea ecosystems respectively (food chains).
This article also reviews briefly current development of an incipient progress of a holistic tailings
management, to describe a more cross-disciplinary, whole-systems approach to tailings
management. It is an approach that should be perceived as creating global leaders: decision makers
who actively shape our future with both proven technical ability as well as creative, cost-effective,
environmental rationality and innovative management of the complex social, economic,
environmental, and communications aspects of projects.
Finally this article reviews the evolution of tailings management in Chile, current practices, and
changes that could or may need to be made to improve practice — discussing the future challenges
in reducing socio-environmental impacts, incorporating advances and lessons learned that may
lead to more environmentally friendly solutions.

LESSONS LEARNED: PAST, PRESENT AND HERITAGE

This chapter examines the development of Chilean tailings management practices as a response to
local environmental conditions, local tolerance for risk, and the influence of practice elsewhere in
the world. The past tailings management practices in Chile offer many lessons to mines in other
parts of the world.

History – Cases of Environmental Impacts

Chañaral Case – Shore Tailings Disposal (STD)

In Chile most copper mines are located in the central and northern Andes Mountains. Ore
extraction, milling, processing and tailings dumping operations normally take place around the
mine pits. For example Potrerillos copper mine disposed mine tailings near to process plant (1920-
1938). However, copper tailings disposal occurred in coastal areas. This was the case of Potrerillos
(1938-1958) and El Salvador (1958-1990) copper mines, located in the Third Region of Chile. El
Salvador mine operates at 2,400 – 2,600 m above sea level and is located 120 Km east of the coastal
city of Chañaral. For 37 years (1938-1975) the untreated copper mine tailings (solids, water and
chemicals) were routed to the Salado River bed (Riverine Tailings Disposal) and disposed directly
onto the sandy beach of Chañaral Bay (Shore Tailings Disposal) (Figure 1). This site received 300
million tons of copper tailings. In February 1975 the disposal sea site at Chañaral was moved about
8 km North, to a rocky beach known as Caleta Palitos. This site received the copper tailings directly
onto rocky intertidal and operated until February 1990. Based on the values for daily solid dumping
it was reported that 126 – 150 million tons of copper tailings were discharged at Caleta Palitos
between 1975 -1990 (Vergara, 2011).

2
In March 1990, and as a consequence of an Appeal for Protection, the Chilean Supreme Court of
Justice ruled against the El Salvador Mine and the disposal of untreated tailings wastes was
banned. The El Salvador Mine was compelled to build a tailings storage facility (TSF). This was
done at Pampa Austral, a deserted area near the town of Diego de Almagro. The so-called “clear
tailings water” originated at the Pampa Austral TSF has been legally channelled back to the bed of
Salado River and disposed at Caleta Palitos since 1991. To date an environmental rehabilitation has
not been carried out yet, and tailings beach disposal generates heavy dust emission under windy
conditions, which transport heavy metal to Chañaral town, creating a high health risk for
population (Yohannessen et al., 2015; Weeks, 2015).

Figure 1 Shore tailings disposal at Chañaral Bay and Caleta Palitos (Vergara, 2011; Koski, 2012; Dold, 2014)

Barahona and El Melon Cases - On Land Tailings Disposal

The first recorded case of liquefaction-induced failure of a tailings dam in Chile was on December
1st, 1928, generated by a 8.2 Richter-scale earthquake in the central zone of Chile. Barahona tailings
dam, located at El Teniente Mine, about 180 km away from the epicenter at Talca city, collapsed as a
consequence of this earthquake, where TSF dam breached and the resulting flow of liquefied soils
destroyed settlements, farmlands located downstream and killed 54 people. The seismic event,
known as Talca Earthquake, also caused severe material damages and casualties in the neighbor
provinces of Talca, Curico, Colchagua, and Cachapoal River (Barrera et al., 2015).
A catastrophic failure of a major tailings dam occurred on March 28 th, 1965, at El Cobre tailings
dam, located at the El Cobre mine, generated by a 7.5 Richter magnitude earthquake. The failure in
the El Cobre tailings dam caused over 200 people deaths and extensive material damage (Barrera et
al., 2015).

3
Improvements in Tailings Management and Regulation
The March 1965 earthquake caused widespread discussion in Chile and a big pressure of the
community asking stricter control over tailings dams. The Chilean authorities issued in 1970 a norm
to regulate the design, construction, and operation of tailings dams (Decree N°86). This regulation
provided definitions, criteria, and specifications to be complied for the design, construction and
operation of tailings dams, which required deployment of periodic monitoring activities. One
special clause of this decree was the prohibition of the tailings dam upstream construction method
(Barrera et al., 2015).

First TSF Seismic Performance with New Regulation March 3rd, 1985
However, other 3 cases of seismic effects occurred at 3 tailings dams at central part of Chile after the
earthquake of March 3, 1985, generated by a 7.8 Richter magnitude earthquake, about 120 km away
from the epicenter at San Antonio city. The first case, Veta de Agua No.1 tailings dam failed, and
the fines tailings stored, moved along the El Sauce Creek for about 5 km (Barrera et al., 2015). The
second case, Cerro Negro N°4 tailings dam was a dam failure, losing 25 percent of dam structure
(Barrera et al., 2015). The third case, El Cobre N°4 Tailings Dam, only presented cracking along the
dam crest (Barrera et al., 2015). It is noteworthy that compared to previous earthquakes, the 1985
earthquake caused damage only in small scale operations and no deaths were reported. However,
the authorities decided to increase the construction controls of tailings dams, emphasizing the fines
content, compaction and drainage of cyclone tailings sands.

Second TSF Seismic Performance with New Regulation –February 27th, 2010
No other large earthquakes event occurred until 2010, the 8.8 Mw earthquake at midnight of
February 27th, 2010, the largest earthquake recorded in the area and second nationwide, after 1960
Valdivia 9.5 Mw earthquake. Considering the reports presented by national and international
experts, the following main observations, discussions and conclusions regarding the impact of this
event on tailings deposits are presented:
 Compared to the Barahona tailings dam failure in 1928, tailings dam failures in the 1965 La
Ligua earthquake and two failures in the 1985 San Antonio earthquake; large tailings dam
performance on operation phase, in this event seems to show some improvement (Verdugo,
2011).
 Eyewitness reports indicate that the tailings in the basin of the deposits of some of these
facilities (Ovejería, Las Tortolas, Carén, Los Leones) “presented local liquefaction in tailings
beaches during this event, with waves of tailings clearly evident and contained by the dam
crest freeboard” (Villavicencio et al., 2013)
 Some small abandoned tailings dams located in the central part of Chile suffered damage
due to liquefaction, five tailings dams constructed using the upstream method experienced
varying levels of seismically induced failure (i.e., Chancón, Bellavista Dike No. 1, Veta del
Agua Dike No. 5), and Las Palmas tailings dam collapsed killing 4 persons (Villavicencio et
al., 2013; Verdugo, 2012).
In a country of high seismicity, as Chile, affected by a 8.8 Mw earthquake in the central part of Chile
in 2010, the seismic performance of large tailings storage facilities under operation phase proved to

4
be satisfactory without breaking of dams or significant changes in the form of the tailings
impoundments.

Pending Tasks in Chilean TSF Regulation

The risk associated with TSFs is very large when considering that a potential dam failure could
easily damage the environment and people with pollution or adverse impacts. Accidents or failures
at these facilities have always been associated with social, environmental or public safety issues,
some more catastrophic than others. This has contributed to a reduction in the rate of TSFs failures
in the last decades. In most countries around the world where responsible mining is applied and
implemented on a day to day basis, regulatory frameworks have become more stringent, requesting
a higher level of responsibility, with the intent of minimizing risk posed to society and the
environment.
In Chile, the Servicio Nacional de Geología y Minería (SERNAGEOMIN) provides the Supreme
Decree N°248 (“Reglamento para la aprobación de proyectos de diseño, construcción, operación y
cierre de los depósitos de relaves”) to approve the Design, Construction, Operation and Closure of
Tailings Storage Facilities. This regulation replaces the Supreme Decree N°86, which was
established after a large earthquake in 1965 that caused the failure of several tailings dams
constructed using the upstream method (currently prohibited due to seismic conditions).
The current regulatory framework needs a reassessment to consider the present best available
practices and procedures, with the objective of establishing guidelines, restrictions and incentives to
implement environmentally friendly solutions. Some topics that need a reassessment are presented
below:
 Definition of environmental criteria’s for TSF site selection.
 Incentives/restrictions for use of dewatering technologies thickened, paste and filtered
tailings.
 Obligation to coat with liner entire contact surface tailings and natural terrain, to avoid
leaks or seepages to the environment.
 Geochemical characterization, prediction and mitigation specifications, tests and criteria’s.
 TSF dust mitigation parameters during operation and closure.
 Integral assessment criteria’s between SERNAGEOMIN, Direccion General de Aguas
(DGA), Ministerio de Salud (MINSAL), and Servicio de Evaluación Ambiental (SEA).
 Submarine tailings disposal regulatory framework (definitions, restrictions, limits, among
others).
 There are no specific standards for OMS (operation, maintenance and surveillance)
manuals.
 There are no specifications for limits parameters/method for TSF dam break distance
analysis.
 Specifications to Emergency Preparedness Plans (EPPs) and Emergency Response Plans
(ERPs).
 Specifications and guidelines to carry out TSFs safety inspections and reviews during
construction/operation/closure and post closure.

5
  TSFs on operation and abandoned baseline for risk analyses and territorial strategic
planning.
The focus is on tailings dam safety legislation, regulatory framework, and the specific guidelines
associated with the stewardship of mining dams and tailings facilities.

Best Available Technologies (BAT)

The term “best available techniques” (BAT) is defined as “the most effective and advanced stage in
the development of activities and their methods of operation which indicate the practical suitability
of particular techniques for providing in principle the basis for emission limit values designed to
prevent and, where that is not practicable, generally to reduce emissions and the impact on the
environment as a whole.”
According to this definition, BAT applied to management of TSFs considers the following aspects:
(i) reliable performance of technologies, (ii) a controlled storage of tailings (considering site specific
conditions); and (iii) efficient water management with the control of water losses (evaporation,
retention at interstitial voids on tailings and infiltration). If these key issues are successfully
implemented, a reduction of water make-up requirements, and a decrease of negative
environmental impacts, signifies implementation of environmentally friendly tailings management.

Conventional Tailings Disposal

In the current Chilean large scale mining at dry climate areas, most typical tailings disposal
schemes consist of conventional, or slightly thickened at modest levels of tailings solids weight
concentration (Cw 48–52%). Conventional TSFs have dams built of cycloned tailings sands (coarse
fraction of tailings obtained by hydrocyclones), or have a slightly thickened tailings deposits with
dams built of borrow material. Conventional tailing dams may have water recoveries as high as
65% - 75 % range in very well operated TSFs, which means they have appropriate tailings
distribution, good control of the pond (volume and location) and adequate seepage recovery. In
conventional dams, water decanting at the settling pond is recovered by floating pumps, or decant
towers, and dam seepages are recollected by a drainage system and cut off trench systems
(Cacciuttolo and Scognamillo, 2014).

Thickened Tailings Disposal

Thickened Tailings Disposal (TTD) technology requires more background data than conventional
tailings disposal. In the conventional approach, the properties of tailings are fixed by the
concentrator plant, whereas in a TTD impoundment, the properties of the tailings and their
placement are "engineered" to suit the topography of the disposal area. The behaviour of tailings in
both approaches is entirely different. In conventional disposal, tailings segregate as they flow and
settle out to an essentially flat deposit, whereas in TTD technology a sloping surface is obtained. In
this way TTD produces high water recovery (80 % of tailings water recovery) and a self-supporting
deposit with sloping sides, requiring small dams (Cacciuttolo and Scognamillo, 2014).

6
Filtered Tailings Disposal
In the last 20 years, many mining projects around the world have applied a tailings disposal
technology called filtered dry stacked tailings. This technique produces an unsaturated cake that
allows store this material without the need to manage large slurry tailings ponds. The application of
this technology has accomplished: (i) an increase of water recovery from tailings (90 %), (ii)
reduction of TSF footprint, and (iii) decrease in the risk of physical instability, being TSFs self
supporting structures under compaction. The improvements of filtering technologies (pressure and
vacuum filtering) in recent years have allowed increased operational reliability and the
development of large capacity filters, reaching in some projects 50,000 metric tonnes per day (mtpd)
of filtered tailings nowadays (Cacciuttolo and Scognamillo, 2014).

INCIPIENT PROGRESS TOWARDS A NEW PARADIGM OF HOLISTIC

MANAGEMENT

Physical TSF Stability Focus “The Old School”

The different ways to manage natural resources are related to the view of society or decision-
makers on these resources. These views may be explained by various conceptual paradigms which
are part of the scientific discussion and have effects on the way natural resources are understood.
The reductionist paradigm appears early in the modern scientific development and is expressed
when applying the Cartesian Method; the ecosystem paradigm emerges in the 20th Century as a
result of the development of the General Systems Theory and the concept of ecosystems. The
application of the reductionist paradigm can explain the presence of an economist view of natural
resources, particularly water, minerals, among others. The application of the ecosystem paradigm
helps explain a holistic view of these natural resources.
The main limitation of the reductionist approach is its inability to explain complex and open
systems, precisely one of the characteristics of the tailings deposits, which are mine waste sinks
directly interacting with ecosystems. It is not possible to explain the behavior of a system as from its
components, not to mention when the components are nonlinearly related (Costanza et al., 1999).
And so it during the 60s, when in Chile a strong engineering (mainly geotechnical, civil, hydraulic
and mining engineers) presence in design, construction and operation of tailings deposits was
established. The main concern was the physical stability of tailings dams and the execution of
designs under an efficient cost-benefit approach, without taking into account, with more
importance, environmental or social issues.

Physical – Hydrological – Geochemical TSF Stability Approach “The New School,

beyond only Engineering”
The environmental issues are positioned as a significant event in industrialized countries, mainly in
Europe and the United States, together with various historical events that have made reconsider the
production dynamics and technological expansion developed in the framework of the
modernization processes. An important milestone in this process is the Stockholm Conference, held
by the United Nations in 1972 in order to relieve the environmental reality at that time and establish
common principles for the preservation and improvement of the human environment, considering

7
the natural and artificial aspect of its composition. As from this, a global awareness phenomenon
began, emphasizing the need to reduce the impacts on ecosystems and communities being caused
as a result of the overexploitation of natural resources (Aliste and Urquiza , 2010).
Since the 80s the way of dealing with the issues under a reductionist approach has led the
specialization in the areas of research and theoretical elaboration to a disciplinary perspective. An
attempt was made to reveal the properties of nature by the separation of the components and to
simplify their study facilitating the interpretation of results (Costanza et al. 1999). These advances
have been applied in the stages of design, construction, operation, closure and reinstatement of
mining projects. Some of the specialization areas that have stood out the most for their socio-
environmental contribution to the development of mining projects over the last 20 years include:
 Phytoremediation (Dust mitigation, ARD prevention and Rehabilitation)
 Geochemical (ARD prevention and mitigation)
 Hydrogeology (Underground water quantity and quality control)
 Ecology (Care and preservation of biota, and interactions with the anthropogenic activities)
 Sociology (Interactions with communities and understanding of humans live hoods)
 Geography (development and changes in the society considering space scale and time
scale)
 Among others.
This is how little by little a new approach to address the most complex issues and that gathers
several professionals are generated. This knowledge paradigm called holism promotes an
interdisciplinary approach, incorporating the spatial-time scale to analysis issues, and overlapping
a socio-environmental approach.

Inter-disciplinary, Spatial-Time Scale and Socio-Environmental Approach “Road to

Holistic Management”
Socio-environmental knowledge allows us understand that the environmental issues are on
multiple levels and involve a dependent relationship between society and nature. They must be
comprehensively analyzed from different disciplines or visions of knowledge and not only
observing them from our “filters” or profession or life experiences. Therefore, this interpretation
perceives that tailings management needs that comprehensive vision and in turn, currently in Chile
it is not part of a spatial-time scale planning within the country, with a long-term view.
Thus, the environmental issue has raised the need for holistic and systemic ideas, able to perceive
the interrelations between the different processes that influence and characterize this kind of issue.
This demand has stimulated the development of theories to find common homologies of different
logics, articulating different knowledge in interdisciplinary research methods for the analysis of
complex socio-environmental systems (Leff, 2000), as mining tailings management issues.
In order to achieve this goal, implementing the ecosystem paradigm has been suggested, so a
holistic management of tailings management that incorporates the relationship with the
environment and human society could be carried out. These approaches have been essential to
avoid the application of engineering criteria only and private interests in tailings management, by
incorporating to the ecosystem-based approach the following principles: (i) inclusive participation

8
of community on water and tailings management issues, both in time and space, and (ii)
additionally, the right to live in a pollution-free environment as a fundamental human right.
Although progress has been made over the last years towards a holistic approach regarding tailings
management, progress in regulations, applied technologies as well as measures to improve
management are acknowledged and appreciated, but these advances have been incipient, and it
will probably take some years to address environmental issues with a holistic approach and a long-
term vision.

FUTURE CHALLENGES IN REDUCING SOCIO-ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS

Re-processing of Old TSFs (Environmental Passives): Is it a Sustainable Environmental

Decision?
The copper mining industry mines ore at an average grade of 1.00 %Cu. The metallurgic processing
of ore results in tailings at an average grade of 0.12% - 0.25% Cu range (total copper) and 0.03 %
soluble Cu. Considering this information, nowadays some copper mining companies are starting to
recover copper by reprocessing tailings and are evaluating the reprocessing of others metals that
currently may have no a economic value, but in the future may be an attractive resource. Typically
mining companies carry out the reprocessing of old TSFs using dredge pumps on a floating
platform or by hydraulic mining monitors (Figure 2), and subsequently pulp tailings are
transported in pipelines to processing plant.

Figure 2 Tailings reprocessing by high pressure water jets – Los Colihues TSF, El Teniente Mine (Gecamin,
2013)

The author expects than in the next decades many of the old tailings deposits could be reworked if
one considers the prices of metals, new uses of metals which today are not economically valuable,
and the application of more efficient metallurgical technologies. The questions that must be asked
are: How should reprocessed tailings be managed? Where should reprocessed tailings be
deposited? Why are environmental management and metal recovery not combined? How avoid
impacts new areas?
In this context, in-pit disposal of tailings looks like an attractive alternative to be used as part of
responsible mine closure---mines could reprocess the tailings and place them in the open pit as part
of complete site closure. For some mines, this can signify a chance to apply a sustainable

9
development action, with the objective to rehabilitate sites environmentally impacted by tailings. A
remarkable portion of the huge amount of deposited tailings should be removed for a number of
reasons, such as: (i) relocated to a safe storage area, considering environmental risks; (ii) to make a
metallurgical reprocessing (extract heavy metals which can be toxic to environment); and (iii)
moved to provide a stable mining closure (socio-environmental liability).

Deep-Sea Tailings Placement (DSTP): Is It a Long-Term Stable Solution? What are the
Environmental Impacts?
The deep-sea bed, until recently a remote and largely pristine environment, is now subject to
growing anthropogenic pressures from industrial-scale resource extraction, accidental pollution
and deliberate waste disposal. Deep-Sea Tailings Placement (DSTP) involves discharge of finely-
ground rock slurry from an outfall below the base of the surface mixed layer, the tailings then
flowing as a near-bed density current to depths >1,000 m. The technique builds on experience
gained from over a century of tailings disposal in Norwegian coastal fjords, in some cases to water
depths of several hundred metres. The land use competition posed by tailings impoundments
makes DSTP an attractive and economic disposal option for some mining companies. It is currently
used in Indonesia, Papua New Guinea (PNG), Greece, Norway and Canada. The practice is highly
controversial, with many local communities and non-governmental organizations voicing concerns
about potential environmental impacts. DSTP entails massive inputs of fine sediment, containing
residual heavy metals derived from the terrestrial ore body (and potentially additional
contaminants introduced by chemical processing of the ore) into bathyal environments regarded as
hotspots of deep-sea biomass and biodiversity. The lack of information on its ecological
consequences is therefore a significant gap in our knowledge of anthropogenic impacts in the deep
sea.

Figure 3 Idealized DSTP Model (Spitz and Trudinger, 2009) (Left) – Real tailings pipe discharge plume (Right)

Commonly mentioned disadvantages and risks of DSTP are (Reichelt-Brushett, 2012; Dold, 2015;
Hughes et al., 2015; Koski, 2015):
 Smothering benthic organisms and physical and geochemical alteration of bottom habitat;
 Reduced number of species and biodiversity of marine communities;

10
  Risk of liberation of toxic elements from the tailings to the seawater;
 Bioaccumulation of metals through the food chains and ultimately into fish consumed by
humans, with associated human health risks;
 The deposited tailings cannot be recovered (possible loss of valuable resources);
 Larger footprint on the seabed than on land and resuspension events;
 Sediment instability, and slope failures caused by seismic and tsunami events;
 Potential toxicity of the flotation reagents used on the marine ecosystem (ecotoxicity);
 Plume sharing and dispersal of the fine particles throughout the sea;
 Relocation of tailings in different places of the marine ecosystem due to upwelling and
currents;
 If accidents happen it is nearly impossible to control them in the deep-sea environment;
 Low social acceptance, and reduction of fishing activity

Closure Phase of TSFs: Is It a Post Operational Phase or a Perpetual Monitoring Phase?

Tailings are the most visible remaining signs of mining activity, that together with mine waste
rocks and open pit, are recognized as the “legacy” impacts of mining. In the past, the primary aim
was to provide a well-engineered structure into which tailings can be deposited without a great
deal of attention given to closure requirements or long term management of tailings storage
facilities (TSF). Nowadays, the closure of TSF must be planned at the beginning of the project so
environmental; health and safety impacts do not remain in time after the closure (Cacciuttolo and
Tabra, 2015).
One of the main components that persist after closure is TSFs. It hosts a residue that contains
minerals, metallurgical reagents and water that can dissolve and transport contaminants to soil,
groundwater and surface water. Also, site conditions may cause hydraulic erosion and soil
liquefaction. For these reasons, water management of TSFs in a space and time scale is an important
issue to maintain physical, geochemical and hydrological stability after closure for long term
(Cacciuttolo and Tabra, 2015).

Chañaral Case – Shore Tailings Disposal – Chañaral Bay - Chile - No Closure / Rehabilitation
Program
The 300 Millions of tailings tons dispose at Chañaral Bay by STD represent a high environmental
risk. This TSF is highly vulnerable to Tsunami events and Salado River floods/mud flow events, as
seen on March 25th 2015 (Figure 3). No plan exists for closure and sustainable remediation, tailings
dispersion through shallow and deep marine currents from 1938 – continues actually, and tailings
beach disposal generate heavy dust emission under windy conditions, which transport heavy metal
to Chañaral town, creating a high health risk for population (Yohannessen et al., 2015; Weeks, 2015).
This is a pending case.

11
Figure 4 Aerial and in-situ views of extreme floods effects on tailings beach at Chañaral Bay (El Mercurio,
2015)

Las Palmas Case – Tailings Impoundment – Pencahue - Chile - No Adequate TSF Closure
Las Palmas tailings dam experienced the most catastrophic seismic failure triggered by the 2010
Chilean earthquake. The mine was operating from the early 1980s until 1997, when the mining
activity finished and the tailings pond was partially covered with a 15 cm layer of gravelly material.
The tailings deposit consisted of two dams (a lower one and an upper one). Both dams were
constructed in stages using the upstream construction method (Verdugo et al., 2012; Verdugo et al.,
2011). During the 2010 earthquake, the tailings deposit retained by the lower dam of Las Palmas
liquefied, the eastern portion of the tailings impoundment nearest the mine facilities was breached,
and a tailings volume in excess of 100,000 m3 flowed a distance of about 0.5 km, killing four people.

12
 Figure 5 Groundwater flow through retaining dyke that collapsed at Las Palmas TSF (Villavicencio, 2013)

After a site review, one of the causes of the failure due to seismic liquefaction was observed to occur
at the base level of the retaining dyke, apparently due to saturation of the lower few meters (0.5 to
1.0 m) produced by undetected groundwater. This zone of saturation was apparently not detected
at the time of closure of the deposit (Villavicencio et al., 2013). Figure 5 clearly shows groundwater
seeping from a hill slope adjacent to the Las Palmas tailings dam, days after the failure occurred.

Figure 6 Pre-earthquake and post-earthquake satellite images of Las Palmas TSF (Villavicencio, 2013; Google
Earth)

After the accident occurred during 27F earthquake, Las Palmas TSF was stabilized physically and
covered by a HDPE geomembrane, with these conditions remaining to date. Is this a proper closure
solution for gold TSF? Are there major risks linked to mining waste for the environment?
Geochemical stabilization was not carried out and there is an environmental risk associated with
Las Palmas tailings. The possible risks from the potential pollutant source (such as acidity and
heavy metals) in waste is dependent not only on the mineral characterisation of the solid but also
on the quality of the potential leachates, the direct environment (soil, groundwater, surface water)
and the potential targets (human, fauna and flora).

13
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
The cases presented in this article lead us to infer that the development and progress approach has
focused on economic rationality with incipient signs of evolving towards a criteria redefinition of
an environmental rationality (social and environmental aspects). Undoubtedly, this vision reflects
how modern science has been shaped, as from the separation of society – nature from Cartesian
dualism. Modernity was built based on scientific knowledge on nature, being transferred as the
highest scientific form to the field of social sciences. This knowledge, supposedly objective,
objectified nature while externalizing environment from its field of study, ignoring determinations,
conditions and effects of natural processes on social order (Leff, 2000).
The contradictions between environmental rationality and economic rationality are a confrontation
of opposed interests rooted in institutional structures, knowledge paradigms and legitimating
processes that face different agents, social classes and groups (Leff, 2000). That is why the most
serious threats facing humanity are related to the blind and uncontrolled progress of knowledge.
For that reason it is necessary, first of all, to be aware of the nature and consequences of the
paradigms that blind knowledge and disfigure reality. Nowadays the society lives under the rule of
disjunction, reduction and abstraction principles, which together constitute what is called
"simplification paradigm" (Morin, 2004).
The situation in Chile respect to the social and economic importance of the mining industry and the
environmental conflict it generates is a consequence by the geopolitical-economical model of the
country, which favours centralism. Nowadays, there is a conflict for the use of the territory in the
central part of Chile, where society, industry and government need this space to develop their
activities. For this reason the mining industry knows that no more space is available to store mine
tailings (on land).
Considering this scenario and the alternative to implement Deep Sea Tailings Disposal (DSTD), the
Protocol to the Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other
Matter from 1972 (known as the ‘‘London Protocol’’; IMO, 1996) stresses the ‘‘precautionary
approach’’, which requires that ‘‘appropriate preventative measures are taken when there is reason
to believe that wastes or other matter introduced into the marine environment are likely to cause
harm even when there is no conclusive evidence to prove a causal relation between inputs and their
effects.’’ In this context, the effects regarding the discharge of mine tailings, Chilean experiences
described in this article represent a contribution, which must be considered by regulators to use a
precautionary approach considering: human and ecosystem health , a more rigorous framework of
regulation and an integral assessment when considering proposals for DSTP in waters of their
jurisdiction.
Impacts assessment of DSTP has been poorly managed, with approvals being given in spite of
insufficient detail provided in environmental assessments. DSTP is considered a cheap way to
dispose large volumes of waste; however, the definition of “cheap” has not been previously
included placing a value on the marine environment or local communities (Reichelt-Brushett, 2012).
That is why it is intended to take a step forward in management of mining tailings, become aware
of the environmental importance and management in accordance with the following sustainability
principles:

 Mining and mineral processing wastes should be managed, so that they remain physically,
geographically, hydrologically, chemically, and radiologically stable (Frank et al., 2011).

14
  Mining and mineral processing wastes that interact with the environment should be inert, i.
e., equivalent (in form, concentration, location, volume, time and rate) to material and
chemicals on the same ecosystem (Frank et al., 2011).
 Mining and mineral processing wastes that are not inert should be isolated, be as inert as
practicable, and in a form that is compatible with the adopted waste management
technique and the sensitivity of ecosystem and social context (Frank et al., 2011).
 Mining and mineral processing wastes should be contained, i.e., geographically bounded,
exhibit a minimal footprint in a location of acceptably low ecological and social values and
be in physical and chemical forms, that limits interaction with surrounding environment
(Frank et al., 2011).
Finally, after what happened at Las Palmas tailings storage facility, it is important to mention the
necessity of implementing a closure and post-closure plan that guarantees physical, chemical and
hydrological stability. An interdisciplinary dam safety review of abandoned tailings dams should
be urgently carried out and consequently implements physical-hydrological-geochemical
stabilization solutions to prevent potential future tailings collapses and deaths. This requires a
periodic inspection, monitoring plans, and on land planning of the tailings deposits during
operation and after closing, in order to control the behavior of the tailings over time, to protect the
environment, people’s health, and wellness of cultures’s livelihood.

REFERENCES
Aliste, E. y Urquiza, A. (Comp.) (2010). Medio Ambiente y Sociedad: Conceptos, Metodologías y Experiencias
Desde las Ciencias Sociales y Humanas. ISBN: 978-956-284-727-8, Ril Editores, 2010.

Barrera, S., Cacciuttolo,C., and Urquidi, J., (2015). The 27F Chile Earthquake: A Review of the Performance
and Effects on Chilean Large Tailings Storage Facilities. Proceedings of 3rd International Seminar on
Tailings Management TAILINGS 2015, August 2015, Santiago, Chile.

Cacciuttolo, C., and Tabra, K. (2015). Water Management in the Closure of Tailings Storage Facilities.
Proceedings of 10th International Conference on Acid Rock Drainage and IMWA Conference, April
2015, Santiago, Chile.

Cacciuttolo, C., and Scognamillo, C. (2014). Improving Water Recovery with Different Tailings Management
Technologies. Proceedings of the 4th International Congress on Water Management in Mining WIM
2014, May 2014, Viña del Mar, Chile.

Costanza, R. et al. (1999). Una introducción a la economía ecológica. México. Editorial Continental, S.A. pp.
303.

Dold, B. (2015). On-Land or Submarine Tailings Disposal? – Pros and Cons. Proceedings of 10th International
Conference on Acid Rock Drainage and IMWA Conference, April 2015, Santiago, Chile.

Dold, B. (2014). Submarine Tailings Disposal (STD) – A Review, Minerals Journal (Minerals 2014, ISSN 2075-
163X, July 2014, viewed at: www.mdpi.com/2075-163X/4/3/642/pdf

El Mercurio Newspaper (2015). Fotografías satelitales publicadas por Satélite Fasat Charlie Fuerza Aérea de
Chile; Imagen de 27 Junio de 2014; e Imágenes de 28 de Marzo de 2015.

Franks, D. M., Boger, D. V., Cote, C. M., and Mulligan, D. R. (2011). Sustainable Development Principles for the
Disposal of Mining and Mineral Processing Waste. Resources Policy, Elsevier, Ltd.

Gecamin Procemin Conference 2013, image obtained from http://gecamin.com/procemin/2013/espanol/

15
Hughes, D. J. et al. (2015). Ecological impacts of large-scale disposal of mining waste in the deep sea. Sci. Rep.
5, 9985; doi: 10.1038/srep09985.

IMO (1996). London Convention and Protocol. Available online: http://www.imo.org/ (accessed on 29 June
2015).

Koski, R.A. 2012. Metal dispersion resulting from mining activities in coastal environments: A pathways
approach. Oceanography 25(2):pp. 170–183.

Leff, E. (2000). Pensar la complejidad ambiental. En: La Complejidad ambiental. México, Siglo xxi y Programa
de Naciones Unidas para el medio ambiente. 314 pp.

Maltese, L (2014). Chañaral‘s agonising last breath. Ecology Journal published by Ocean 71 Magazine, May,
2014.

Morín, E. (2004). Introducción al Pensamiento Complejo. ISBN 978-84-7762-765-4 México, D. F.: Editorial
Gedisa.

Reichelt-Brushett, A. 2012. Risk assessment and ecotoxicology limitations and recommendations for ocean
disposal of mine waste in the Coral Triangle. Oceanography.

Spitz, K., and Trudinger, J. (2008). Book: Mining and the Environment: from ore to metal; London, Editors:
Taylor & Francis; 2008.

Verdugo, R., Sitar, N., Frost, J. D., Bray, J. D., Candia, G., Eldridge, T., Hashash, Y., Olson, S. M., and Urzua, A.
(2012). Seismic Performance of Earth Structures during the February 2010 Maule, Chile, Earthquake:
Dams, Leeves, Tailings Dams, and Retaining Walls. Published at Earthquake Spectra – Professional
Journal of The Earthquake Engineering Research Institute, June, 2012, Vol. 28, N° S1, pp. S75-S96.

Verdugo, R. (2011). Seismic performance of slopes and earth and tailings dams (2010 Maule Earthquake). In
Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering (5-
ICEGE), Santiago de Chile, 10–13 January 2011.

Vergara, A. (2011). "Cuando el río suena, piedras trae": Relaves de cobre en la bahía de Chañaral, 1938-1990.
Cuadernos de Historia, Universidad de Chile. 2011, N° 35, p. 135-151. ISBN 0719-1243.

Villavicencio, G., Espinace, R., Palma, J., Fourie, A., and Valenzuela, P. (2013). Failures of sand tailings dams in
a highly seismic country. Article published at: www.nrcresearchpress.com/cgj In NRC Research Press,
Canadian Geotechnical Journal, A Division of Canadian Science Publishing, 21 December 2013.

Weeks, B., (2015). Mine closure in Chile – Challenges and changes. Publication on chapter Waste Geotechnics,
Journal Geotechnical News, March, 2015.

Yohannessen, K., Alvarado, S., Mesías, S., Klarián, J., Silva, C., Vidal, D. and Cáceres, D.D. (2015) Exposure to
Fine Particles by Mine Tailing and Lung Function Effects in a Panel of Schoolchildren, Chañaral,
Chile. Journal of Environmental Protection, 6, 118-128.

16
Polymer Assessment for Dewatering and Filtration of
Nickel Ore Tailings
Tatiana Gadelha1 and Silvia França2
1. Centre for Mineral Technology, Brazil
2. Centre for Mineral Technology, Brazil

ABSTRACT
The increasingly constant presence of fine particulate material in mineral processing tailings
becomes a great challenge for the efficiency of solid-liquid separation processes, as well as the
possibility of process water recovery. The difficulty of natural sedimentation of these particles
requires continuous improvement of agglomeration processes, dewatering (thickening and
filtering) and production of wastes with higher solids percentages. Thus, this study aims to
evaluate the performance of two commercial flocculant polymers (Rheomax and Zetag) in
dewatering of a waste from nickel sulphide ore processing plant. Pulps were studied with solids
concentrations of 10%, 15% and 23% and flocculant polymers were used in dosages of 100 and 200
g/t. The flocculation and sedimentation tests were performed on a jar testequipment and the
filtration tests were conducted on the Filtratest™ equipment. The process efficiency was measured by
turbidity of the supernatant liquid, settling rate, filtration rate and the final cake moisture content.
The results showed that the use of flocculant polymers Zetag and Rheomax promoted on nickel
tailings efficient solid-liquid separation with high sedimentation rates, and decreased turbidity of
the supernatant liquid, with values below 40 NTU. It was observed that the flocculant Rheomax
promoted greater particle sedimentation rates. The study of nickel ore tailings filtration, for
flocculated and unflocculated pulps, showed that an increase in solids concentration promotes the
increase in the filtration rate and in the final cake moisture; the increase in flocculant dosage
contributes in reducing the filtration rate, but increases the final moisture content in the cake. It was
also verified that the increase in flocculant dosage reduces the filtration resistance and an increase
in solids concentration in the slurry increases the specific resistance of the cake.

1
INTRODUCTION
The mineral processing has required mineral liberation increasingly fine, leading in technological
challenges for the various stages of processing, in particular for solid-liquid separation operations
(filtering and thickening). These fine particles, when in aqueous suspension, require long times of
natural settling lingering the reuse of process water, as well as the reuse of secondary products
present in the waste. As a result, there is the accumulation of large volumes of mineral waste,
contributing to the growth of environmental problems related to its disposal.
The fine particles aggregation is largely used in solid-liquid separation processes and can be
performed using reagents such as coagulants or polymers flocculants, enabling adhesion of a
particle directly to another, giving rise to the floc structure.The particle aggregation will be helpful
in thickening and filtration processes, leading to the water reuse and solids reprocessing.
The filters can operate by gravity, centrifugal force, or through the application of pressure or
vacuum. In the industrythe most commonly used filters operating by pressure or vacuum. The
Figure 1 shows the steps of a cake formation process in a pressure filtering operation.

Figure 1 The cake formation steps

In the Figure 1, in t = 0, the pulp comes into contact with filter cloth and is subjected to P. In t1
starts the flow of water through the filter, beginning of cake formation stage. When t = t1, the water
film on the cake surface disappears and water remains only in the voids among the aggregate
particles.
The filtration process continues until t2 (dewatering stage), reaching maximal packing of particles
and water removal, related to the cake moisture reduction. When there is no free water into the
pores of the particles occurs to discharge air through the pores.
During filtration, the filtrate flow depends on the pressure difference on the filter and cake
resistance. Thefiltrate volumetric flow rate can be described by Equation1:

2
 t  w  Rm
 V (1)
V 2PA 2
PA

Where Vis the volume of the filtrate (m3), t filtration time (s), A the filter area (m2), P the pressure
drop (Pa), µthe viscosity of filtrate (Pa.s),  the specific cake resistance to filtration(m/kg), w the
fractional solids content per unit volume of liquid (kg/m3) e Rm, the specific resistance of the filter
cake.
The plot (t/V) versus V (Equation 1) generates a straightline, where a gives the slope and b gives the
intercept from the plot t/V versus V. Then, the Equation 1 can be rewritten as Equation 2:

, with a e b given by the Equations 3 and 4, represented respectively by

 
and

The specific resistance of the filter cake () is a measure of the resistance to the cake formation,
being a parameter that evaluates the filtration rate, and therefore, it is a measure of the filterability.
The higher the resistance, the lower the filterability. It is believed that the specific resistance is
inversely proportional to the permeability of the filter cake (Wakeman, 2007).
Thus, this study aims to evaluate the unit operations involved in the dewatering of nickel waste,
aiming to the production of mineral concentrates with high solids content and process water
recovery. For this, it is intended to i) evaluate the performance of two commercial flocculant
polymers - Rheomax 9050 and Zetag 7565, through sedimentation rate and turbidity of the
supernatant liquid; ii) investigate the dependence between the solid concentration and the dosage
of flocculants in the variables sedimentation velocity and turbidity of the supernatant; iii) study the
filtration of the thickened slurry, correlating the influence of flocculant polymers dosage and
concentration of solids in the filtration rate, cake moisture and specific cake resistance.

METHODOLOGY
A sample of nickel waste from a mineral processing plant was used; with a particle size d50 = 10µm.
Slurries were prepared with solids contents ranging between 2 e 23% (w/v).
The commercial flocculants studied were Zetag® 7565 (cationic polymer) and Rheomax® 9050
(anionic polymer), both manufactured by BASF, which were used as polymeric solutions of0.5 g/L,
in the dosage of 100 and 200 g/t.

3
Sedimentation tests

Sedimentation tests were performed on the jar test equipment, with previously prepared pulp
added to the equipment. After agitation time (3 minutes at 300 rpm), the flocculant was added to
the pulp in natural pH of 6.8. Then the pulp was conditioned for 1 minute at 300 rpm and 2 minutes
at 150 rpm, totaling 3 minutes of mixing, to allow contact among particles and reagent, promoting
the growth of the flocs. After this period, the jar test equipment was turned off and immediately
powered timer for measuring the time variation of the solid-liquid interface as a function of settling
time, allowing the calculation of the sedimentation rate, used as an indirect measure of flocculation
efficiency (Hogg, 2000). The Figure 2 shows the methodology used in this study stage.

Figure 2 Methodology used in the study of flocculation settling rate

Determination of turbidity of the supernatant and filtering test

Turbidity
Turbidity is a physical parameter commonly used to quantify the solids removal efficiency of a
liquid effluent. Based on the Brazilian Resolution CONAMA 357/2005, the maximum admissible
limit is 100 NTU.

At the end of the sedimentation tests, an aliquot of the supernatant liquid was collected from each
experiment and submitted to turbidity assays. The measurements were performed on portable
turbidimeter Hach model 2100P, and compared to reference standards.

Filtration
After sedimentation test, the supernatant liquid was siphoned concentrating the sediment to 50%
(w/v). Then, the sediment was submitted to additional agitation (shear) into the jar test for 1 minute
at 250 rpm, aiming to release the trapped water in the structure of the flocs before filtering.
The filtration tests were performed at Filtratest® equipment (BOKELA) with a filtration area of 19.63
cm2.
It was used a filter cloth of polypropylene multifilament thread, with air permeability 1,5-5
m3/min/m2;the pressure drop used was 2 bar. For all tests, the time of dewatering cake (t 2) was 8
seconds. Ended the experiment, the filter cake was dried in an oven at 100±5 °C to a constant weight
for moisture content determination.With the mass of filtered liquid as a function of filtration time

4
and assuming that the filter cake is incompressible, can be calculated the specific resistance of the
cake, from the slope of t/V against V. In this step, only slurries with 10, 15 e 23% solids
concentration (w/v) were filtered, because the slurries with lower solids concentration have
insufficient amount of solids to form the cake with considerable thickness.
The Figure 3shows a schematic flow diagram illustrating the methodology used at this step.

Figure 3 Methodology used in the filtration process of thickened slurry

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Turbidity

The results of the supernatant turbidity analysis are showed inTable1.It is possible to observe that
the use of higher dosage of flocculant provides the supernatant lower turbidity. For the dosage of
100g/t, at 10 and 15% solids concentrations, the Rheomax 9050 promoted a greater reduction in
turbidity than Zetag 7565. However, for the pulp with 23% solids, the Zetag 7565 performed better
than the Rheomax 9050.

Table1 Turbidity of the clarified liquid (after sedimentation)

Turbidity (NTU)
Solids Content
Dosage: 100g/t Dosage: 200g/t
(%)
Zetag 7565 Rheomax 9050 Zetag 7565 Rheomax 9050
10 5.67 4.37 1.32 3.21
15 9.77 5.64 2.05 1.88
23 6.30 17.8 2.90 2.81

Comparing the performance of the polymer flocculant at a dosage of 200 g/t, it is possible to verify
that to the pulp with 10% solids Zetag 7565 promoted a greater reduction of turbidity. Tothe15
and23% solids concentration (w/v), the behaviour of both flocculants was similar. It is remarkable

5
that for the cases analyzed, the turbidity of the supernatant remains below 40NTU, given to the
Brazilian environmental resolution (CONAMA357/ 2005).

Sedimentation Rates
The Figure 4 bshows the relationship between the sedimentation velocity and the solids
concentration for the flocculated pulp with polymers tested, at dosages of 100and 200 g/t,
respectively.
It is possible to observe that the settling velocity, in both dosages analyzed, is greater for the flocs
formed by flocculating Zetag7565, compared to floc formed withRheomax9050. Moreover, it is
noted that the concentration of solids in slurry promotes a reduction in floc sedimentation rate. It is
also notable that the increase in flocculant dosages significantly increases their sedimentation rate.
The graphs also show the sedimentation rate of the natural slurry (without flocculant) where it is
evident the importance of using the reagents in the aggregation of the particles, allowing a
significant increase in sedimentation velocity.

Dosage 200 g/t

Dosage 100 g/t -2
1,20x10 Rheomax 9050
-3
8,0x10 Rheomax 9050
Zetag 7565
Zetag 7565 -2
1,05x10
-3 Slurry not flocculated
7,0x10 Slurry not flocculated
Settling Rate (m/s)

-3
Settling Rate (m/s)

-3 9,00x10
6,0x10
-3
-3 7,50x10
5,0x10
-3
-3 6,00x10
4,0x10
-3
-3
3,0x10 4,50x10
-3
-3
2,0x10 3,00x10
-3 -3
1,0x10 1,50x10

0,0 0,00

0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
Solids Concentration (%) Solids Concentration (%)
(a) (b)
Figure 4 Settling velocity versus solids concentration using Rheomax 9050 e Zetag 7565: (a) 100 g/t (b) 200 g/t

Filtration Tests

The Figure 5 (a), (b), (c) e (d) show the filtration rate as function of filtrate volume for pulps
flocculated with Rheomax 9050 and Zetag 7565, at dosages of 100 and 200 g/t, respectively.

It is observed in Figure 5that is possible to split the filtering into three regions, as described in
Figure 1and in XU (2008): (i) the start of filtration, where there is passing a large volume of water in
a short period of time; (ii) linear rate increase t/V as V function; (iii) after the disappearance of the
water film on the cake surface, there is a rapid reduction in the ratio t/V, showing the beginning of
the dewatering cake, with the discharge of air through the pores cake.

6
For the studied flocculants is possible to observe (Figure 5) in step (ii), that the ratio t/V increases
with increasing filtrate volume, meaning that the higher the filtration period, the smaller the
volume of water passing through the filter.

It is noticeable that increasing the solids concentration promotes the increase of t/V. At a dosage of
200 g/t this relationship is most visible. It is also noticeable in Figure 5 the increase in flocculant
dosage causes a reduction of term t/V. Thus, it can be noticedthat the increase in flocculant dosage
reduces the filtration time sediment.

1200 10% (w/v)

15% (w/v) 1200 10% (w/v)
23% (w/v) 15% (w/v)
1100
1100 23% (w/v)
1000
1000
t/V (s/m )
3

900

t/V (s/m )
900

3
800
800
700 700

600 600
0,00 0,01 0,02 0,03 0,04 0,05 0,00 0,01 0,02 0,03 0,04 0,05
3
V (m ) 3
V (m )
(a) (b)

10% (w/v)
10% (w/v) 15% (w/v)
1000 15% (w/v) 1000 23% (w/v)
23% (w/v)
900 900

800 800
t/V (s/m )

t/V (s/m )
3

700 700

600 600

500 500

400 400
0,01 0,02 0,03 0,04 0,05 0,00 0,01 0,02 0,03 0,04 0,05
3 3
V (m ) V (m )

(c) (d)
Figure 5 t/V versus V to: (a) Rheomax 9050 (100 g/t); (b) Zetag 7565 (100 g/t); (c) Rheomax 9050 (200 g/t); (d)
Zetag 7565 (200 g/t)

The Figure 6 shows the relationship between the solids concentration of the flocculated pulp and
flocculant dosage in the specific resistance of the cake.

7
 4
5x10

4 Dosage 100 g/t

4x10 Zetag 100 g/t
Rheo 9050 100g/t

 (m/Kg)
4
3x10 Dosage 200 g/t
Zetag 200 g/t
Rheo 9050 200g/t
4
2x10

4
1x10
8 12 16 20 24
Solids concentration (%)

Figure 6 Effect of solids concentration and flocculant dosage in the specific resistance of the cake

The analysis of Figure 6 shows that the higher the concentration of solids in flocculated slurry
greater resistance to filtration. This fact is most significant in the pulps flocculated with Zetag 7565
and Rheomax 9050 in 200 and 100 g/t dosages, respectively. You can also check that the increase in
flocculant polymer dosage causes significant reduction in the specific resistance of the cake.
The Figure 7 shows the relationship between the cake moisture and solids concentration for
floculantes Rheomax 9050 and Zetag 7565 at both dosages evaluated.

Dosage 100 g/t Dosage 200 g/t

Rheomax 9050 Rheomax 9050
Zetag 7565 Zetag 7565
28,0 29,0

28,5
27,5
28,0
Moisture (%)
Moisture (%)

27,0 27,5

27,0
26,5

26,5
26,0
26,0

25,5 25,5
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Solids Content (%) Solids Content (%)

Figure 7 Solids concentration as a function of the final cake moisture

In the Figure 7 it is observed the increase in cake moisture with increasing solids concentration; the
final cake moisture had greater influence of flocculant dosage, for use 200 g/t did significantly
increase the moisture of the cake. This observation may be explained by the fact that the increase in
flocculant dosage increases the amount of water trapped inside the floc structure.

8
CONCLUSION
In the present study was observed that the use of Zetag 7565 and Rheomax 9050flocculant polymers
promoted in the nickel tailings efficient solid-liquid separation, with high sedimentation rates and
reduced turbidity of the supernatant liquid, with values below 40 NTU.
The sedimentation rate results showed that the use of flocculant polymer is extremely important to
reduce the sedimentation time. Results also showed that the dosage of flocculant significantly
influences the sedimentation velocity. Thus, for the dosages of 100 and 200 g/t, the results suggest
the following order of sedimentation velocity for the analyzed floccuants: Zetag 7565> Rheomax
9050>unflocculated slurry.
The study of filtration of the nickel tailings showed that an increase in solids concentration
promotes the increase in the filtration rate and the final cake moisture, and the increase in flocculant
dose contributes in reducing the filtration rate, but increases their final moisture content. It was
verified that the increase in flocculant dose reduces the filtration resistance and increase in solids
concentration in the slurry increases the specific resistance of the cake.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The study was funded by CNPq (The National Council of Research – Brazil) through the
Programme PCI/CETEM/MCTI.

REFERENCES
CONAMA - Conselho Nacional do Meio Ambiente. Resolução n° 357/05. Estabelece a classificação
das águas doces, salobras e salinas do Território Nacional. Brasília, SEMA, 2005.
HOGG, R (2000). Flocculation and dewatering.In International Journal of Mineral Processing.Vol.
58, p. 223–236.
OLIVEIRA, M.L.M.; LUZ, J.A.M.; LACERDA, C.M.M. (2004). Espessamento e filtragem.
Universidade Federal de Ouro Preto. Ouro Preto, Brasil, p. 4-42.
QI, Y., THAPA, Khagendra B., HOADLEY, Andrew F.A. (2011). Application of filtration aids for
improving sludge dewatering properties –A review. Chemical Engineering Journal, Vol.
58, p.373 - 384.
WAKEMAN, R., 2007. The influence of particle properties on filtration.Separation and
Purification Technology, Vol. 58, p.234–241.
WANG, C., HARBOTTLE, D., et al (2014). Current state of fine mineral tailings treatment: A
critical review on theory and practice. In Minerals Engineering, Vol. 58,p. 113–131.
XU, Yuming; DABROSA, Tadek; KAN, Jianmin.Filterability of oil sands tailings. Process Safety
and Environment Protection, 2008. Vol. 86, p. 268 – 276.

9
 C HAP T E R 6

LEGAL FRAMEWORK
AND SOCIAL
ENVIRONMENTAL
ISSUES
Implementation of the Mine Closure Law in Chile:
Learned Lessons and Opportunities
Eduardo Sanzana1, Jorge Campos2 and Andrés Lopez3
1. Codelco Chile
2. Minería y Medioambiente Consulting, Chile
3. SRK Consulting, Chile

ABSTRACT
The promulgation and the entry into force of the Law Nº 20.551 that regulates the closure of mining
operations and its facilities, through the Supreme Decree Nº 41, on November 2012, has been one of
the most relevant regulatory changes in the last few years for the mining industry in Chile.
In summary, the new Law has three fundamental pillars: the obligation to submit for the approval
of the authorities a closure plan that guarantees the physical and chemical stability of the mining
facilities after finishing their operations; the requirement to provide the State with a financial
guarantee equal to the value of the implementation of the closure measures and works; and the
establishment of a post-closure fund.
In addition, the Law gives more attributions to the corresponding Authority (SERNAGEOMIN,
part of the Chilean Mining Ministry) to establish audits and apply rigorous sanctions to those non-
compliant mining companies.
The Law was successfully implemented through a collaborative public-private strategy, and the
result was the presentation in time of the mine closure plans by 90% of the industry, with closure
cost gradually guaranteed from 2015, for an amount superior to MUS$ 12.000.
This article presents a vision of the main lessons learned from the process of the implementation of
the Law during its key installation stage (2012-2014), from the perspective of a world class mining
company and its mine closure consultant experts; as well as improvement opportunities and
challenges that the mining industry will face with this new Law within the next years..

1
INTRODUCTION
Sustainability is recognized more and more as an essential concept to the viability of businesses in
the long run. In line with this tendency, environmental regulations and regulatory requirements
have increased in Chile. New legal bodies, a reformation of the environmental institutionalism and
the restructuring of supervising agencies have all formed part of this process. The creation of the
Superintendence of the Environment, the Environmental Evaluation Service and Environmental
Courts in recent years are examples of this.
One of the relevant legal changes in the mining industry in Chile in the last few years is the
enactment of the Law N° 20.551 (Ministerio de Minería de Chile, 2011) (hereafter “the Law”), that
regulates the closure of mining operations and its facilities, and its regulation, Supreme Decree N°
41 (Ministerio de Minería de Chile, 2012), valid as of November 2012.
This new legislation radically increased the requirements in this field, and its implementation
signified an important challenge for the actors in the mining industry: the Authority, in this case the
National Geology and Mining Service (hereafter “SERNAGEOMIN”), mining companies and
consultants.
In order to facilitate its implementation, the Law conceded a period of two years (called a
“transitional period”), so that mining companies would value its closure plan, incorporating also
the commitments of closure acquired in other instruments, and delivering a financial guarantee to
the State.
This article has as its objective the documentation and sharing of a vision of the principal lessons
learned in the key stage of implementation of the Law N° 20.551 (November 2012 – November
2014), from the perspective of a world-class mining company such as Codelco, and it’s expert
consultants, to identify opportunities for improvements and challenges that the mining industry in
Chile or other countries could face in the next years within this field.

BACKGROUND OF THE MINE CLOSURE LAW IN CHILE

Mining has been one of the main drivers of the Chilean economy in the 20 th Century, representing
only during the last decade 59% of exports of the country, 15% of gross national product and has
generated 20% of tax collection (Cochilco, 2013).
Modern mining history of Chile is more than a century old (El Teniente 1904, Chuquicamata 1915,
Salitre 1884, Carbón 1852). However, this long development hasn’t always been harmonious,
finding itself with shortfalls in areas such as the environment, community relation, the
management of water, as in the closure and legend that the mining companies leave once they
finalize their operations (Sanzana, Weeks & Fernandez, 2015).
Throughout this time numerous mines, in distinct points of the national territory, were abandoned
without having had an adequate closure process, principally gold, copper, silver, polymetallic, coal
and iron mines, whose processes of exploitation and benefit have left installations that represent a
potentially significant risk for the security and health of people and the environment (Golder
Associates, 2008).
During the first decade of the 21st Century, SERNAGEOMIN conducted a registry of abandoned
and paralyzed mines which allowed for the identification of 461 environmental liabilities caused by
the abandonment of mining ventures within the country (SERNAGEOMIN, 2015). This reality,

2
among other causes, motivated the development of a Mine Closure Law in Chile, which took
approximately 20 years: in 1994 the Environmental Impact Evaluation System (SEIA) came into
effect, which required that the closure phase be handled by new mining projects. The next
important step came in the year 2004 with the publication of the new Mining Security Regulation
(DS N º 132), which established for the first time the obligation of all mines in operation and new
mines to present a closure plan to SERNAGEOMIN that focused on physical stability and security
of persons (Sanzana, Weeks & Fernandez, 2015).
Finally, in November of 2012, the Law Nº 20.551 came into effect which regulated the closure of
mining operations and its facilities. It purpose is the prevention of the future generation of
abandoned sites through the establishment of a guarantee sufficient enough to execute closure by
the State, before a mine operator failure in their closure plan, in addition to drastically increasing
the role of the Authority in this field. This new regulatory body within the industry requires, in
synthesis, that the closure of mining operations and its facilities must be conducted during the
useful lifespan of the ore deposits, impose payment of guarantees, and constitute a post-closure
fund.

CODELCO´S STRATEGY IN THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE LAW

CODELCO, the National Copper Corporation of Chile, is a 100% State-owned enterprise. With its 8
mining operations (Chuquicamata, Radomiro Tomic, Ministro Hales, Gabriela Mistral, El Salvador,
Ventanas, Andina and El Teniente) is it the largest individual producer of mined copper in the
world, 1,671,672 tons in 2014 (Codelco, 2014), and owner of approximately 10% of the known
copper reserves in the world.
However, its State property is monitored and reported using the same standards as a private
company, complying with the same legal obligations as the rest of the mining industry. Since the
publication of the Law, the Authority showed a willingness to implement it in an environment of
agreement and collaboration with the industry actors. Before this, Codelco’s strategy was the active
participation in the process of implementation of the Law, in all instances in which it was
requested, conscious of its role because its size and the characteristics of a State-owned company.
In 2013 Codelco started a program led centrally, to conduct all of its operations and projects, in
plain compliance with the Law, within the established period (November of 2014). For this
objective, a corporative authority was established, the management of projects and the
methodology of execution were defined, a simple but strict plan with realistic milestones, was
established, and finally the establishment of a demanding goal that is able to be fulfilled, to deliver
all their closure plans within the legal timeframe, while simultaneously developing a competitive
bidding process to elect a suitable consultant, ultimately awarding it to Golder Associates.
In relation to the numbers, the eight closure plans of Codelco represented 6% of the total number of
closure plans presented to SERNAGEOMIN. However, its total value was US$ 5.377 million, which
represented 44% of the closure costs of the mining industry in Chile, and additionally, two of its
mines (El Teniente and Chuquicamata), are among the ranking of the 5 most costly closures in
Chile.
In general terms, the implementation of the Mine Closure Law in Chile can be considered
successful from the point of view of the presentation of the closure plans, such that in a lapse of 2
years (2012-2014), 140 companies presented plans, which represented 90% of the expected closure

3
plans by SERNAGEOMIN in the transitional period of the implementation of the Law, whose joint
value added up to US$ 12.238 million (Revista Minería Chilena, 2014).

COLLABORATIVE PUBLIC-PRIVATE ACITIVITES DURING THE

IMPLEMENTATION PROCESS OF THE LAW
One of the characteristics of the process of implementation of the Law that permitted the
acquisition of these results was SERNAGEOMIN’s generation of a series of collaborative activities
with the goal of involving and guiding the private sector. Next, the main activities developed
during the process and an evaluation of results is presented.
 Production of Guidelines as support document: SERNAGEOMIN promoted, under its supervision,
the emission of public guidelines. At first, SERNAGEOMIN proposed the development, with
the support of distinct consultants, of a total of nine guidelines, that were classified in the
following way (see Figure 1):

Figure 1 SERNAGEOMIN Guidelines for the closure of mining sites (source: SERNAGEOMIN)

This activity provided important benefits in the industry upon setting and standardizing the
structure as the methodology of the closure plan, such as knowing the presentation and the
technical criteria with which the Authority will conduct this review:
 Diffusion of the Law through workshops and seminars: SERNAGEOMIN organized several diffusion
workshops and seminars about the Law and its application. Although in general terms these
instances allowed for the clarification of doubts from the mining companies, in some occasions
they introduced space for confusion among those being regulated.
 Cabinet inspections: During the year 2014, SERNAGEOMIN carried out an inspection of the
closure plans of all mining companies within the country. This activity was called “cabinet
inspection” by the Authority, and its purpose was to detect eventual inconsistencies between

4
 the applicable closure plan and the current conditions of the mining operations, in addition to
the environmental commitments related to the closure phase within it. Although the objective
of these inspections appeared laudable, and the inspection activities are found within the
powers of SERNAGEOMIN, it doesn’t seem more convenient to carry out an inspection during
the implementation process of a new law, so, in addition to the cost of resources for the
Authority and those being regulated, it caused confusion and distraction from the main
objective which was the preparation of the Closure Plan. Additionally, an inspection isn’t an
appropriate instance for discussion of the criteria between the Authority and those being
regulated, or between members of both teams among themselves, which was observed in the
exercise.
 Technical consultant meetings: SERNAGEOMIN permitted and recommended the realization of
bilateral meetings with mining companies to resolve technical issues that arose during the
development of the closure plans. In general terms it can be described as a recommendable and
very useful activity. However, from the Chilean experience, it is possible to point out the
difficulty that this activity caused, in that, in intending to resolve each specific case privately,
the risk was run of operating on a case-by-case basis which can result in an arbitrary conduct.
 Review of pilot Plans: This initiative pledged an early and unofficial evaluation of the closure
plans by SERNAGEOMIN, with the purpose of creating security of the mining company in the
moment of the presentation of the definitive closure plans. Codelco presented two pilot plans
during this process. However, the positive results of its preliminary evaluations weren’t
binding with respect to the definitive presentation, ultimately receiving many background
observations that weren’t made in the pilot plans.

Next, in Table 1, a summary of the collaborative exercises mentioned, and their evaluations by the
authors of this article, is presented.

Table 1 Evaluation of collaborative activities

# Activity Activity evaluation Recommendation

Distribution of support Make guides public, and ideally

1 POSITIVE
guides with deadlines indicated

Always communicate consistent

2 Diffusion workshop POSITIVE criteria and maintain specialized
rapporteurs for topics

Introduces confusion among the

Inspections during the
3 NEGATIVE actors and diverts resources from
process
the main objective

Technical Consultant Answers must be consistent and

4 IMPROVABLE
Meetings binding

Observations of the lack thereof

5 Revisión de planes pilotos IMPROVABLE
must be binding.

5
LEARNED LESSONS
The implementation of a new law produces learnings and opportunities for improvements much
for the Authority as for those being regulated. In the case of the new Mine Closure Law in Chile, in
the key period of its implementation, between 2012-2014, the following lessons can be identified:

Institutional
 Relying on a modern mine closure legislation: the coming into effect of the Law Nº 20.551 in
November of 2012 about the mine closure has established a stage normally forgotten or not
treated adequately as a part of the lifecycle of a mining operation. The closure constitutes a
stage of the mining cycle in which the true commitment to sustainability of a company is put to
the test, because it is necessary to cover important projects in a period of minor or nonexistent
cash flows.
 Implementation in collaborative environment and jointly with the industry: the collaborative
implementation of a law will always be positive from the point of view of the industry that is
regulated. However, the participative model bears an important risk for the authority, being
that it must combine two things: the acceptance of criteria put forth by the industry in such a
way that the respondents don’t feel that their participation is symbolic, and at the same time
while not losing the key aspects of a law as products of an excesses of consensus.
 Maintaining key authorities throughout the implementation process: the Law came into effect in
November of 2012 and its first relevant benchmark of compliance was set for November 2014.
In March of 2014, a change of Government took place in Chile, which resulted in a change of
authorities and technicians from those that had initiated the process. As is natural, new
authorities carried the risk of modifying criteria that was previously agreed upon.
 Clarity of roles and uniform criteria among central, zonal, and regional authorities: cabinet inspections
carried out in the mines during the Law’s implementation period revealed the existence of
discrepancies in criteria and competencies among central and regional authorities, which are
recommended to be resolved previously and internally by the Authority.
 Early identification and non-casuistic resolution of controversial points: controversial points with
reference to key aspects such as the determination of the life of mine were identified late, when
many of the definitive closure plans had already been presented, which will be explained in
more detail further in opportunities for improvement.

Instrumental
On an instrumental and operational level, the relevant learned lessons from the point of view of the
Authority are:
 Convergent and not divergent review: Codelco received 140 observations in the first round of
queries, 40 observations in the second round, and finally six observations in the third round. If
the reviews of the closure plans were numerically convergent, it wasn’t as such at the root of
the observations, being that queries arose in the second and third rounds that weren’t observed
in the first round, which were then understood as accepted.
The recommendation is to follow the model of the of the Chilean Environmental Evaluation
System (SEA), in that the reviews are convergent in content, which is to say, the parts

6
 understand that what isn’t observed is accepted, and in this way obtain a progressive, objective
review as much for the mining operator as for the Authority.
 Uniform criteria in the revision: Observations of transversal character existed, which were only
realized in some Divisions and not in others (i.e. the percentage of contingencies), which
demonstrated a lack of uniformity among distinct reviewers.
 Complying with legal timeframes of queries and approval: As the timeframes impact the constitution
of the first quota of the guarantee, the Authority should balance the relevance of certain
technical accuracies versus the opportunity to take advantage of closure plans and in this way
achieve the beginning of the real constitution of the guarantees, which definitively is the goal of
the implementation of the Law. The aforementioned, especially taking into account the closure
plans and their costs, will be updated in several opportunities before the effective closure.
In the case of Codelco, more than 183 of the observations received raised the global cost of
guarantees approximately 6%, versus a rise in the timeframes of approval by more than 40%.

From the Industry

Although the case of Coldelco is particular due to its complexity, size and long-standing nature,
there are key structural factors that permitted for the compliance with the Chilean Mine Closure
Law, and that can be extrapolated or adapted to other cases:
 Will of compliance: The Executive President formally ordered to the corporation that it comply
with the contents and timeframes of the Law.
 Temporary involvement and informed participation: Codelco participated in all instances of the
Law´s management, and actively collaborated in its implementation.
 High-level leadership: Since the beginning one corporative authority was established for
compliance with the Law, which reported to a committee of Vice-presidents and acted through
Delegate of Mine Closure in all operative mines.
 Early planning: A demanding but feasible schedule was established from the beginning, which
didn’t suffer important alterations during the two years of the development of the closure
plans.
 Election and supervision of the consultant: A competitive bidding process was developed, and
coordination and permanent supervision was maintained and kept very close to the
consultant’s team.
In relation to industry deficiencies in the implementation of the Law, those most often reported by
SERNAGEOMIN (Morales, 2015) in an operative plan are the following:
 Incorrect application or a lack of consideration of the Guidelines.
 Lack of rigorousness in the identification of the closure commitments.
 Excess of “global” costs, which is to say, without detail or justification.
 Excess of copy, lack of supervision, and involvement with consultants.
In this last point, it should be noted that the unsuccessful situations of the presentation of closure
plans were related to an incorrect selection of consultants. Some mining companies contracted the
services of consultants with a single line of work (i.e. just environment), which resulted in
difficulties due to the multidisciplinary nature of mine closure.

7
Next, in Table 2, a summary and classification of the most important learnings of the Authority and
the industry during the key period of implementation of the Chilean Mine Closure Law is
presented.

Table 2 Learning of the process by the Authority and by the Industry (2012-2014)

Type of learning Authority Industry

 Existence of the Law

 Collaborative implementation  Willingness to comply
 Maintain criteria and key  Early involvement
authorities  High-level leadership
STRUCTURAL  Clarity of internal roles  Early planning
LEARNINGS  Early identification of  Informed participation
controversies and non-
causistic resolution

 Key, on-time guidelines  Application of the Guidelines

 Consistency in talks and  Rigorousness in the
INSTRUMENTAL seminars identification of commitments
LEARNINGS  Convergent review  Appropriate selection of
 Compliance with time consultants and involvement
constraints with them
 Avoid “global” costs

OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES

Even though the general results of the process were positive, important opportunities for
improvement exist, as much for the Authority as for the industry. In the case of the Authority, 2 key
points for improvement were identified: the clarification of the role of the “Competent Person” in
the determination of the life of mine, and aspects of the closure costs with a clear definition still
pending.

Determination of the life of mine

The industry understands that “Competent Person”, who in Chile certify resources and mine
reserves under the Law 20.235 (Ministerio de Minería de Chile, 2007), are people who are legally
authorized to certify the life of mine under the text of the Mine Closure Law.
SERNAGEOMIN considers that these persons just can certify reserves, and that it is necessary to
use the extraction rate of the mineral in order to determine the life of mine (Morales, 2015). This rate
is obtained from the last method of exploitation that is approved in the mining operation. In other
cases, it intended to enforce environmental resolutions or other sectorial permissions as the valid
life of mine. These are interpretations that intend to eliminate legal inconsistencies among permits
granted by these or other authorities, but in a narrow sense, it is unrelated to the real life of mine in

8
the moment of preparation of a closure plan, which is precisely what the legislator wanted to
safeguard with the report of the “Competent Person”.
The lack of consistency in the mining operations closure date among different authorizations
granted by SERNAGEOMIN or among these, and those granted by other authorities, can’t be used
in the closure plans on behalf of the Authority, in order to arbitrarily estimate the life of mine,
enabling the prevalence of one permit over another, which isn’t considered in the Law.
This interpretation was reported late by the Authority, once the closure plans had been presented
through offices and within the approval period which entailed formal responses and within the
defined timeframes, with an important depletion of time and resources.

Closure plans costs

The opportunity of improvement in terms of closure plans costs can be found in 3 lines of action:
 Extensive use of the closure cost guideline: the closure cost guideline was developed and wasn’t
officially published. However, there were different workshops during the preparation that
permitted the understanding of its simplified methodology and its end goal of permitting a
primary evaluation to the regulator of the order of magnitude of the closure costs presented by
the mining company. Due to its relevance, it should have been used extensively to calculate the
long-term closure costs (i.e. when the closure will happen in >10 years), being that it would
permit a substantial saving of resources for operators, consultants, and for the inspecting
Authority. Additionally, it would allow for a standardization and comparison of closure costs
between mining operations, as well as an easy and fast approval process free of case-by-case
queries. Even when this type of guidance on a global level requires periodic updating, its
limitation, due to the fact that they seek to cover a wide spectrum of mining operations, is
related to the accuracy of calculation. However, this point isn’t so relevant for long-term
closures (>10 years), which is to say, for closure plans based on conceptual engineering, or those
with a margin of intrinsic error of costs greater than +/- 25%.
Once the transitional period is finalized, SERNAGEOMIN relies on an important database at
the national level to update this guideline, with information provided for the mining operations
in their closure plans.
 Tax matters: The industry objected to the application of the Value-Added Tax (IVA) of 19% to
closure plans. Finally, this additional cost was incorporated, at the express request of the
Authority, without conviction or clear basis of its relevance.
 Use of contingency: the technical definition of contingency refers to a percentage that is added to
the most indirect direct costs, that is determined according to the development of the
engineering that is presented. In no case is it used to cover unknown changed in the reach of
the closure due to its distance in time, as is understood by the Authority.

From the point of view of those being regulated, their principal challenges are found when
initiating the real mine closure each time that corresponds (in Chile there have been 2 or 3 relevant
closures before the Law’s existence), which requires a deepening of technical areas that were

9
resolved through assumptions in the transitional period of closure plans, because the Law in its
normal framework considers greater requirements, such as the existence of a risk assessment,
whose end is to define the closure measures most appropriate for each facility.
The risk assessment demands more detailed technical knowledge of the impacts that mining
residues will generate during closure and post-closure, and the ways to reduce them. For this,
mining companies will need to develop programs and specific studies that allow for the deeper
examination of aspects such as: potential for the production of acid rock drainage of its residues;
physical stability in the long-term in remainder facilities; cover designs; design of contact and non-
contact water management works; characterization and management of contaminated soils; and
management of hazardous and non-hazardous waste from plants demolition, among other
activities.
Finally, it should not be forgotten that compliance with the Law, states relation to the mine closure
from the point of view of works and dismantling required in guaranteeing physical and chemical
stability, as well as the security of the persons. However, one relevant and still very incipient task in
Chile is related to the comprehensive management of mine closure, such as for example the future
of its own workers, the fulfillment of voluntary commitments, the impact and the requirements of
surrounding communities, such as the business decisions relating to the future of their activities
and licenses, among other matters.

CONCLUSIONS
The Mine Closure Law in Chile, enacted in 2012, was well received by the industry and didn´t
receive important opposition, apart from the discussion about punctual technical issues.
It was successfully implemented through a collaborative public-private strategy, whose result was
the presentation of closure plans within a period of time for 90% of the industry with gradual
guaranteed closure costs as of 2015, for more than US$ 12 billion.
An analysis of the process detected lesson learned and opportunities for improvement for the
future. From the point of view of the regulator, the early detection and resolution of potentially
controversial issues, such as the importance of defining a clear, realistic plan that prioritizes the
objectives of the implementation of the Law and avoiding distracting activities, are fundamental.
From the point of view of those being regulated, the existence of strategic corporative definitions is
recommended, such as the early involvement in, and being informed about the Law, a reasonable
choice of consultant, and an active participation in the activities proposed by the Authority.
A large opportunity for improvement for mining in the future in this matter, beyond the
elaboration of closure plans and constitution of guarantees, that are only an instrument, will be
successfully complying with the implementation of mining closures, avoiding the legacy of
environmental liabilities for future generations, which mustn´t only circumscribe the closure plans
themselves, but also the future of their workers and the surrounding communities.
Ultimately, the Chilean Mine Closure Law signified an important advance for the country’s mining
industry. However, there is still a long way to go, being that the principal challenge of mining in
the 21st century consists of relying on the social acceptance of this economic activity. This will be

10
achieved through the repair and recuperation of abandoned mining sites; respecting the
environment and the surrounding communities in their current operations; and conducting a
responsible closure that leaves a valuable legacy for future generations.

REFERENCES
Comisión Chilena del Cobre (COCHILCO) (2013). Una mirada a la productividad del sector minero en Chile.
Ministerio de Minería, Gobierno de Chile.

Corporación Nacional del Cobre (2014). Memoria Anual 2014.

Decreto Supremo N°41/2012. Reglamento de la ley de cierre de faenas e instalaciones mineras. Ministerio de
Minería, Gobierno de Chile.

Golder Associates (2008). Manual de evaluación de riesgos de faenas mineras abandonadas o paralizadas
(FMA/P). Texto no publicado. BGR-Servicio Nacional de Geología y Minería, Gobierno de Chile.

Ley Nº 20.235 que regula la figura de las personas competentes. Ministerio de Minería. Gobierno de Chile.

Ley Nº 20.551 Regula el cierre de faenas e instalaciones mineras. Ministerio de Minería. República de Chile.

Morales, A. (2015). Lecciones aprendidas planes de cierre >10.000 tpm, ppt Sernageomin, Abril 2015

Morales, A. (2015). Análisis de informes personas competentes. Taller “estimación de vida útil para el cierre de
faenas mineras”. Abril 2015.

Revista Minería Chilena (2014), 24 de Noviembre de 2014.

Sanzana, E., Weeks, B., Fernandez, S. (2015). Closure planning for the largest copper producer in the world.
Mine Closure 2015 Conference, Vancouver, Canada.

Servicio Nacional de Geología y Minería (SERNAGEOMIN). www.sernageomin.cl.

11
The Challenges of Environmental Governance in
Peru: The Global Environmental Certification
Roger Merino
National Service of Environmental Certification for Sustainable Investments – SENACE, Peru

ABSTRACT

The National Service of Strategic Certification for Sustainable Investments (SENACE) was created
as a response to the social discontent and distrust on the processes of environmental certification,
what generated many socio-environmental conflicts that affected mining investments. SENACE’s
main function and challenge is to concentrate in one entity, the competences that are given to each
Ministry for the main purpose of standardizing the procedures of environmental impact evaluation.
In this context, it has been recently passed the Law 30327 that created the Global Environmental
Certification. The new Law establishes that SENACE has to include within the process of
environmental certification other environmental licenses enacted by other public entities, what
constitute an important challenge for the environmental public management since it entails a deep
multisectorial coordination and legal articulation. In this paper I will explain how SENACE is
designing and implementing the Global Environmental Certification with a strategy of
multisectoral coordination and how this implementation constitute at the same time a challenge for
improving the Environmental Governance in Peru and an opportunity for providing a public
service that ensures that environmental evaluation fulfills high quality standards in terms of
efficiency, technical analysis and independence.

1
INTRODUCTION

During the nineties, the Peruvian political economy and its policies of privatisation, reduction of
public expenditures, tax benefits for extractive industries, elimination of trade barriers, amongst
others, converted Peru in one of the most friendly-business countries in the world (Bury, 2005). At
the beginning of the 1990s, mining concessions occupied 2 million 300 thousands hectares, and by
2011 they occupied over 24 million, 19% of Peruvian territory (De Echave, 2011). Moreover,
between 1990 and 2007, Peru received US$12.35 billion in mining investments, being one of the
most important global exporters of silver, copper, zinc, lead, and gold (Bebbington and Bury, 2009).

Undoubtedly, the extractive industry has been relevant in the sustained economic growth of the
country, however, it also has been related to social costs. In 2007, the Peruvian Ombudsman’s office
recorded 78 social conflicts in the country, of which 37 were socio-environmental; by January 2014,
it recorded 213 social conflicts, of which 136 were socio-environmental (Ombudsman‟s Office,
2014). Many socio-environmental conflicts are related to important mining projects, such as the
cases of Rio Blanco in Piura (2004 – 2007) and Conga in Cajamarca (2011 – 2014).

Indeed, the other face of the great macroeconomic performance is inequality and social instability.
According to the official classical measurements, the poverty of rural households is 3.2 times more
than the poverty of urban areas (INEI, 2013). According to the Human Development Index, there is
a huge inequality within the country: the Lima’s score is more than the double of Huancavelica, the
poorest Andean region (UNDP, 2013). In addition, Peruvian spending in social programs is much
less than the Latin-American average (ECLAC, 2012); and only 17% of the people consider as “just”
the wealth distribution in the country, which is a percentage located under the average of Latin
American (25%) (Latinobarómetro, 2013). This is not surprise if it is estimated that 25 per cent of the
total population has not a proper access to water, and more than half lacks adequate health
attention and the quality of education is among the lowest in the hemisphere (Schmall, 2011). In
addition, in the last Environmental Performance Index (EPI), that measures environmental health
and ecosystem vitality, Peru is ranked as one of the worst countries in Latin America, only above
Paraguay, Haiti, Guyana and El Salvador (Yale University, 2014).

Social conflicts (as well as unreasonable bureaucratic procedures) affect the economic performance
of the country and the industries. It is estimated that these causes have delayed mining
investments for US$ 21.5 thousand millions since 2011, and that in the last 7 years the country has
lost US$ 67.2 thousand millions (National Institute of Economy, 2015).

Indeed, unorganized legal framework for citizen participation, lack of coordination among public
agencies and weak institutionality for environmental evaluation and monitoring, generates social
distrust and, therefore, social conflicts. Social conflicts affect the whole economy and the
deceleration of the economy provides incentives to the policymakers to relax environmental
standards and reduce citizen participation. This situation again generates distrust and deepen
social conflicts. This is a vicious circle. The argument of this paper is that a key element to break
with this vicious circle is institutionality. The challenge of environmental governance in Peru is to
provide an equilibrium between the protection of the environment and the development of
economic activities, and the global environmental certification is an opportunity to provide this
equilibrium.

2
METHODOLOGY: PARTICIPATORY AND COMPARATIVE POLICY ANALYSIS

In this paper I use as methodology participatory policy analysis and comparative policy analysis. The
participatory policy analysis has overcome the classical expert approach, whose main assumption is
that the policy analyst produces the scientifically valid knowledge that must be applied by policy
makers. Most recent literature has criticised this traditional type of policy analysis arguing for a
participatory type of policy analysis lead by the main actors involved (Geurts and Joldersma, 2011).
As an academic and policymaker involved in the implementation of the Global Environmental
Certification, I am in a privilege position to analyse the challenges of this new tool for
environmental governance.

The participatory approach is also important because it allows a deep understanding of the tensions
and disagreements in the process of implementation. This contentious process is healthy for
improving public policies: it helps us to move from poor or even good policies to better ones. In
addition, transparent and well-organized policy analysis can help to facilitate disagreement and
thus good policymaking (Robert and Zeckhauser, 2011). Regarding the comparative policy analysis,
the policy experience of European countries (particularly Spain) and the Colombian model, are
relevant to better understand the process of legal importation and implementation of the global
environmental certification.

ANALYSIS

Legal and policy foundations of the Global Environmental Certification

The Peruvian “Global Environmental Certification” (GEC) has been influenced by the European
model of “Integrated Environmental Permitting”, regulated by the Directive 96/61/EC on Integrated
Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC). The Directive was enacted in a period of considerable
scepticism regarding the capacity of new member states from Central Eastern Europe to fully adopt
the EU’s demanding and costly regulatory requirements (Holzinger, 1999). It makes possible the
creation of the “single window” that allows processing simultaneously the diverse licences
required, avoiding the dispersion of entities and license conditions. It seeks facilitating the work of
the administration, the application of environmental legislation and the fulfilment of the companies
in an easy and economical way (Pernas, 2003).

The Integrated Environmental Permitting can be understood in substantial and procedural aspects.
Regarding the first aspect, this model overcomes the traditional regulatory approach, which focuses
on specific environmental problems. In contrast, in substantial terms, integrated permitting means
that emissions to air, water and land, plus a range of other environmental effects must be
considered together, and regulators must set permit conditions based on “Best Available
Techniques” to achieve a high level of environmental protection (OCDE, 2005). The procedural
aspect is related to the policy design for issuing permits. Over the years, the list of permits for
industries’ operation increased, they were issued and controlled by a variety of separate authorities
that do not necessarily work in a coordinated or cooperative way. To overcome this problem it is
proposed a “one-stop shopping” system, where the applicant deals with one designated competent
authority that ensures coordination with all other agencies, increase the consistency and

3
predictability of the permitting process and reduce the administrative burden on both government
and industry (OCDE, 2005). The Directive 96/61/EC emphasises the substantial aspect and allows
each country to implement the procedural aspect according to their institutional framework.

It should be clear that the Directive refers specifically to the integration of “permits”, not to the
integration of the permitting and Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) procedures. Both EIA
and environmental permitting are regulatory tools that aim at preventing damage to the
environment. Nonetheless, there are fundamental differences between them, such as coverage (EIA
applies to a wider range of activities), timing of application (EIA tends to apply at earlier stages of
project planning), environmental focus (EIA tends to be more open-ended and can also consider
any environmental issues of concern, including, land use, biodiversity, and historic and cultural
heritage), and consideration of alternatives and mitigation measures (EIA normally considers a
wider range of alternatives and mitigation measures than environmental permitting). Even though
these are different tools, the possibility of interaction is high, that is why the Directive 97/11
modified the Directive 85/337 regarding EIA, and stablishes the possibility to unify EIA and
Permitting processes (Knill and Winkler, 2006) to avoid duplication of efforts (OCDE, 2005)

The Environmental European Community Legal Framework has been implemented in the Spanish
legal system through Law 16/2002, Law of Integrated Prevention and Control of Pollution, in which
is regulated “The integrated environmental authorization”. The aim of this authorization is double:
On the one hand, to ensure the coordination between different public entities that intervene in the
emission of the authorization in order to reduce the time; on the other hand, to establish a system of
control and prevention that integrates in one only act all the environmental authorizations. Pernas
(2003) criticises the Spanish model because it is not totally “integrated”. He argues that Spain lost
the opportunity to completely integrate the processes of EIA and environmental permitting because
Law 16/2002 establishes that the autonomic municipalities, according to their legal prerogatives,
could integrate both processes (Article 11.4); integration is not a general compulsory rule.

In Colombia, Decree 3573 of 2011 creates the National Authority of Environmental License (ANLA)
and Decree 2041 of 2014 regulates the “environmental license” as the permit that implicitly
integrate all the authorizations for using or affecting renewable natural resources and are necessary
for the whole duration of the project or activity (Article 3). The procedure for emitting the
environmental license includes the evaluation of the EIA. Decree 2041 also regulates the “global
environmental license”. The term global is not referring to the integration of other permits (as in the
case of Peru) but to a geographical criteria for which in hydrocarbon and mining exploitation the
license include all the area of exploitation required.

Rationale: the equilibrium between the promotion of investments and the protection of
the environment

EIA, since its birth in the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (NEPA) in the USA, has spread
across the globe. It has become an internationally accepted and established tool for environmental
management (Jay et al, 2007) and sustainability (Benson, 2003). Over the years the processes for EIA
have become more complex and the emergence of other permits and their specific legal procedures
has meant regulatory costs for companies. These costs result from the need to conduct scientific

4
investigations, negotiate with the issuing agency over the conditions of the permit, and redesign the
proposed project based on the agency’s decision (Sunding and Zilberman, 2002). Furthermore, the
performance of licensing and EIA procedures is many times poor because the follow-up processes
are week (lacking monitoring and enforcement of terms and conditions), the public consultation
takes no account of the specific requirements of affected groups, or the EIA reports are voluminous,
poorly organized, descriptive, and overly technical, making the process inefficient, time consuming,
and costly in relation to the benefits delivered (Li, 2008).

The challenge is, therefore, to design a process for EIA evaluation and permitting that simplifies
administrative procedures and at the same time ensures sustainability. We must remember that
ssustainable development, as understood by the United Nations, means the equilibrium between
social, economic and environmental aspects. The EIA institutional framework must take into
account these factors in a strategic way to achieve sustainable development (Jay et al, 2007).

The key concept is thus “equilibrium”. Administrative simplification cannot imply the reduction of
environmental standards but the coordination and articulation among public entities in order to
eliminate duplication of efforts in environmental evaluation and provide an independent, technical
and participatory evaluation. In sum, what is needed is a better environmental governance through
the fortification of the institutionality. The Global Environmental Certification is a challenge and
opportunity for this aim.

DISCUSSION

The implementation of the global environmental certification: challenges and

perspectives

Law N° 30327 was published the 21st of May 2015 as the “Law of promotion of the investments for
economic grown and sustainable development”. Title II of the Law regulates “The global
environmental certification”, establishing the procedure for integrating 14 permits to the EIA
process, which are issued by 5 “authoritative entities”.1

1The permits are the following (Article 10):

National Authority of Water (ANA):
- Approval of hydric studies for water use license.
- Authorization for execution of works for water use.
- Authorization for occupation, use or diverting water channels.
- Authorization for water use.
- Authorization for wastewater discharge.
- Authorization for use of wastewater.
National Service of Forest and Wildlife (SERFOR)
- Authorization for forest cleaning.
National Direction of Environmental Health (DIGESA)
- Sanitary authorization for septic tank.
- Favourable technical opinion on the system sewage treatment.
- Favourable technical opinion for the authorization for wastewater discharge.
General Directorate of Captaincy and Coastguards (DICAPI)
- Right to use aquatic area.
Supervisory Agency for Investment in Energy and Mining (OSINERGMIN)
- Risk study.

5
The Peruvian model constitutes a middle term between the Spanish model and the Colombian
model. The Spanish model allows the integration according to the difference competences of each
autonomous municipality in charge of issuing permits, whereas the Colombian model establishes
one single type of procedure and license through one single authority. The Peruvian model
regulates the possibility that companies requests the integration of permits through the EIA process
led by SENACE but it is still valid to request EIA evaluation and license permitting with different
processes and authorities. In the case of integration, the specialised agencies do not lose the
competence for evaluating each permit, however, they do not issue a final resolution on it, they
issue a report to SENACE which has to consider it to enact a final resolution that resolve the request
for EIA and license permitting. SENACE is thus the only channel of communication to the public
but behind it there are many entities.

As the name of the Law suggests, it seeks to balance the promotion of investments and the
protection of the environment; however, civil society (IBC, 2015) strongly criticised the Title IV of
the Law, regarding to simplification of procedures for land using. Although there is not a specific
critique on GEC, one concern that could emerge is the emphasis on administrative simplification
instead of environmental protection. I argue that the GEC is not only a tool for simplification since
procedural requirements indirectly contribute to environmental protection (Beijen, 2011). In the
case of GEC there are good arguments for this:

1. Law 30327 empowers SENACE as the entity in charge of issuing the GEC. SENACE is an
independent entity of the environmental sector that progressively is assuming all the competences
for evaluating EIA from the productive sectors according to the schedule approved by Decree 006-
2015-MINAM.
2. GEC fortifies collaboration between different entities with different expertise. To issue a GEC,
SENACE has to coordinate with the ANA, SERFOR, DICAPI, OSINERGMIN and DIGESA. This
intersectoral coordination will ensure the constitution of a red of knowledge in favour of a more
profound evaluation.
3. Simplification of processes works not only for companies but also for communities. The
constitution of one channel of communication in charge of all the environmental aspect of a project
facilitates the coordination with different social actors, what can contribute to the social
sustainability of the project.

Therefore, GEC is not only a tool for administrative simplification and economic performance, but
also a crucial tool for environmental governance. The policy implementation is however not an easy
task. I identify three main challenges for this:

The challenge of deep coordination (multisectoral)

Coordination is relevant for EIA processes: in 60% of Latin American countries, national
environmental agencies in charge of the EIA process must consult other institutions or local
agencies as part of the EIA process (Acerbi et al, 2014). However, coordination is difficult to achieve
in a context of week institutionality. In Europe the application of integrated requirements for

- Contingency Plan.

6
environmental certification in countries with weak structures generated controversy between
different agencies (Koutalakis et al, 2010). In Poland and Hungary, weak coordination capacities
resulted in significant problems between central and regional regulators that were responsible for
issuing permits (World Bank 2007). The reason for this problem rely on the fact that many countries
share a regulatory tradition characterized by the preponderance of legalistic and hierarchical
approaches to environmental policy (Koutalakis et al, 2010).

Therefore, coordination alone is not enough. Other tools such as mutual capacitation, join work and
planning tools are crucial. SENACE has started this work by elaborating the Bylaw of the GEC in a
join work with all the authoritative entities. It also is implementing with the National School of
Public Administration a public course on GEC for the authoritative entities. Finally, SENACE is
proposing a discourse of GEC as a multisectorial tool for environmental governance that belongs to
the Peruvian government and not only to SENACE. The aim is introducing this view in the
planning tools of all entities.

The challenge of governance, citizen participation and credibility

Multisectoral coordination is not enough, it is also crucial multilevel coordination and political
coordination with the actors of the civil society in order to achieve social credibility. Sub-national
governments are key players in EIA processes, especially, in the participatory period, proof of this
is that many social conflicts have been led by the President of regional governments or politicians
related to regional governments. To face this problem SENACE is executing a plan for visiting the
sub-national governments in order to obtain the confidence of politicians and the civil society
before the initiation of EIA processes. The plan is to include the concerns of regional governments
in SENACE’s policy design and implementation of measures for improving the participation in EIA
processes.

Civil society actors must be also included in the processes of policymaking not only because there is
a compulsory legal framework for citizen participation, but also because it is relevant to take into
consideration the opinion, knowledge and concerns of the people more affected by extractive
industries. Indeed, policy design would be enriched with the people’s experience. The issue of
indigenous peoples is particularly complex because there is not clarity about how consultation of
indigenous peoples relates to the process of EIA. It is necessary to propose a legal framework to
articulate both procedures.

In the end, what a broad citizen participation would ensure is the social sustainability of the
projects, which is as important as the economic and environmental sustainability.

The challenge of continuity of the political support

Political support is relevant for policy implementation. SENACE was formally born with Law 29968
in a context of profound social unrest during the second year of the current government, but in
practical terms (related to administration, budgeting and the enactment of management tools),
SENACE has only been recently implemented. Now, at the end of the government, the institution is
ready for initiating the evaluation of EIA (indeed, it has already finished the process of transfer of
competences from the Ministry of Energy and Mines), however, it still needs the political support to

7
ensure financial stability and the legal approbation of all the legal dispositive that can empower the
institution.

In that context, the next government has to compromise to continue the implementation of
SENACE as a solid and independent agency. Only political support can ensure the continuity of the
innovation of the environmental governance. The new government has to understand the double
role of SENACE: as an agent for consolidation of modern environmental management, and as an
agent that can ensure the environmental sustainability of investments in favour of the state and the
society. We all must understand also that the consolidation of SENACE is a work in progress,
subject to continue improvement and progression. Environmental institutionality is relatively new
everywhere in comparison with other public sectors, so it is necessary to consolidate the sector and
its institutions.

CONCLUSION

Unorganized legal framework for citizen participation, lack of coordination among public agencies
and weak institutionality for environmental evaluation and monitoring, generates social distrust
and, therefore, social conflicts. To face these problems, SENACE is implementing the Global
Environmental Certification with a strategy of multisectoral and multilevel coordination in order to
forge an institutionality that ensures equilibrium between the protection of the environment and
the development of economic activities.

The GEC constitutes at the same time a challenge for improving the Environmental Governance in
Peru and an opportunity for modernizing the provision of environmental certification. Thus, the
administrative simplification fostered by GEC does not imply the reduction of environmental
standards but the consolidation of coordination and articulation among public entities in order to
eliminate duplication of efforts in environmental evaluation and provide an independent, technical
and participatory public service.

Therefore, GEC is not only a tool for administrative simplification but also it contributes to
environmental protection because: Law 30327 empowers SENACE as the entity in charge of issuing
the GEC, GEC fortifies collaboration between different entities with different expertise, what
ensures a more holistic environmental evaluation; and simplification of processes works not only
for companies but also for communities, which will have just one channel of communication to
present their environmental concerns.

The policy implementation of GEC is however not an easy task. I identify three main challenges for
this: the challenge of deep coordination among public entities; the challenge of governance, citizen
participation and credibility; and the challenge of continuity of the political support. All these
challenges must be faced in order to ensure the consolidation of the environmental governance and
the modernisation of the state.

8
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank the executives and specialists of SENACE, ANA, OSINERGMIN, SERFOR,
DIGESA, SERNANP and DICAPI for their compromise in the implementation of the environmental
global certification. Special thanks to Milagros Verastegui, Head of SENACE, for her support and
trust during this process, and to my team at the Direction of Strategic Management.

NOMENCLATURE

GEC Global Environmental Certification

EIA Environmental Impact Assessment
NEPA National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (USA)

REFERENCES

Acerbi, M., Sánchez-Triana, E., Enríquez, S., Tiffer-Sotomayor, R., Gomes, A., Siegmann, K., Clemente-
Fernandez, P., Nkrumah, N. 2014. Environmental Impact Assessment Systems in Latin America and
the Caribbean, 34th Annual Conference of the International Association for Impact Assessment.
Conference Proceedings, Chile.

Bebbington, A., and Bury, J., 2009. Institutional challenges for mining and sustainability in Peru. PNAS,
106(41), pp. 17296-17301.

Beijen, B., 2011. The implementation of European Environmental Directives: Are problems caused by the
quality of the Directives? European Energy and Environmental Law Review, 150.

Benson, J., 2003. What is the alternative? Impact assessment tools and sustainable planning. Impact
Assessment and Project Appraisal, volume 21, number 4, December 2003, pages 261–280.

CEPAL., 2012. Panorama Social de América Latina. Santiago de Chile.

Corporación Latinobarómetro. (2013). Informe Latinobarómetro 2013. Santiago de Chile.

De Echave, J., 2011. La minería peruana y los escenarios de transición. Transiciones Postextractivismo y
alternativas al extractivismo en el Perú. Alayza and Gudynas ed. Lima: CEPES, RedGE.

Geurts, J., Joldersma, C., 2001. Methodology for participatory policy analysis. European Journal of Operational
Research, 128, pp. 300-310.

IBC, 2015. Organizaciones de la sociedad civil se pronuncian contra Ley 30327. Noticia disponible:
http://www.ibcperu.org/organizaciones-de-la-sociedad-civil-se-pronuncian-contra-ley-30327/ (visto:
julio 2015).

Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática –INEI. (2013). Evolución de la pobreza monetaria 2007-2012,
Informe técnico.

Jay, S., Jones, C., Slinn, P., Wood, Ch., 2007. Environmental impact assessment: Retrospect and prospect,
Environmental Impact Assessment Review, May.

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Knill, C. and Winkler, D., 2006. Convergence or Divergence of National Legal and Administrative Structures?
Europeanisation Effects of the Environmental Impact Assessment in Germany and England. Journal
for European Environmental & Planning Law, 1, pp. 43-51.

Koutalakis, Ch., Buzogany, A., Börzel, T., 2010. When soft regulation is not enough: The integrated pollution
prevention and control directive of the European Union. Regulation & Governance, 4, pp. 329–344.

Li, J., 2008. Environmental Impact Assessments in Developing Countries: An Opportunity for Greater
Environmental Security? Working Paper No. 4, Foundation for Environmental Security and
Sustainability (FESS).

OECD, 2005. Integrated Environmental Permitting Guidelines for EECCA Countries. Paris: OECD.

Ombudsman‟ s Office, 2014. Reporte de Conflictos Sociales. Defensoría del Pueblo: Lima.

Pernas, J., 2003. La autorización ambiental integrada: la integración horizontal de las autorizaciones sectoriales
y su relación con otros mecanismos preventivos, Anuario da Facultade de Dereito da Universidade da
Coruña, 7, pp. 623-640.

PNUD, 2013. Tercer Informe Nacional sobre cumplimiento de los Objetivos de Desarrollo del Milenio. Lima:
PNUD.

Robert, Ch., Zeckhauser, R., 2011. The Methodology of Normative Policy Analysis. Journal of Policy Analysis
and Management, Volume 30, Issue 3, pp. 613-643.

Sunding, D. and Zilberman, D., 2002. The Economics of Environmental Regulation by Licensing: An
Assessment of Recent Changes to the Wetland Permitting Process. Natural Resources Journal, Vol. 42,
No. 1, winter.

Wood, Ch., 1999. Comparative Evaluation of Environmental Impact Assessment Systems. Handbook of
Environmental Impact Assessment Vol. 2: Environmental Impact Assessment in Practice: Impact and
Limitations, ed. Petts. Blackwell: Oxford.

Yale University, 2014. Environmental Performance Index – EPI: http://epi.yale.edu/epi.

10
Pilot Study for the Identification and Valuation of
Ecosystem Services in a Private Area
Tania Correa1, Alejandra Arochas1, Viviana Maturana1 and Juan Pablo Rubilar2
1. Fundación Chile
2. Minera Los Pelambres

ABSTRACT
This study constitutes a comprehensive and adaptable methodological reference in the semi-arid
ecosystems in the north of Chile, which links the perceptions of the community with the valuation
of the ecosystem services. The study area is Fundo Monte Aranda, which is a conservation area of
Minera Los Pelambres.
The research objective is to enhance the value of the private area by quantifying the importance of
natural capital of ecosystem services, as this will give relevant information to compare,
communicate and incorporate into business decisions, generating benefits for the company and the
communities.
To identify the services that are priority to the local community, the interviews were conducted to
the people with main knowledge of the uses given to nature, revealing essential uses of 46 plant
species (food, medicine, spiritual purposes, construction and fuel).
For the quantification of some of these services, it was necessary to estimate abundance for each
tree species and their physical metrics. Because the study area covers 5,735 ha, sample plots were
performed with an intensity every 83 hectares.
The valuation obtained for ecosystem services in Fundo Monte Aranda was US$762,410 per year, of
which 20% corresponds to provision and supply, 70% to regulation and 10% to tourism and
recreation.
The recommendations aim to enhance the value of protected areas, one is the replication of the
study in other private areas of the company and the second one to determine a community
conservation area in Fundo Monte Aranda creating a co-benefit project. The latter will allow the
engagement of the local community by involving them in the opportunities and benefits, taking
into account their aspirations, needs and traditional knowledge, more over considering the tourism
potential of the area and therefore for the whole community.

1
INTRODUCTION
Ecosystem services are the benefits that local, regional, and/or global scale people obtain from
ecosystems. These are classified as provisioning, regulating and cultural services. Provisioning
services are the products people obtain from ecosystems such as food, fuel, fiber and water.
Regulating services are the benefits obtained from the regulation ecosystem’s control of natural
processes, including carbon sequestration, air quality, climate and erosion. Cultural services are
nonmaterial benefits such as recreation, spiritual values, and aesthetic enjoyment (WBCSD, 2011;
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005).
The ability to consider ecosystem services in business decisions is highly relevant because
companies not only impact ecosystems and the services they provide but also depend on them.
Some risks and new opportunities are:

 There is growing evidence that the continued degradation of ecosystems cause a material
impact on business, reducing its performance, benefits, license to operate and access to
new markets.
 The communities, NGOs, customers, and shareholders are increasingly aware of the
relationship between business operations and the state of ecosystems, and require that
these issues are reported and taken into account.
 In many parts of the world, regulatory and legal requirements for companies to minimize
and mitigate their impacts on ecosystems, and to fully compensate for any damage
caused, are becoming more stringent.

There are new opportunities linked to the recovery and management of ecosystems (WBCSD, 2011).
In Chile the native forests are important sources of ecosystem services. They provide non-wood
forest products, water, carbon sequestration, soil conservation, biodiversity and opportunities in
tourism and recreation (Lara et al., 2003).
Estimating the economic value of ecosystem services can make explicit that these resources are
scarce and their degradation has costs to society. Due to the fact that most services are public goods,
they tend to be over consumed. Therefore, if these costs are not considered, in private or public
decisions, it is possible to make incorrect conclusions which would imply consequences that are
uncertain (TEEB, 2010).
An important assumption in the valuation of ecosystem services is that the society can assign a
value to them. The economic concept of value is anthropocentric and instrumental in the sense that
these values provide information that can guide the formulation of policies, but does not replace
conservation costs, market value, or others. For most ecosystem services, direct market information
is not available and there is high uncertainty about demand and supply. However, it is essential to
understand and appreciate their alternative uses, and to identify, quantify, and as far as possible,
value them (TEEB, 2010). This way it is possible to analyze the information to justify and prioritize
programs, policies, or actions that protect or restore ecosystems and their services.
Usually the decisions are economic, but based in the value that society gives to the ecosystem
services. Starting with a qualitative analysis allows identifying, from the beginning, those
ecosystem services that are priority for the local communities. After this, a quantitative and
monetary valuation may be performed. The monetary valuation is the preferred approach to

2
present the results because it allows organizing, comparing and communicating the results
(WBCSD, 2011).
In this sense, Minera Los Pelambres, a mining company, decided to carry out a pilot study with
Fundación Chile to identify and assign value to the ecosystem services provided by Fundo Monte
Aranda, one of their protected areas. This site is located in one of the 35 Earth’s biodiversity
hotspots, wich correspond to the Chilean Winter Rainfall and Valdivian Forests (Mittermeier et al.,
2011; MMA, 2014a) and also is adyacent to the Culimo Ravine, a priority site of conservation due
the high endemism (MMA, 2014b). Fundo Monte Aranda has an extension of 5,735 ha and is located
in Caimanes, Choapa Province, Coquimbo Region in the north of Chile.
The research objective is to enhance the value of the private area by quantifying the importance of
natural capital of ecosystem services, as this will give relevant information to compare,
communicate and incorporate into business decisions, generating benefits for the company and the
communities. The specific objectives are the identification and economic valuation of the benefits
that the protected area provides to the community (including provisioning, regulation and cultural
ecosystem services) and also give recommendations for projects in the area.

METHODOLOGY

Identification of Ecosystem Services

Community interviews
The main objective of the interviews is to obtain information of the ecosystem services that the
community recognizes and uses, and to know their past relationship with the study area.
The study area Fundo Monte Aranda is next to the town of Caimanes and other nearby towns that
have a total population of 757 habitants. Caimanes has been involved in a social conflict since 2006,
when the operation of the mine started, so special attention was paid in the selection of the method
to obtain the primary information.
First, a complete review of the information of the region provided by the company and public
reports was conducted, also meetings were held with key informants who have knowledge of the
community and gave their apprehensions and recommendations to define the best approach for the
interviews.
Given the sensitivity and distrust of the community, chain sampling or the "snowball" method was
used. This technique consists of identifying a first subject that meets the desired characteristics, and
then asking him or her to help identify others. Usually the sample is reduced, not being a statistical
method (Biernacki & Waldorf, 1981).
The interviews were based on the guidelines manual for integrated field data from the Food and
Agriculture Organization collection that recommends semi-structured interviews, alternating
structured questions with spontaneous ones, so that a fluent conversation is generated, allowing
greater freedom and confidence to deliver information (FAO, 2009). A total of 13 interviews
(individual and groups) were conducted covering 20 people, considering different gender, age and
occupation (mining, agriculture, rancher, apiarian, artisan, culture and education). Also people

3
working in Fundo Monte Aranda in the cultural showroom, apiarian, goat cheese production and
nursery were interviewed.

Field validation
After obtaining information on the ecosystem services identified by the community, the next step in
the field activities was to verify their existence in the study area.
Considering vegetation type, slope and sun exposure, 11 macro-zones were defined. To study them
it was conducted 1 sample plot/100ha (in total 59 sample plots of 100m2 each one) obtaining the
information of specie, diameter and height of each tree. After that, the plots were extrapolated to
the macro-zone.
The amount of biomass was calculated with specific species formulas and in the cases of species
that do not have a formula, a formula of a species with similar physiognomic characteristics was
used.

Valuation of Ecosystem Services

The calculation of the value of ecosystem services was done with different methods including
estimations and assumptions, mainly using market and bibliographic information.
The methods used were:

• Market information: Considers the service´s value in the nearest market to the area
studied. Despite being the most direct method, it also has limitations because of the
distortion of the price (subsidies, non-competitive market or could not quantify the real
cost of the loss).
• Substitute product: Uses the value of a product with similar functions and features.
• Avoided cost: Costs that would be incurred when the lack of service causes damages (e.g.:
when a flood occurs).
• Bibliographic: There are several international authors who have studied the valuation of
ecosystem services. A useful paper is ‘Changes in the global value of ecosystem services’
(Costanza et al. 2014) which gives the value for different ecosystem services depending of
the acres and biome.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The community identified 46 plant species that were found in the area, giving them different uses
as food, medicine, spiritual, for construction material and fuel. They used to pick up firewood,
fruits and seeds (which they use for food, tinctures, liquors and jams). Some traditions have been
lost over a couple generations, such as collecting coconuts of Jubaea chilensis and the use of Quillaja
saponaria bark as shampoo. Honey and goat cheese production are also mentioned as the main
source of income for some families. Some examples of the value of these products are Puya chilensis
as food (US$1.40 for each bud) and Quillaja saponaria for soap (US$4.50/kg of bark). Another
frequent use of vegetation is firewood, gathered from the nearby hills (extracting dry wood) which
implies savings of US$380 per family yearly. It is important to add that in Chile the non-wood

4
forest products have a special social significance because they contribute to the generation of
employment, are a source of income for rural families and conserve biodiversity. The total
valuation of the Provision category was US$169,873.
In the Regulation category, the carbon capture was deeply studied. The carbon stock in the natural
formations was estimated in 144,789 tCO2 corresponding to the 99% of the total stock, the lasting
percent (846 tCO2) is captured in the reforestation. The valuation of this stock is estimated in
US$759,377. Natural vegetation is in equilibrium state due to environmental and human factors, so
the only annual capture takes place in reforestation and is estimated in 320 tCO2, valuing this
service at US$1,670/year. The annual capture is equivalent to the CO 2e emissions from the
production of 107 tons of copper (MLP, 2015).
Nutrient regulation was estimated considering the market value of the nutrients found in the soil
(nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus). Other regulating services such as biological control,
pollination and erosion control and soil formation are estimated with the information provided by
previews studies (Costanza et al., 2014). Therefore this category has an estimated value of
US$525,075.
Cultural services were the most mentioned by the community, giving high importance to quiet,
rural society, cultural heritage and landscape. They were interested in passing on the legacy to the
children and young people so they can learn the traditions, the importance of nature and the use of
plants in everyday life. The value of tourism and recreation was estimated considering the prices of
entrance and the number of visitors in similar parks in the north of Chile which gives this category
an estimate of US$67,461.
There were some services for which it was not possible to estimate the annual value, mainly for lack
of information.
Table 1 summarizes the estimated annual value of different ecosystem services in the protected
area.

Table 1 Value of ecosystem services

Value in the area
Ecosystem Services Value
[US$/year]
Provision
Wood products Firewood US$31.70/m3 -
Puya chilensis US$1.40/bud US$ 14,656
Aristotelia chilensis US $0.60/kg -
Vegetable food Jubaea chilensis honey US $14.70 /kg -
Jubaea chilensis coconut US $1.60 /kg US$ 7,619
Honey US $7.90 /kg US$ 42,858
Animal food Goat cheese US $31.70 /kg US$ 19,048
Peumus boldus US $630.00/kg -
Medicinal and cosmetic Buddleja globosa US $125.40/kg -
Quillaja saponaria US $4.60 /kg bark US$ 85,692
Others Dye plants US $37.00/kg -
Seeds US $0.20/seed -

5
 Value in the area
Ecosystem Services Value
[US$/year]

Subtotal US$ 169,873

Regulation
US$ 0.60/kg(N),
Nutrient regulation US$ 1.30/kg(P), US$ 15,731
US$ 0.40/kg(K)
Biologic control US$ 27.40/ha US$ 143,073
Pollination US$ 30.90/ha US$ 161,533
Erosion control and soil formation US$ 38.80/ha US$ 203,068
Carbon storage US$ 5.20/t US$ 1,670
Subtotal US$ 525,075
Cultural
Tourism and recreation US$ 3.40 /visitor US$ 67,461
Subtotal US$ 67,461
TOTAL US$ 762,410

The annual value estimated for the ecosystem services in Fundo Monte Aranda was US$762,410.

CONCLUSION
Rural communities surrounding Fundo Monte Aranda depends on the services provided by
ecosystems, so they are the most vulnerable group to changes in this area which could have
negative effects including the effects of climate change or the overexploitation.
One recommendation is a shared value initiative in a "community conservation area" where the
capacity and traditional knowledge of the local population is considered and they can contribute to
the sustainable management of the area. By engaging them from the beginning in the decision
process, they can choose their opportunities and benefit from them, as well as incorporate their
needs and aspirations. Considering that an increase of tourists is expected to arrive to Fundo Monte
Aranda, innovative ecotourism enterprises could have great possibilities. For site management, and
working with the community (training and support), using a coordinating agent (e.g. an NGO) is
recommended.
The development of this project could be formulated by integrating the requirements of REDD+ co-
benefits, and monitoring the social and environmental benefits of the different actions performed.
For the local people is very important to pass their traditional knowledge to the youth, so an
education program for the children can be developed in association with the School of Caimanes to
connect students with the services that nature provides and teach them how to take care of it.
It is worth mentioning that to conserve and improve the state of the ecosystem services it is relevant
to continue and improve the actual plans and conditions for fire prevention, the irrigation system
and the prevention of not controlled animal grazing. These conditions affect mortality and annual
increase in biomass of the reforestation and allow the improvement of the natural vegetation.

6
It is recommended to replicate the study in other conservation areas of the company, this would
make it possible to compare valuations and the performance of different management actions,
including new ecosystem services, deepening the understanding of selected ones or analyzing the
interactions between them using an integrated approach.
Finally, it is worth mentioning that this study corresponds to a broad and adaptable methodological
reference in semi-arid ecosystems, which links the perception of the community with the valuation
of ecosystem services.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Minera Los Pelambres, Sustainability Management, Natural Resources and Patrimony Department.

REFERENCES
Biernacki P & Waldorf D (1981) Snowball Sampling: Problems and Techniques of Chain Referral Sampling,
Sociological Methods & Research, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 141–163.

Costanza R, De Groot R, Sutton P, Van der Ploeg S, Anderson S, Kubiszewski I, Farber S and Turner R (2014)
Changes in the global value of ecosystem services, Global Environment Change, vol. 26, pp. 152–158.

FAO (2009) Monitoreo y Evaluación de los Recursos Forestales Nacionales – Manual para la recolección
integrada de datos de campo, National Forest Monitoring and Assessment, vol. 2.2, pp. 1–216.

Lara A, Soto D, Armesto J, Donoso P and Wernli C (2003) Componentes científicos clave para una política
nacional sobre usos, servicios y conservación de los bosques nativos chilenos, Universidad Austral de
Chile, vol. 1, pp. 1–134.

Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005) Ecosystems and Human Well-being: A Framework for Assessment,
Island Press, vol. 1, pp. 1–245.

Mittermeier R, Turner W, Larsen F, Brooks T and Gascon C. (2011) Global biodiversity conservation: the
critical role of hotspots, Biodiversity hotspots, pp. 3-22.

MLP (2015) Reporte de sustentabilidad 2014, pp. 1–63.

MMA (Ministerio de Medio Ambiente) (2014a), Quinto Informe Nacional de Biodiversidad de Chile ante el
Convenio sobre la Diversidad Biológica (CBD), Ministerio del Medio Ambiente. Santiago, Chile, pp.
1-140.

MMA (Ministerio de Medio Ambiente) (2014b), Sitio Prioritario Quebrada de Culimo.

TEEB (2010) The Economics of Ecosystem and Biodiversity. Ecological and Economic Foundations, Chapter 5,
pp. 1–133.

WBCSD (2011) Guía para la Valoración Corporativa de los Ecosistemas, pp. 1-72.

7
Comments on Supreme Decree 28, Establishing the
Emission Norm for Copper Smelters in Chile
Paulo Sepúlveda
Backoffice, Chile

ABSTRACT
Copper smelters and arsenic release sources are the cause of most of the air emissions in our
country, posing a clear risk to life, as well as people’s health and of course the environment.
Based on the above, the Environmental Performance Evaluation, carried out by OCDE in 2005
recommended Chile to advance in the development of national emission regulations including the
regulation of toxic air pollutants and to reduce even more the impact of the Sulphur dioxide
contamination (SO2) and arsenic (As). In this context the Environmental Minister started in 2011 the
redaction of the norm for emissions in copper smelters and arsenic releasing sources, which
translated in the creation and entry into force of the Supreme Decree (DS) N° 28, normative body
aiming to reduce significantly the air emissions of these and other pollutants, as particulate matter
(MP).
The mentioned DS creation process as well as its entry into force generated diverse criticism and
questions related to, for example, its high standards; restrictive character and issues related to the
emission sources (existing and new); the raising of costs; with an eventual disruption or detriment
of the copper mining competitiveness and it has been seen as a real threat to the continuity of such
activities that represent an important source of labor. However, comments were not made from a
legal point of view, matter to be discussed through this paper focusing mainly on the juridical
nature of the mentioned body of law.

1
INTRODUCTON
Copper smelters and arsenic release sources are the cause of most of the air emissions in our
country1, posing a clear risk to life, as well as people’s health and of course the environment.
Based on the above, the Environmental Performance Evaluation, carried out by OCDE in 2005
recommended Chile to advance in the development of national emission regulations including the
regulation of toxic air pollutants and to reduce even more the impact of the Sulphur dioxide
contamination (SO2) and arsenic (As). In this context the Environmental Minister started in 2011 the
redaction of the norm for emissions for copper smelters and arsenic releasing sources, which
translated in the creation and entry into force of the Supreme Decree (DS) N° 28, normative body
aiming to reduce significantly the air emissions of these and other pollutants, as particulate matter
(MP).
From the beginning the mentioned DS creation process to establish the emission norms for copper
smelters and arsenic releasing sources, as well as its entry into force generated diverse criticism and
questions related to, for example, its high standards; restrictive character and issues related to the
emission sources (existing and new); the raising of costs; with an eventual disruption or detriment
of the copper mining competitiveness, among others2. The above, is of vital transcendence, since the
big scale copper mining smelters have come to a difficult crossroad on environmental performance
improvement without collapsing the business viability, strategic matter for the country, even more
if you take into account that four smelters belong to the National Copper Corporation (CODELCO)
plus a fifth belonging to the National Mining Enterprise (ENAMI)3.
Even a group of Senators have proposed to delay the entry into force of the DS 28, and have stated
that Chile will be outdated in this matter anyway, since the main smelters in the world capture 99%
of the emissions4. This opinion is shared by the Senate Mining and Energy Commission, which
prepared a report on the matter, after a round of hearings with the main actors of this sector that
are technologically outdated, between May and June of the current year5.

1 See Agreement N° 8 date May 2 2013, Sustainability Ministry Session, pronouncing on the definite project of
the emission norm for copper smelters and arsenic sources: República de Chile Environment Ministry,
Considering agreement part, p.2.
2 See for example, http://www.lyd.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/09/TP-1079-NORMA-DE-
FUNDICIONES.pdf, Emission norms for copper smelters: too many demands?;
http://www.ingenierosdelcobre.cl/?p=473, Scenario for smelters and refineries in Chile: looking for
competitiveness (date of vidit October 1 ,2014)
http://www.g80.cl/noticias/entrevistacompleta.php?varbajada=19038, Chuquicamata smelter on the verge of
collapse (date of visit October 1,2014); http://www.quepasamineria.cl/index.php/actualidad/item/39-un-
negocio-fundido, A melted business (date of visit October 1, 2014).
3 The seven mentioned smelters are: Caletones, Potrerillos, Chuquicamata, Ventanas all property of

CODELCO; Paipote smelter belonging to ENAMI; Chagres smelter domain of ANGLO AMÉRICA; and
Altonorte smelter of GLENCORE XSTRATA.
4 About the máximum air emission and the timefarme to comply see Title II of DS 28.

5 See http://www.latercera.com/noticia/negocios/2015/07/655-639322-9-senadores-proponen-retrasar-norma-de-

emisiones-para-fundiciones-mineras.shtml, Senators propose to delay the emissions norm for mining smelters
(date of visit July 20,2015) ; y http://www.futurorenovable.cl/senadores-proponen-retrasar-norma-de-
emisiones-para-fundiciones-mineras Senators propose to delay the emissions norm for mining smelters (date
of visit July 22, 2015).

2
As we can see, the big scale copper mining smelters are going through an uncertain scenario and
actually it has been considered more reasonable to postpone the entry into force of the requirement
of capture of 95% of pollutants, established for the beginning of 2018, and refrain for the moment
from doing only adjustments in the installations that are technologically outdated in accordance
with the mentioned commission…The reason for this recommendation is simple. Updating the
seven remaining smelters in Chile to meet that environmental requirement will have a cost of US$
2.000 to US$ 2.500 million, however, this adaptation will not favor the poor economic performance
of these installations and the current low competitively regarding the world industry.
For this very reason the mentioned report opened an intense debate which have produced the
following questions, Is it necessary for the country to sustain a non-competitive industry regarding
some other countries having smelters?, Do we invest only on the environmental issue or do we take
a step forward?, why if the country exports mostly concentrates needs to sustain smelters which
technology is half a century old?, various opinions have raised on the matter, especially from May
to September this year6.
However the complex scenario for the smelters, our purpose is to comment the mentioned DS 28
and to bring some criticisms and questions, but from the legal point of view, focusing mainly on the
nature of the mentioned body of law. To fulfill our purpose, we will refer to the environmental
management instruments (tools), and certain basic concepts, without prejudice of the remaining
points to be developed.

ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT INSTRUMENTS

Law Nº 19.300 about General Bases for Environment envisages on its Act II the environmental
management instruments, which heading is precisely “Of the Environmental Management
Instruments”, that is made of the following paragraphs: a) Paragraph 1° “ Of Education and Research”;
b) Paragraph 1° bis “Of the Strategic Environmental Evaluation”; C) Paragraph 2° “Of the
Environmental Impact Evaluation System”; d) Paragraph 3° “Of Community Participation in
Environmental Evaluation Procedures”, e) Paragraph 3° bis “Of Access to Environmental Information”; f)
Paragraph 4° “Of the Environment Quality Norms and the Preservation of Nature and Conservation of
Environmental Heritage”; g) Paragraph 5° “Of the Emission Norms”; and h) Paragraph 6° “Of
Management Plans, Prevention and decontamination”.
At first glance, only from the headings on Act II of LBGMA, its different paragraphs that regulate
the different environmental management instruments and the title of the DS 28, which refers
specifically to norms for copper smelters and arsenic releasing sources, could make us conclude that the
DS 28 categorizes within the emissions norm category.
However, previously and with the aim to differentiate the nature of the DS, it’s necessary to precise
what is understood for environmental management instruments and what are the main categories.
On this, and taking into consideration the mentioned instruments are regulated by Law 19.300, we
could say in general terms that the environmental management instruments are the legal tools the
environmental institutionalism counts on to achieve its diverse objectives, which allow the
implementation of environmental policies.

6See http://quepasamineria.cl/index.php/core-business/item/4232-el-incierto-panorama-de-las-fundiciones y
www.senado.cl, Uncertain scenario for smelters, (date of visit September 16, 2015).

3
About the types of environmental management instruments, Guzman points out two categories
recognized generally in specialized literature, known, the ones from market and the ones of direct
regulation. With the first (like pollutants emission taxes, tradable emission permits, utilization
rights, subsidies, rates, etc.), the Estate pursues to modify behavior in terms of market performance
and the promoted induction signals, the negative environmental externalities will be suppressed or
attenuated (charges and cost to whom generates them) and increase and potentiate the positive
environmental externalities. Through direct regulation instruments, on the other hand (for example,
emission norms, environmental quality norms, etc.), the Estate is not just offering signals, nor only
inducing determined behaviors aimed to a global fixed goal in its policy, yet stablishing maximum
specific standards and specific demands, indispensable condition to a rational use the
environmental elements, which noncompliance is subject to a punitive action of the Estate
administration and eventually the jurisdictional body7.
Therefore, and according to what is mentioned, DS 28 is a direct environmental regulation
instrument, but not an emission norm on itself since it uses elements of the environmental quality,
management plans, prevention or decontamination that are in turn, other environmental
management instruments in accordance with paragraph 4º and 6º from title II of Law 19.300.

LEGAL NATURE
In accordance with the above, from DS 28 itself and its relation to Title II of Law 19.300, it would
lead to think the legal nature of the mentioned DS is an emission norm; even more if the preamble
part as well as the articles of such body of law, refer repeatedly to emission norms.
For example, the preamble of DS 28 at the beginning of the second and third paragraph indicates
the following That the current emission norm….., in turn, in the fifth paragraph states To elaborate the
present emission norm……, whilst in the ninth paragraph indicates That the present norm establishes
emission limits……; without prejudice that the remain paragraphs refer explicitly or implicitly to
the emission norms.
Continuing with the examples, but now into dispositions of DS 28, the article 1 related to the
objective of the body of law states that The current emission norm…as well as the preamble,
remaining articles refer explicitly or implicitly to the emission norms.
Nonetheless the mention states the expressions emission norms, or the lack of them, we believe that
DS 28 merges several elements of environmental management. We refer to, the emission norms,
primary and secondary norms of environmental quality, and the management plans, prevention
and decontamination instruments that are quite different, this can be deuced not only from the
objectives, yet the legislator has treated and regulated them separately in paragraphs 5º, 4º y 6º of
Title II of Law Ley 19.300, respectively.

To be more precise we will not only overlook the content of DS 28 but we will appeal to Law 19.300
and to the doctrine, thusly: i) regulation and ii) concepts and objectives.

7Guzmán, Rodrigo (2012) Chilean Environmental Law. Principles, institutions, management instruments.
Santiago: Editorial Planeta Sostenible. p. 122.

4
Regulation

The environmental management instruments are regulated on the different paragraphs of Law
19.300, said: i) paragraph 5° article 40 refers to the emission norms, ii) paragraph 4°, articles 32 to 39,
verses on the environmental quality norms; and iii) while paragraph 6°, articles 41 to 48, regulates
management plans, prevention or decontamination.
The above without prejudice that some of the norms contained in such paragraphs refer to or
forward to other instruments of environmental management, like the article 47 that states about
management plans, prevention or decontamination and outlines about the emission norms, whilst
others are applied to all the mentioned instruments, like the case of article 48 bis.

Concepts and Objectives

Law 19.300 on its article 2 letter o) define the emission norms, like the ones that establish the
maximum amount allowed for a measured pollutant in the effluent of the source.
In turn, and in conformity with the web site National Environment Information, states that the
objective of these norms can be the prevention of pollution or the effects, or to be a mean to restore
the air or water quality levels when these have been overtaken 8.
Therefore, the emission norms come to establish the admissible levels related to each polluting
source9. Such norms, aim to grant control during the implementation of polluting activities and
allow the continuous monitoring of the source, this turns into one of the most efficient instrument
for environmental protection.
When analyzing the legal concept of emission norms one could refer to the maximum allowed
quantity for a pollutant, but it does not state which is/are the objectives, differing from the legal
concepts of the environmental quality norms. However the article 1 of DS 28 states specifically that
the objective of this norm is to protect the health of people and the environment....
On the other hand, letter n) article 2 of Law 19.300 states what should be understood for primary
environmental quality norm, and defines it as the one establishing the values of the concentration and
periods, elements permissible maximums or minimums, compounds , substances, chemical or
biological byproducts, energy, radiation, vibrations, noise or the mix, which presence or lack of
them in the environment can represent a risk for the life and health of the population; while letter
ñ) of the article, expresses that the secondary environmental norm is the one that establishes the
values of the concentration and periods, maximum or minimum of substances, elements, energy or
the mix, which presence or lack of it can pose a risk for the protection or conservation of the
environment, or the preservation of nature.
As we can see, the environmental quality norms define basically the levels of contamination on
which emergency situations are originated that represent a risk for life and health of the population,
or a risk for the protection or conservation of the environment, the preservation of nature, and

8 Available at http://www.sinia.cl/1292/w3-propertyvalue-15905.html Environmental management instruments

(date of visit November 12, 2014)
9 See Bermúdez, Jorge (2014) Environmental law fundaments (2ª Edition). Valparaíso: Ediciones Universitarias

de Valparaíso Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, p. 252; Agudo, Jorge (2004) Pollution Control:
techniques of environmental protection, Madrid: Editorial Montecorvo, p.161.

5
differentiate in their regulatory focus.
From the doctrinaire point of view they have been defined like technical norms inherent to the
Environmental Law, on which the tolerable contamination levels are set in an atmosphere or
specific media…. and concerning their importance through this kind of norms is possible to
determine what can be understood as an environment free of pollution according to the wording of
letter m) article 2 of Law 19.30010, meaning, such norms set the levels and standards, considered to
determine if we are in an ambient free of pollution.
Notwithstanding the diverse differences existing between the two figures11, there is a fundamental
difference, since the emission norms establish requirements that should be set and verified on the
emission source of the pollutants, while the quality norms set standards that should be complied by
the receptor media.
Regarding to what should be understood from management plans, prevention or decontamination Law
19.300 does not consider a definition of these instruments that are different to each other.
Management plans, have been defined as one of the most important instruments of environmental
management aimed not to avoid or solve a contamination problem, but to accomplish a rational use
of renewable natural resources, ensuring their regeneration capability and the associated
biodiversity…. 12 These plans put together a generic instrument that can impact over diverse
elements: soil, the forest, fish, and landscape etc13.
According to the wording of subparagraph 1° article 42 of Law 19.300, it can be deducted that the
recipient of the management plan is the person, natural or corporate, that intends to develop an
economic activity, which suppose the use of renewable natural resources.
Thereon, it’s worth to mention that DS 28 verses on the emissions of copper smelters and arsenic
sources, being the most affected renewable resource: the air that makes life possible.
In respect of, what should be designed for prevention and decontamination plans, are defined in
the DS N° 94 article 2 from 1995 from the Ministry Secretary-General Presidency. The norm states,
that the decontamination plan is an environmental management instrument aimed to recover the
levels defined in the primary and/or secondary norms of environmental quality on a saturated
zone; while the prevention plan, on the other hand, is an environmental manage instrument aimed
to avoid the exceedance of one or more primary or secondary environmental quality norm, on a
latent zone.
The aim of the prevention plan is to establish measures to avoid the rise of the contamination level,
in order to reach the compliance of the environmental norm. For their part the decontamination
plan considers measures aimed to diminish the contamination levels.
From the wording of DS 28 and the relation to Law 19.300, as well as the concepts and objectives of

10 Bermúdez, Jorge (2014) Environmental Law Fundaments (2ª Edition). Valparaíso: Ediciones Universitarias
de Valparaíso Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, p. 207.
11 Other differences among the emission and environmental quality norms are based on the measuring way,

diversity of levels, spatial validity, objectives and form. See Bermúdez, Jorge (2014) Environmental Law
fundaments (2ª Edition). Valparaíso: Ediciones Universitarias de Valparaíso Pontificia Universidad Católica de
Valparaíso, p. 238 y 239.
12 Fernández, Pedro (2004) Chilean Environmental Law Manual. Santiago: Editorial Jurídica de Chile, p. 163.

13 Bermúdez, Jorge (2014) Environmental Law Fundaments. (2ª Edition).Valparaíso: Ediciones Universitarias

de Valparaíso Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, p. 252.

6
the environmental management instruments, we can conclude that DS 28 brings together or unifies
element from several environmental management instruments:
i.- First paragraph of the preamble of DS 28, final part, establishes that the emission norms are
dictated aiming to prevent risk on people’s health, quality of life and the environment. Therefore,
they have a preventive role same as the prevention plan.
ii.- Second paragraph of the preamble from DS 28, expresses as a result of the application of such
norm the emissions into the atmosphere of particulate material, sulfur dioxide, arsenic and mercury
will reduce. In turn paragraph fourth points out that the emissions of smelters should be reduce even
more…; as the paragraph eighth that states with the norm the emission to the air will reduce…In
consequence, DS 28 has the objective, same as the decontamination plans, to recover certain levels
of the air affected by polluting emissions.
iii.- According to the previous points, DS 28 bares elements of environmental quality norms, which
can be deduced besides the concepts and objectives of such instruments.
The above is expressed, for instance, in the fact that the emissions legal concept does not indicate
which are the aims or objectives, differing form the legal concepts of the environmental quality
norms, the article 1 of DS 28 comes to fill the gap of Law 19.300, since expresses the objective of the
norm is to protect people’s health and the environment…., thus sharing the aims of the environmental
quality norms.
iv.- Article 47 of law 19.300 states the prevention or decontamination plans can use, accordingly, the
following regulating or economic-based instruments: a) Emission norms; b) Tradable emission
permits; c) taxes on emissions or users rates, on which there will be considered the implicit
environmental cost in the production or usage of certain goods or services; and d) Other
instruments stimulating improvement actions and environmental restoration.
As it can be appreciated, those plans can perfectly use an emission norm like DS 28; but besides
such plans use operational tools, as mentioned in all letters on the cited article 47. Regarding the
operational tools, DS 28 refers to them on the penultimate paragraph of the preamble using the
expressions operational measures, but also Title IV, refers precisely to the operational practices for
emissions control, and considers measurements to reduce polluting episodes, proper to prevention
or decontamination plans.
v.- Ninth paragraph of the preamble of DS 28, on its final parte, expresses with the application of
the norm they hope to optimized the capture of gases, improving the air quality of the
surroundings. In consequence, with DS 28 what id pursued is to captures leaking gases the best
way possible, where no doubt technology is key; and we understand that should be carried out to
ensure the air regeneration capability and due to the great impact that the sources an inflict to the
environment, what is according to the management plans.
Summarizing, we can conclude that DS 28 brings elements from other environmental management
instruments, therefore, its legal nature is sui generis.

7
OTHER CONSIDERATIONS

a. - In case of new emission sources the DS establishes a higher emissions limit and should comply
with this from its entry into force14. In such case, there could be a kind of discrimination, not only
because the demands are higher, but the time frame given to the new economic agent is not a
proper period but a condition for operation, while the copper smelters and other arsenic sources
existing at the moment of the publication of the DS 28, according to article 6, have a time limit of
two and a half, three and five years accordingly to comply with the emission limits.
b. - Article 9 of the DS states that the existent emission sources and new ones must comply with the
limits established in the decree, on the exception that the maximum limits set on the environmental
qualification resolutions (RCA) are more demanding, in such case the last will prevail.
The mentioned article sees an exception about demanding higher standards than the ones pointed
in DS 28, even though aims to protect even more people’s health and the environment, it’s carried
out via RCA.
The above draws attention, since RCA is an administrative act adopted by the Evaluation
Commission referring to the article 86 of Law 19.300 or by the Executive Director of the
Environmental Evaluation Service, if the activities are regional or Trans regional15. While in turn,
the DS 28 is about a group of legal norms of regulatory character, which has a higher legal
hierarchy than an administrative act. In other words, higher standards will be demanded to the
ones stated in a legal body via an administrative act.

CONCLUSIONS

Based on what was commented and stated in the previous points, some of our conclusions and
comments are the following:
DS 28 is an environmental management instrument of legal character and direct regulation.
Its legal nature is sui generis, virtue that merges diverse elements of environmental management
We could be in front of a sort of discrimination, since the demands for the new emitting sources are
higher to the ones existing at the moment of the entry into force of DS 28.
It seem a Little questionable or at least draws attention, according to the exception in article 9 of DS
28, that higher standards than the required by law are demanded by an RCA.

14See article 8 and further articles of Title II of DS 28.

15Regards the legal nature of the environmental qualification resolution see Astorga, Eduardo (2012)
Environmental Chilean Law General Part (3ª Edition), Santiago: Editorial Legal Publishing Chile, p. 228 a 236;
De La Fuente, Osvaldo (2012) Legal Control of the environmental qualification resolution, Santiago: Editorial
Legal Publishing Chile, p. 51 a 93.

8
REFERENCES
Agudo, Jorge (2004) Contamination Control: Legal techniques of environmental protection, Madrid: Editorial
Montecorvo.

Astorga, Eduardo (2012) Chilean Environmental Code (3ª Edición), Santiago: Editorial Legal Publishing Chile.

Bermúdez, Jorge (2014) Fundaments of Environmental Rights (2ª Edición). Valparaíso: Ediciones
Universitarias de Valparaíso Pontificia universidad Católica de Valparaíso.

De La Fuente, Osvaldo (2012) Legal Control of Environtmental Resolution Qualification, Santiago: Editorial
Legal Publishing Chile.

Uncertain scenario for smelters, available at http://quepasamineria.cl/index.php/core-business/item/4232-el-

incierto-panorama-de-las-fundiciones (fecha de visita 16 de septiembre del 2015).

Fernández, Pedro (2004) Chilean Environmental Law Manual. Santiago: Editorial Jurídica de Chile.

Guzmán, Rodrigo (2012) Chilean Environmental Law. Principles, institutions, management instruments.
Santiago: Editorial Planeta Sostenible.

Environmental Management Instruments, available at http://www.sinia.cl/1292/w3-propertyvalue-

15905.html (date of visit November 12, 2014).

Chuquicamata smelter in the verge of collapse, available at

http://www.g80.cl/noticias/entrevistacompleta.php?varbajada=19038, (date of visit October 1, 2014).

Emission norms for copper smelters, too many demands, available at http://www.lyd.com/wp-
content/uploads/2012/09/TP-1079-NORMA-DE-FUNDICIONES.pdf, (date of visit October 1, 2014).

Smelters and refineries in Chile scenario: looking for competitivity, available at

http://www.ingenierosdelcobre.cl/?p=473, (date of visit October 1, 2014).

Senators propose postponing the norm for mining smelters,

http://www.latercera.com/noticia/negocios/2015/07/655-639322-9-senadores-proponen-retrasar-
norma-de-emisiones-para-fundiciones-mineras.shtml; http://www.futurorenovable.cl/senadores-
proponen-retrasar-norma-de-emisiones-para-fundiciones-mineras (date of visits June 20 ans July 22
2015).

A melt business, available at http://www.quepasamineria.cl/index.php/actualidad/item/39-un-negocio-fundido,

(date of visit October 1,).

9
Towards a New Paradigm in Public Participation in
Mining: the Case of Teck in Chile
Cesar Carbajal and Norberto Parra
Teck Resources Chile

ABSTRACT
The processes of Public Participation in Chile’s mining sector are evolving rapidly. After decades of
rapid growth amidst a climate of socio-political stability several mining projects have come to a halt
due to social opposition that have stopped or delayed these projects. What is worst is that social
opposition to projects is here to stay and it is growing in hand with social demands for more
participatory development processes in Chile. These warning signs have caught mining companies,
communities and the Government in different stages of organization to face this challenge and their
response to this context have been varied.
Teck´s results on its Public Participation approach to ongoing operations and future projects can
evidence some of the complexities of the process. The efforts to improve the situation by
incorporating international standards to the particular characteristics of Chilean society are facing
many challenges at all levels and to all relevant actors.
Can mining companies cope alone with expanding Public Participation and information explosion?
Are they ready to face the social requirements of emerging countries with very high human
development such as Chile? Is this kind of Public Participation sufficient? This paper intends to
answer these questions through the experiences of Teck´s Public Participation processes
implemented in its Relincho´s greenfield and its Quebrada Blanca´s brownfield projects and the
internalization generated of these processes.

1
INTRODUCTION
In the context of this document, Public Participation is understood as an ongoing process,
which aims to establish and maintain a constructive relationship between mining
companies and surrounding communities. Thus it is considered an important process that
helps obtain and maintain the "social license to operate."
Public Participation processes in mining projects in Chile, with the participation and
inclusion criteria that are handled today, began after the return of democracy in the mid-
nineties, through environmental regulation, kicking off a citizen exercise with a potential
of increasing growth.
Most social inclusion in public policies coupled with the increasing awareness of citizens'
rights, the empowerment of citizens that call for transparency in environmental
assessment processes, greater access to information through the Internet and social
networks and the feeling that local leaders have that the riches of mining leaves nothing or
very little benefit in its territory, do require a greater effort on the part of businesses to
inform and develop broader participatory processes.

Background
The public participation process is currently conceived as a continuous one, which
includes interactions between the community and the project from its larval stage, through
an early, voluntary and company-led process known as, Participación Comunitaria
Anticipada (PACA), then going to a regulated phase defined by authorities, formally
known as Participación Ciudadana formal (PAC) to reach the final phase throughout the life
of a project (and even beyond), which are follow-up obligations derived from the closure
plan. Thus a participation process, in order to be effective, must understand and take into
account the views, interests and concerns of the community and include them in project
decisions to generate development benefits.
Mining in Chile has the particularity of a high concentration in the north of the country,
dominated by the desert and low population density so the initial public participation
processes in mining started with an approach of remoteness and confined to legally
binding processes in those areas. This situation led to consider some industry players to
comply with the legal minimum, by the process of just informing communities through a
process of one-way communication, it was more than necessary.
The dynamics of economic growth that Chile experienced during the last decade
generated a strong demand for energy at which the market responded with large
hydroelectric projects in southern Chile in order to match supply with this demand. The
social opposition that led to the development of some of these projects in the emblematic
Chilean Patagonia, valued as a pristine area of great tourist potential, resulted in an
organized civil society, with a reborn environmental awareness, linking these projects as
energy providers for large-scale mining and directed their criticism towards mining
projects, reviving the environmental and social concern in this sector.

2
Context of the Change Process
Citizen participation has been increasing, and the voluntary PACA is currently an
imperative.
The process of early participation includes planned activities before admitting EIA for
approval and is focused on disseminating relevant information to the community and
receiving feedback aimed at reducing negative impacts while increasing positive effects.
It is important to consider the purpose of a voluntary participatory process in the
immediate term and in the long run. Indeed, the immediate purpose is the objective of an
EIA capable of obtaining a favorable approval, however, this achievement restricted to a
utilitarian relationship, has no good end. The main objective is to obtain the “social
license” to operate meaning that the company becomes part of the community in a co-
construction of long-term relationships based on mutual trust.
An interaction centered on communication tools for development that keep deep
relationships with corporate marketing initiatives can deliver and receive information
relevant to the interests and concerns of the other parties, and listen and find solutions to
their concerns. This will be the way to advance in generating trust in an EIA and the
project. Trust does not necessarily imply acceptance, but the recognition of being a
company that operates with high environmental and social standards, which is an
important reputational capital to face conflicts. In this sense trust relationships involves a
long-term process, one that is sustainable and permanent, which involves a considerable
investment of time and human resources.
Finally, the incorporation of the indigenous consultation process not only encouraged an
initial country level discussion in terms of its implementation but for its direct
applicability to Chilean environmental institutions. This brought with it, after the debate,
the change of status and the formal inclusion of an actor with the special characteristics in
organization, origins and claims like indigenous groups.

Evolution towards “Teck Model” of Public Participation

Since 2011 to date, Teck Chile has developed four public participation processes and
implemented three. These processes are Quebrada Blanca Phase 2 - first presentation
(2011-12), Relincho (2012-13), Quebrada Blanca Phase 1 (2014) and Quebrada Blanca Phase
2 (in development).
These processes have been evolving and incorporating criteria to increase participation
fueled by the context in which they are developed and by the search, as already indicated,
of better tools to obtain the "social license" to operate. This evolution in public
participation processes is what has generated the paradigm shift that the "Teck model"
contains.

3
As mentioned, the company decided to consider a proactive attitude towards public
participation and the applicability of the Indigenous Consultation principles. This meant
that within a single process information relevant and understandable to the communities
had to be delivered, providing adequate time for their understanding of the project, its
effects, receive opinions (feedback) and integrate them, as appropriate, into the
engineering and environmental decisions to be made in order to prevent or minimize
negative impacts, include knowledge and local participation and benefits in local
development.
In each participation process developed by the company Teck decide to include
professionals responsible for various EIA components to report directly to the community
about the progress of the project as well as including the most demanding interpretations
of the Chilean environmental legislation, international standards adopted by industry
(IFC, World Bank, ICMM) and the guidelines of the company. Regarding the planned of
public participation activities, they were ongoing and multipurpose, based always on a
participatory approach with stakeholders, inclusion into the territory, focusing on
gathering information for the project´s area of influence and baseline analysis for potential
impacts of the measures and procedures for tracking and monitoring the commitments
made by Teck. Additionally, mechanisms to ensure that the information to be delivered
was culturally appropriate in content, form and presentation, were put in place. The
information material was prepared using simple language, considering the characteristics
of the local population such as literacy levels, leadership structures, local methods for
disseminating information, etc.
Finally these participation processes have validated and encouraged the use of existing
community feedback mechanisms in the operation in order to promote and maintain a
close relationship with the communities around its operations, keeping channels open and
transparent at all times.

The Paradigm Shift in the Process of Public Participation in Teck Chile

Faced with the challenges of the environment and the company itself against this
environment, Teck Chile strengthened its public participation scheme taking as basis the
most demanding interpretations of local legislation and incorporating international
standards as indicated.
In parallel to these changes, the process was linked into the company by including the
guidelines of Teck´s Code of Conduct and other relevant corporate policies. Since Teck
origin is Canadian, its internal policies are aligned to Canadian legislation which is more
advanced in human rights, citizen participation, indigenous rights and environmental
regulation, which deeply reinforced this paradigm shift.
At all times, as already noted, the "Teck model" includes the permanent involvement of
professionals responsible for the various components of EIA to public participation
activities in order to transmit the information directly. The process also includes a first
round of meetings with representatives of communities or with the communities in order

4
to agree on the type of activity, location, date and time more appropriate to the
community. Proving the model is flexible and fully adaptable to local conditions.
The aim of these interactions is to validate information, being transparent and to interact
in the process of preparation of environmental studies and social and environmental
baselines. The process of public participation in Teck Chile is considered a platform for
dialogue and information discussion.
The development of public participation processes in Teck combined the influence of
theory, international and company standards and the environmental challenges faced by
Teck projects in Chile. All of these generate the paradigm shift that the company
experienced since 2012 which in turn created the “Teck model” in public participation,
whose main characteristics are:

 It is based on, and covers all, localities of the study area

 Use participation mechanisms specified in the SEIA guide
 Public participation implementation is in accordance with local reality and needs
of each locality
 Seeks greater participation possible, least invasive in order to achieve the greatest
possible inclusion
 The "Teck model" aims at people, is interactive, flexible, adaptable and close to
communities

CONCLUSIONS
 Increased attention to environmental and social concerns lead to increased social
and environmental conflicts and Public Participation expands and becomes more
complex.

 Teck responds to increasing demands for public involvement with a new approach
that includes these new demands, accepted international standards and business
practices in other jurisdictions.

 Teck’s internalization of the public participation process creates a paradigm shift

validated by company and international standards enabling its application in all
company projects.

 The paradigm shift experienced by the company generates a local “Teck model” in
public participation geared to people, that is interactive, flexible, adaptable and
“community friendly.”

 This new approach and paradigm shift towards public participation is the way in
which the company responds locally to the new challenges presented by current
and future projects.

5
REFERENCES

Servicio de Evaluación Ambiental - Departamento de Participación Ciudadana de la División de Evaluación

Ambiental y Participación Ciudadana, Guía para la participación anticipada de la comunidad en
proyectos que se presentan al SEIA, (2013)

International Labor Organization, C169 Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, 1989

United Nations, The Universal Declaration of Human Rights

International Finance Corporation, Performance Standards, Washington DC

International Council on Mining and Metals, Sustainable Development Framework, London. International
Council on Mining and Metals, Indigenous Peoples and Mining, London (2010)

Prospectors and Developers Association of Canada, E3 Plus, A Framework for Sustainable Exploration,
Toronto

Teck Resources Limited, Environment, Health, Safety and Community Management Standards, (2010)

Teck Resources Limited, SMART Exploration Toolkit, (2011)

Teck Resources Limited, Community of Interest Feedback Mechanism Procedure, (2010)

Teck Resources Limited, Code of Conduct

Teck Resources Limited, Ethics Code

6
 C HAP T E R 7

MANAGEMENT AND
EFFLUENT WATER
TREATMENT
Advanced Process Treatment System for Tailings
Ponds Water
Luiz Abrahão1 and Kashi Banerjee2
1. Process & Proposal Department, Veolia Water Technologies, Brazil
2. Process Engineering and Technology Development, Veolia Water Technologies, USA

ABSTRACT
Mining activities usually produces different residual liquid streams with distinctive characteristics
in terms of organic and inorganic content (mainly metals and sulfates) not able to be discharged
without any treatment to the environment. One of these industrial stream is the tailings, composed
by mineral and water pulp, which is commonly transported by gravity to the tailings dam through
a pipeline from the thickeners of the concentrator plant. Extensive area for tailings impoundment
are utilized to storage these streams with high risks of surrounding environment contamination by
pond infiltration.
Based on lab and field pilot tests conducted at a copper mine site in South America, a process was
developed to treat the tailings water fulfilling all of the required parameters for local irrigation
standard and a solid residue, also not allowing any streams back to the tailings pond.
The proposed process includes pre-treatment for solids and metals removal (mainly molybdenum,
manganese and iron) using proprietary high rate settling technology followed by a one-stage
nanofiltration membrane process (NF) for sulfate removal.
Using a two stage chemical precipitation process, sulfate from the NF reject is reduced to less than
100 mg/L. Desaturation of sulfate takes place in the first reactor in presence of seed material with
sludge recirculation which reduces sulfate down to less than 1,200 mg/L.
Using aluminum based compound, sulfate is further reduced to less than 100 mg/L in the second
stage reactor. The process recovers more than 95% aluminum from the precipitated sludge for
reuse. After blending the treated NF reject with permeate, the overall water recovery increased
more than 90%. Sludge dewatering by filter press was designed to get at least 50% dry solids
content to minimize the cost of cake disposal in landfill.

1
INTRODUCTION
Mining activities usually produces different residual liquid streams with distinctive characteristics
in terms of organic and inorganic content (mainly metals and sulfates) not able to be discharged
without any treatment to the environment. Tailings water is composed by mineral and water pulp,
which is commonly transported by gravity to the tailings dam through a pipeline from the
thickeners of the concentrator plant.
Because of future expansion, some mines has been developing a global solution in order to control
the water balance of the tailings pond, minimize the possibility of land infiltrations and
implementing water treatment plants to provide water for irrigation.
Several treatment processes are available for sulfate removal, such as membranes (reverse osmosis
– RO, nanofiltration–NF, electrical dialysis-ED), chemical treatment with mineral precipitation
(lime/limestone and barium salts addition, aluminum trihydroxide/lime to precipitate the sulfate
ion-based mineral ettringite) and others. A combination and optimization among these distinct
processes could be designed for this purpose in attractive capital and operability costs.
Into this concept, Veolia has performed a pilot plant test at the site facilities for the treatment of a
copper mining tailings pond during four months. The process have included pre-treatment step of
raw tailings pond water followed by a one-stage membrane process for dissolved solids removal
with downstream desaturation and sulfate precipitation. The overarching goal was to demonstrate
the ability to meet the local standard legislation for irrigation purpose without recycling any stream
back to the tailings pond. The target for this specific case was 250 mgSO42-/L.
As general information, Table 1 presents some characteristics of the tailings water used in
treatability laboratory studies previously performed by Veolia, as well indicating some main
parameters as target for the irrigation water discharge.

PILOT PLANT DESCRIPTION

A pilot plant composed by two containers (forty feet each one) was specially designed, built and
shipped to the site for a four-month pilot testing. Pilot operation consisted of the following unit
processes as shown in the simplified block diagram - Figure 1:
 Pre-treatment system, which includes primary coagulation/flocculation, primary settler and
multimedia filtration (MMF);
 Nanofiltration (NF) for especially calcium and sulfates removal;
 CaSO4 Desaturation process: first stage sulfates removal from NF reject by chemical
precipitation process;
 Advanced precipitation process: second stage sulfates removal from NF reject via
precipitation with an aluminum-based reagent as an Ettringite mineral.

2
Table 1 Characteristics of tailings pond and irrigation waters

Parameters Units Tailings Pond Water Local Irrigation Standard

pH s.u. 7.4 5.5 - 9.0

Calcium mg/L 692 (**)
Sodium mg/L 104 35 (*)
Magnesium mg/L 21 (**)
Potassium mg/L 124 (**)
Chlorides mg/L 67 200
Sulfates mg/L 1,830 250
Iron mg/L 0.04 5.0
Manganese mg/L 0.17 (**)
Molybdenum mg/L 0.25 0.01
(*)
Sodium concentration in terms of Na%, where Na% = (Na/(Na+Ca+Mg+K)) x 100. Ions concentration in Meq/L.
(**)
Not specified, but affecting the Na% calculations.

The system was designed to handle an average feed flow of 4.5 m 3/h where the pilot plant was
transported, installed and operated from November 2010 to April 24 th, 2011. The following sections
provide details regarding each unit operation in the pilot system.

Pre-Treatment System
Pre-treatment was designed mainly to remove turbidity caused by the presence in the water of fine
particles such as clay, silt, plankton and inorganic material such as molybdenum, manganese, iron,
etc. These particles must undergo a first destabilization step, which was achieved by the use of a
coagulant. Dosage of iron as a primary coagulant in the form of 42% ferric chloride solution was
done to the pre-treatment tank to aid coagulation process as well polymeric flocculent to aid the
flocculation process. During operation, canal water had turbidity around 25 NTU resulting in irons
salts dosage from initially 15 mg/L to 25 mg/L (as Fe) to remove algae from canal water.
Influent from the canal was pumped at a manually controlled rate into the pre-treatment tank using
submersible feed pump located at the influent canal. The pre-treatment tank was an agitated vessel
and the flow out to the settler was maintained at a value determined by a gate valve and a
rotameter. A pH meter installed in the pre-treatment tank was used to dose sodium hydroxide for
pH control in the pre-treatment tank into 7.5 - 8.5 range.
The resulted higher TSS generation out of the pre-treatment tank (about 80 mg/L) was removed by
the rectangular settler prior to feeding to the MMF. This succeeded in reducing the TSS load to the
MMF and resulted in a significant lengthening of the MMF run time. A vacuum pump type was
used to remove settled sludge and keep the settler operation efficiently.

3
 Figure 1 Simplified diagram of the pilot plant process treatment

Multimedia Filters (MMF)

Treated water from the settler was pumped to the multimedia filters (MMF) in order to remove the
remaining TSS and reduce the Silt Density Index (SDI) to prevent any particulate fouling of NF
membranes downstream. The filters were sized to process the total flow and operate with one on-
line and one on stand-by mode with hydraulic loading rate around 7 - 10 m/h.
MMF feed pump was sized for a maximum capacity of 6.5 m 3/h and 4.5 m3/h as nominal filter
effluent flow rate. Accumulated solids within the filter media were removed by manually
backwashing the filters. Backwash water from MMF was collected in a holding tank. Solids from
the bottom tank were mixture with CaSO4 sludge prior to disposal in a local landfill.
The MMF backwash mode has included the following steps: drain down, air scour, refill, water
backwash, settle and ripening. NF feed tank water was used for backwashing the filters. The total
backwash cycle time was 4–5 hours and frequencies once every 14 to 20 hours

Nanofiltration (NF)
Effluent from the multimedia filters flowed to the NF feed tank, which total volume was designed
to provide one backwash volume of water for a MMF while maintaining a continuous forward feed
flow rate of up to 4.5 m3/h. The effluent from the MMF flowed to the NF system via the five micron
(nominal rating) cartridge filter, where the soluble (di and trivalent) cations and anions were
removed for final discharge of the treated effluent.
One single-pass NF system was used for this application. The system included three separate
pressure vessels with three x 200 mm diameter membrane elements mounted in series – two
elements were DOW 90-400 and one was a DOW 270-400. Each pressure vessel contained one
membrane element and the vessels were connected in series.
4
At an injection point upstream of the cartridge filter, a dosage of antiscalant about 5 mg/L was
added to mitigate scale formation (especially calcium sulfate scaling) on the membrane surface.
Effluent (permeate) from NF were sent back to the tailings pond during the pilot study while the
concentrate (reject) was treated for removal of sulfate by chemical precipitation, using Turbomix®
tank and cone bottom settler. Turbomix® is a patented internal tube that vertically leads water to
the vertical axis mixer, where relatively great volumes of water are pumped avoiding short circuits
and maximizing the chemicals dispersion.

First Stage Sulfate Removal System (Calcium Sulfate precipitation)

NF concentrate (or reject) flowed to another coagulation tank which in turn flowed by gravity to the
Turbomix® tank where a 5% lime solution was added based on pH, which was maintained
between 11.8 – 11.9 S.U. This provided a source of calcium ion for sulfate precipitation. Plaster of
Paris (CaSO4∙0.5 H2O) was added into the Turbomix® tank at the start of the first stage sulfate
removal step to provide seed crystals for enhanced sulfate precipitation. During pilot operation,
Plaster of Paris was added a second time, because Total Suspended Solids (TSS) had decreased due
to the loss of solids wasted to the drain because of transfer line block problems. After the reaction,
the mixture overflows into the Flocculation Tank where a polymeric flocculent was dosed at 2
mg/L. The effluent from the Flocculation Tank overflowed into the Cone-Bottom Separator where
precipitated calcium sulfate solids were separated from the solution. A portion of settled sludge
from cone bottom separator was recycled back to Turbomix® tank. Excess of sludge was mixture to
the others, dewatered prior to be discharged in a local landfill.

Second Stage Sulfate Removal System (Ettringite Precipitation)

The treated NF reject from the Coned-Bottom Separator overflow flows to the 2nd stage precipitation
tank where lime slurry and aluminum based salt were added. In this tank, sulfate was precipitated
by forming a highly insoluble calciumsulfoaluminate (Ettringite mineral) salt which was reused in
the process. This topic will be discussed in another paper by Kashi Banerjee at the same conference.

PILOT PLANT RESULTS

Water Quality
Table 2 presents the average values for the main parameters in the raw water inlet (tailings pond
water) obtained during the period of the tests.
Table 2 Average Characteristics of tailings pond water

Parameters Units Raw Water Inlet

(average values)

pH s.u. 7.47

TDS mg/L 3,154

TSS mg/L 32
Turbidity NTU 22.9

5
 Calcium mg/L 690
Chlorides mg/L 76
Sulfates mg/L 2,390
Iron mg/L 0.20
Manganese mg/L 0.17

The maximum concentrations of calcium and sulfates in the canal water measured were 790 mg/L
and 2,925 mg/L, respectively. Water turbidity measured onsite was in the range of 6.7 to 133 NTU
indicating some high levels of variation due to the presence of slit and algae growth in canal where
the feed pump was installed. Some very high values (above 80 NTU) have been observed from
brown color water in the canal on certain weekend days.

Pre-treatment and MMF filters

Although the raw water presented average TSS around 32 mg/L, the dosage of primary coagulant
(ferric chloride) has increased the solids concentration up to 89 mg/L, indicating too high value to
feed directly the MMF filters. After the primary settler, TSS loading to the multimedia filters was
reduced to less than 30 mg/L (on an average basis). The settler had reduced TSS loading to the
filters by 60%. SDI variation after MMF filters ranged between 0.5 and 5.0, including MMF filters
ripening times.

Filters Performance
The average turbidity in the influent and effluent of multimedia filters were respectively 25 NTU
and 0.8 NTU, and 97% turbidity removal was achieved across the MMF filters on a consistent basis
during the pilot operation. Better filter performance was achieved by lower TSS loading, frequent
backwashing (once every 14 hours) and longer ripening time. Low turbidity concentrations in the
MMF effluent were maintained to avoid any particulate fouling in the NF membranes.

Nanofiltration (NF): 25 to 45 % water recovery rate

NF membranes were nominally operated at 25%, 35% and 45% water recovery rates during pilot
operation. The percent calcium sulfate saturation was maintained below the sequestering agent
control limit (i.e. 350% percent calcium sulfate saturation). During the NF operation, antiscalant
dosage was maintained about 5 mg/L and SDI values were maintained below 5.0. NF membranes
were flushed with permeate water every 12 hours for a period of 15 to 20 minutes to avoid any
potential calcium sulfate scaling.
Figure 2 represents NF permeate sulfates and percent rejection of sulfates by membranes at 25%,
35% and 45% water recovery rate. The percent rejection of sulfates by membranes at these water
recoveries were 98–99% with an average of 98.5% as expected. NF permeate sulfates ranged
between 30 and 50 mg/L.
Figure 2 also represents NF permeate calcium and percent rejection of calcium by membranes at
25%, 35% and 45% water recovery rate. The percent rejection of calcium by membranes at these
water recoveries were 80 - 99% with average of 90% as expected. NF permeate calcium ranged
between 20 and 130 mg/L.

6
Sulfate rejection shows a very stable line in the very high 90`s where the calcium rejection is more
variable and frequently a little lower than the level achieved by the sulfates this is the result of how
the membrane works. Since the surface of the membrane has a negative charge, the membrane
primarily rejects sulfate and due to ion, pairing the sulfate holds back the magnesium and calcium
from passing through the membrane. Small variations in the water composition will result in
slightly different ion pairings and this will result in an apparently less stable calcium rejection while
the sulfate rejection will remain constant
Figure 3 represents NF reject sulfate concentration at 25%, 35% and 45% water recovery rate. NF
reject sulfates ranged between 2,000 and 6,000 mg/L. Figure 3 also includes NF reject calcium
concentration at 25%, 35% and 45% water recovery rate. NF reject calcium ranged between 600 and
1,800 mg/L.
The Transmembrane pressure (TMP) at 25%, 35% and 45% water recovery rate never exceeded 0.7
bar indicating that was because of low SDI values (particulates) in the NF feed water and periodic
flushing of NF membranes with NF Permeate water.

NF Reject Treatment
The 1st stage desaturation process showed reduction of sulfates from 3,371 to 1,500 mgSO42-/L,
while the 2nd stage ettringite process showed reduction of sulfates from 1,914 to about 100 mg/L.

Sludge Characterization
During pilot operation, grab samples of sludge from pretreatment settler, MMF backwash, first
stage sulfate removal cone bottom separator and ettringite settler were collected to perform the
following analyses: TCLP for metals and organics; Corrosivity and Ignitability and X-Ray
Diffraction (XRD) and X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) analysis.
 US EPA´s Toxic Characteristics Leaching Procedure (TCLP) tests resulted that the
concentration of all eight (8) listed metals, including arsenic, barium, cadmium, lead,
mercury, selenium, and silver in the extracts for all samples of sludge were less than the
toxicity limit of each metal and also for all individual organics constituent.

7
 Figure 2 Sulfates and calcium concentrations on the NF Permeate and salts percent rejection

8
 Figure 3 Sulfates and calcium concentrations observed on the NF reject

 Following EPA 1110-A procedure, tests of “Corrosivity Toward Steel” realized in the
extracts of water cake indicated that all the sludge samples were non-corrosive, below the
maximum value of 6.35 mm/year.
 Following EPA 1030 procedure, tests of “Ignitability of Solids” resulted that all sludge
samples were non-flammable, resulting in less than 2.2 mm/s flame propagation speed.

9
  Inorganic constituents in the extracts of dewatered sludge cake: as expected, inorganics that
are more representative were calcium (35 to 41%), sulfur (42 to 21%) and alum (0.4 to 19%),
respectively for the 1st and 2nd stages cone-bottom settlers.
 Crystalline species in the extracts of dewatered sludge cakes showed that the composition
of the sludge in the first stage sulfate removal settler, the main phase was gypsum, and the
secondary phases are brucite (Mg(OH)2), quartz (SiO2), calcite (CaCO3) and bassanite
(plaster of paris CaSO4.0.5H2O or anhydrite CaSO4).

CONCLUSIONS
Results obtained from the on-site pilot study demonstrated the technical efficacy of the proposed
process. Key results obtained include:
 Pre-treatment of the raw tailings pond water proved to be very intensive, having an SDI <5
necessary for robust NF membrane operation. It was accomplished with a combination of
25 ppm ferric, 2 ppm polyacrylamide flocculant and sufficient NaOH or lime to affect a pH
8+.
 On average, the NF membranes can operate at up to 50% recovery (350% saturation with
respect to gypsum) with 3-5 ppm of antiscalant. Higher levels of recovery are achieved with
multiple NF stages, e.g., 65% with two stages and about 75% with three stages.
 First stage desaturation technology is able to desaturate NF membrane interstitial reject to
below 120% saturation nominally. The system requires hydrated lime at pH 11.5+ along
with an initial seed crystal (Plaster of Paris) to initiate crystallization.
 Second stage precipitation process reduced sulphate down to less than 100 mg/L. Recovery
of more than 95% of aluminium was achieved from the precipitated calciumsulfoaluminate
sludge.
 Sludge generated from this process is non-hazardous and non-toxic for metals and
organics, non-corrosive, and non-flammable.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge all the Veolia´s technical experts from different business
units who have been involved since the process definition, design and construction of the pilot unit,
operation, maintenance, laboratory analyses, complementary tests, etc., associated with this work.

NOMENCLATURE
NF nanofiltration system
MMF multimedia filters
SDI silt density index
TCLP Toxic Characteristics Leaching Procedure
Ca(OH)2 calcium chloride
NaOH caustic soda

10
REFERENCES
S. Bertrand, I. Lemaîrtre and E. Whittmann, (1997) Performance of a nanofiltration plant on hard and highly sulfated
water during two years of operation. Desalination, Vol. 113, pp. 277-281.

Lorax Environmental (2003) INAP International Network for Acid Prevention.

Paul J. Usinowicz, Bruce F. Monzyk and Linda Carlton, (2006) Technical and economical evaluation and selection of
sulfate ion removal technologies for recovery of water from mineral concentrate transport slurry, WEFTEC 06.

Veolia Water Technology (2010) Laboratory-scale Study Report, Internal Report.

11
The Use of Natural Polymers (Chitosan and Humic
Acid) in the Red Mud Wastewater Treatment
Sílvia França1, Pamela Loayza2 and Eduardo Brocchi3
1. Centre for Mineral Technology (CETEM), Brazil
2. PUC-Rio/CETEM, Brazil
3. Department of Materials Science and Metallurgy/ Rio de Janeiro Catholic University
(PUC-Rio), Brazil

ABSTRACT
The reuse and recirculation of process water in mineral and metallurgical beneficiation plants is
increasingly common. Polymers have been used in coagulation and flocculation processes for
wastewater treatment for many years and its application is mostly based on the mechanisms of
adsorption of soluble material on solid particles, forming metal hydroxide flocs. In the case of
alumina refineries, which the main residue is the red mud, wastewater flows contain large amounts
of very fine particles (d50 = 6.6 μm ) and high causticity. The use of flocculant polymers, mostly
polyacrylamides, acts in the colloids removal of these effluents; however, alternative
environmentally friendly natural polymers, such as chitosan and humic acid, when used together
can promote greater effectiveness in the treatment of these red mud wastewater.
The purpose of this study is to evaluate the use of these natural polymers in the treatment of
wastewater containing colloidal material in order to reduce the amount of fine particles to less than
50 NTU, which reach environmental standards for water reuse. Based on pH, presence of soluble
ions and surface resulting electrical charge of the particles measurements and electrolyte addition,
operating conditions for destabilization and flocculation of this wastewater were determined.
The variables evaluated in the dewatering operations were particle surface charges, dosages of
flocculants, stirring speed and time. Particle removal efficiency was calculated based on the
turbidity in the wastewater and in the thickener overflow. For red mud wastewater containing 1% (
w/v) red mud particles, flocculated with a mixture of chitosan/humic acid at pH=12, the solids
removal efficiency by flocculation and sedimentation was 95%. The reduction in color and
causticity, besides overflow turbidity values above 50 NTU, indicate the efficiency of these reagents
to reach the environmental guidelines for water reuse.

1
INTRODUCTION
One of the greatest challenges facing the aluminium industry is the disposal of the red mud, a
highly toxic bauxite refinery residue, produced during alumina extraction with the Bayer process.
This process generates highly alkaline slurry with around 20% solids, which is pumped away or
filtered for appropriate disposal. Based on Kobya et al. (2014), the red mud is the world’s highest
volume industrial waste, increasing by approximately 120 Mt/a.
In some refineries the red mud slurry is counter current washed - to recover the caustic content -
and filtered to be disposed in dry stacking areas. The filtrate, a highly alkaline product, represents
significant risks to the local environment due to its high pH (10-13) values and its potential impacts
on surface and ground water quality. Therefore, this residue must be treated aiming to adequate
the water quality for disposal or industrial reuse, reducing environmental impacts.
Small particles and dissolved compounds still remain in the filtrate, promoting the characteristics of
the effluent turbidity and color, respectively, due to the high iron oxide content, and causticity (pH
of around 10 to 12), so they might be removed. Due to its surface properties and size, these particles
will not settle naturally, being necessary aggregation to the solid-liquid separation improvement,
besides causticity reduction.
The majority of reagents frequently used for particle aggregation in mineral processing are
polyacrylamide (PAM)-based flocculants, with average molecular weights around 10 MDa or more
(Arinaitwe and Pawlik, 2013). Some authors also report the use of polyacrylate/hydroxamate co-
dosing flocculation for bauxite residue treatment (Kirwan, 2009).
In most of the alumina refineries after the neutralization, the effluent is pumped to the clarifier for
flocculation and decantation to separate the suspended solids from the liquid phase (Aldi, 2009).
The use of alternative reagents (coagulants and flocculants) that can perform aggregation into
highly alkaline medium (natural red mud pH) could promote cost reduction and efficiency
improvements to the processing plant.
The chitosan, a cationic polysaccharide (Figure 1) is an important polymer largely used in water
treatment. However, when this polymer is applied as a flocculant, two most concerned aspects
must be considered: its poor water solubility and low molecular weight, compared to the
commercial polymers.

Figure 1 Chitosan chemical structure

2
Zeng et al. (2008) reported that chitosan’s molecular structure contains several amino groups (–
NH2) and hydroxyl groups (–OH) on the molecular chain, which contain single-pair electrons that
can interact to metal ions, forming stable metal chelate complexes (–N–M–O–) (Zhang, 1979).
Thereby chitosan can be used for removal of many undesirable metal ions in water, such as Ag+,
Ca2+, Zn2+, Hg2+, Pb2+, Cu2+, Al3+, Cr3+, among others. Wherefore the active amino groups present in
the chitosan molecule can be protonated with H+ in water into a cationic polyelectrolyte, producing
a molecule able to promote static attraction and adsorption (Yang et al., 2014). Consequently,
chitosan can also flocculate particles into bigger flocs improving dewatering operations.
The humic acids (HA) are substances with similar properties to weak acidic polyelectrolytes, which
surface charges are strongly influenced by pH and presence of neutral salts. Zhang & Bai (2003)
reported that humic acids can be adsorbed in chitosan molecule surface, promoting a reduction in
the zeta potential. Therefore, these two polymers could work in co-flocculation process to capture
very fine particles in wastewater treatment.
The objective of this study is to evaluate the potential use of chitosan and humic acid as flocculant
polymers for red mud wastewater and its efficiency as a function of solids concentration, pH,
stirring speed for process optimization purposes.

METHODOLOGY

Material
The red mud sample was collected in an alumina refinery, located in Northern Brazil. Chitosan and
humic acid - HA (analytical reagents) were manufactured by Sigma-Aldrich Chemical Co. The
reagents were received in dry granules and were used as a solution; the preparation procedure is
described as follow.

Reagents preparation

Preparation of chitosan solution

The chitosan stock solution was prepared by dissolving 1.0 g of chitosan in 1L of a 0.025 M HCl
solution and stirred for 24 hours according to the procedure described by Bratskaya, Chervonetsky
and Schwarz (2004).

Preparation of humic acid solution

The HA stock solution was prepared by dissolving 1.0 g of humic acid in 1L of 0.1M KOH solution,
stirred for 48 hours and filtered through quantitative filter paper (Whatman no. 1 ), according to the
methodology used by Zouboulis, Jun and Katsoyiannis (2003).

Particle size distribution

The sample was dried at 60 OC for 3 hours in laboratory oven and subsequently disaggregated with
the help of a screen with aperture of 297 µm. The determination of particle size distribution was
performed on a laser diffractometer, Mastersizer 2000, manufactured by Malvern Instruments,
using sonication for 3 minutes.

3
Surface charge measurements
The sample was ground to a particle size smaller than 20 µm, following the instructions contained
in the Zeta Potential Analyzer (Brookhaven Instruments Corp.) user´s guide. 0.5 g of red mud was
added to 0.5 L of Milli-Q water, for two indifferent electrolyte concentration (0.001 M and 0.01 M
KNO3). Sub-samples of the pulp were taken for pH adjustment with 0.1 M HCl and 0.1 M KOH
solution, maintaining the mixture under continuous stirring and controlled temperature at 25 °C;
the solution should be at rest for 5 min and afterwards analysed.
For chitosan, the surface charges measurements were made directly to the stock solution (item 2.2),
after pH adjustments in the range of 3 to 12. For HA, one aliquot of the stock solution (item 2.3) was
taken to prepare a 100 ppm solution. Small aliquots of this HA solutions were taken to pH
adjustment (3-12) with 0.1 M HCl and 0.1M KOH solutions.

Flocculation
The flocculation tests were performed in jar test machine (Nova Etica). A 0.6% solids slurry was
prepared in a beaker of 2.0 L capacity at room temperature and homogenized for 3 minutes at 190
rpm (primary mixing zone). At the same rotation, the addition of chitosan was performed stirred
for 1.2 minutes; then added HA , maintaining the system under stirring for another 1.2 minutes.
The rotation was reduced to 95 rpm (slow mixing zone) to promote the growth of flocs for 1 minute;
after cease stirring, the slurry was allowed to stand at room temperature for 1 hour sedimentation
period. After sedimentation, small aliquots of the supernatant liquid were taken to determination of
turbidity, performed in a Hach 2100P turbidimeter; with this result was possible to calculate the
solids removal efficiency.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Red mud particle size distribution

The results obtained by laser diffraction showed particle size distribution with d(0.5)=6.5 µm and
d(0.9)=30 µm, which reflects the presence of colloids in the slurry and the need of an aggregation
step for solids removal from the supernatant liquid.

Electrostatic interaction
The zeta potential measurements for chitosan, HA and red mud under two different electrolite
concentrations are shown in Figure 2. The resulting HA has a negative surface charge in the pH
range from 3 to 12, which can be attributed to dissociation of carboxylic acid (-COOH) and to a
lesser extent of the phenolic group (-OH) (Bai and Yan, 2005). As indicated by Zhang and Bai
(2003), the pKa for the carboxylic acid group is 4 and for the phenolic group is 8.

4
 70 with KNO3 0.001 M
60 with KNO3 0.01 M
50 Chitosan
40

zeta potential (mV)

humic acid
30
20
10
0
-10 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
-20
-30
-40
-50
-60
pH

Figure 2 Surface charge for chitosan, humic acid and red mud for different electrolyte concentration

In contrast, the chitosan presents positive surface charge in acidic medium and a negative surface
charge in alkaline medium with an isoelectric point at pH 6, showing its water solubility in acidic
medium, by protonation of the amine group (-NH2 to NH3+) at pH <6, as reported by Rinaudo
(2006) and Zhang and Bai (2003). It was noticed the isoelectric point is situated close to its pKa
between 6.3 and 6.7 (Yan and Bai, 2005). In a neutral to alkaline pH range, can occur the
deprotonation of the amine group and it transformation to an insoluble form (for -NH- -NH2), as
reported by Zhang and Bai (2003), Rinaudo (2006) and Quemeneur et al. (2008).
In the case of red mud, the natural pH of the pulp is in the range 10.2 <pH <10.5. Due to the variety
of mineral particles present in the sample, it was posible to verify the existence of two isoelectric
points, at pH 5.5 and 12.5. The red mud has a stable colloidal zone in the pH range of 9 to 11.5.
Above pH 5.5, the Surface charge of red mud particles can be reversed from negative to positive. It
was also noticed no influence of the electrolyte in the zeta potential.

Surface charge and pH interactions

The agglomerate size was used as an indication of the degree of aggregation of red mud particles in
the slurry, with pH variation. Figure 3 shows in the region near to the isoelectric point (pH 12) the
material presented larger particle size, showing the possible agglomeration of the particles due to
the surface charge neutralization. The same behavior can be observed at pH 8. A similar behavior is
also reported in the pH range close to the second isoelectric point (pH 5 - 6) and even higher
particle sizes can be observed in the pH range 2 to 4.

5
 20

18

Average size (µm)

16

14

12

10

6
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

pH

Figure 3 Red mud particle aggregation in function of pH

Chitosan and humic acid interaction in the particle surface

The efficiency of flocculation, especially for fine particles was quantified by measuring the turbidity
of the supernatant liquid after the flocculation and sedimentation tests, compared to the natural
slurry (unflocculated) which present average turbidity lying in the range of 500 to 550 NTU. The
flocculation tests were performed with Milli-Q water and tap water to constant dosages of chitosan
(30 g/t) of humic acid (10 /t) to evaluate the influence of ions present in the water/slurry. The results
are presented in the Figure 4.

Chitosan with humic acid (tap water) only chitosan (tap water)
chitosan with humic acid (mili-Q) only chitosan (mili-Q)

Figure 4 Turbidity removal as a function of chitosan (30 g/t) and humic acid (10 g/t) adsorption on red mud
particles

At the natural pH of red mud simple (pH=10) it was noticed a low flocculation efficiency, for both
types of water and flocculant, represented by the high values of turbidity after treatment
(flocullation and sedimentation), up to 300 NTU, as can be observed in the Figure 4. These results
might be due to the poor adsorption of polymers in the red mud particles surface. Therefore, in pH
values in the range 7 to 8, the flocculation of particles was efficient and it was posible to reach very
low turbidity in the supernatant water, around 10 NTU, with chitosan as a flocculant. The co-
flocculation effect could be noticed also at pH 7-8 by the use of chitosan and HA, resulting in a
supernatant with 3 NTU, equivalent to 99% turbidity removal.

6
Considering the natural pH of red mud in refineries lying aroung 11-12, another important aspect
to highlight is that at pH values near the isoelectric point (pH~12), the adsorption was efficient,
especially in the presence of chitosan with humic acid, obtaining turbidity value around 33.4 NTU.
This result show the potentiality of using this combination of polymers to wastewater treatment
and water reuse, improving the process in economic and environmental aspects.

CONCLUSION
The pH 8 was the optimum for the formation of red mud flocs due to protonation of chitosan (-NH-
) and HA, in particular of phenolic groups, and the influence of counter-ions present in the slurry,
achieving a turbidity of 8.8 NTU. This result fits the Standard CONAMA 357 for effluent disposal
or water reuse, which requires a turbidity of 40 NTU and pH range 6 to 9.
Adsorption of humic acid and chitosan at pH 12, range where the polymers are negatively charged
as well as the particle surface, the adsorption forces are originated due to the Van der Walls
attraction forces. Besides it, the presence of salts in the slurry increases adsorption, enabling
flocculation and sedimentation of approximately 94% of the suspended particles, allowing the reuse
of water in the process.
Considering the studied pH range, adsorption of the AH was less effective than chitosan, probably
due to its low molecular weight (27 kDa) in comparison with chitosan, which is 232 kDa.
The adsorption behavior of chitosan and HA in the red mud surface particles proved to be very
similar, which induces a strong importance of destabilization of surface charges influenced by the
pH.
Co-flocculation by using chitosan and humic acid can be considered an alternative to red mud
wastewater treatment, facing cos effective and environmental challenges for the process.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to express gratitude to CNPq – Brazilian Research Council, to CETEM for
the laboratory facilities and to the Surface Interaction Laboratory (PEQ/COPPE/UFRJ).

REFERENCES
Aldi, J. (2009) Achieving excellence in liquid effluent treatment at Alunorte. Light Metals 2009, TMS Edition, p.
21-24.

Arinaitwe, E; Pawlik, M. (2013). A role of locculant chain flexibility in flocculation of fine quartz. Part I.
Intrinsic viscosity of polyacrylamide-based flocculants. International Journal of Mineral Processing,
124, p. 50-57.

Bratskaya, S.; Schwarz, S.; Chervonetsky, D. (2004) Comparative study of humic acids flocculation with
chitosan hydrochloride and chitosan glutamate. Water Research, v. 38, p. 2955–2961.

Chang, M. Y.; Juang, R. S. (2004) Adsorption of tannic acid, humic acid, and dyes from water using the
composite of chitosan and activated clay. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, v. 278, p. 18–25.

Kawahigashi, M.; Sumida, H.; Yamamoto, K. (2005) Size and shape of soil humic acids estimated by viscosity
and molecular weight. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, v. 284, p. 463–469.

7
Kirwan, L.J. (2009) A study of polyacrylate and hydroxamate co-dosing flocculation of stabilised bauxite
residue material. Int. J. Miner. Process, 91, p.28–33.

Kobya, M., Oncel, M.S., Demirbas, E., Şık, E., Akyol, A., Ince, M. (2014) The application of electrocoagulation
process for treatment of the red mud dam wastewater from Bayer’s process. Journal of Environmental
Chemical Engineering, 2, p. 2211–2220.

Li, J. et al. (2013) Optimizing coagulation and flocculation process for kaolinite suspension with chitosan.
Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, v. 428, p. 100–110.

Quemeneur, F.; Rinaudo, M.; Pépin-Donat, B. (2008) Influence of Molecular Weight and pH on Adsorption of
Chitosan at the Surface of Large and Giant Vesicles. Biomacromolecules, Jan, 9(1), p. 396-402.

Rinaudo, M. (2006) Chitin and chitosan: Properties and applications. Progress in Polymer Science, v. 31, p. 603–
632.

Stevenson, F. J. (1994) Humus Chemistry: Genesis, Composition, Reactions. 2nd Ed., New York: John
Wiley&Sons Inc,. 512 p.

Yan, W. L.; Bai, R. (2005) Adsorption of lead and humic acid on chitosan hydrogel beads. Water Research, v.
39,p. 688–698.

Yang, Z., Li, H., Yan, H., Wu, H., Yang, H., Wu, Q., Li, H., Li, A., Cheng, R. (2014) Evaluation of a novel
chitosan-based flocculant with high flocculation performance, low toxicity and good floc properties.
Journal of Hazardous Materials, 276, p. 480–488.

Zeng, D., Wu, J., Kennedy, J.F. (2008) Application of a chitosan flocculant to water treatment. Carbohydrate
Polymers, 71, p. 135–139.

Zeta-Meter, I. Potencial Zeta. Disponível em:

<http://depa.fquim.unam.mx/amyd/archivero/PotencialZeta_1246.pdf>. access 04/20/2015.

Zhang, X.; Bai, R. (2003) Mechanisms and kinetics of humic acid adsorption onto chitosan-coated granules.
Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, v. 264, p. 30–38.

Zouboulis, A. I.; Jun, W.; Katsoyiannis, I. A. (2003) Removal of humic acids by flotation. Colloids and Surfaces
A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, v. 231, p. 181–193.

8
Comparison of Advanced and Conventional
Technologies for Low Level Sulphate Reduction from
Mine Water
Kashi Banerjee, Hillary Kronebusch, Herve Buisson, Cristina Dambrosio and Carla
Robinson
Veolia Water Technologies, USA/Argentina

ABSTRACT
The high stability of sulfate ion in aqueous solutions makes processes for removal of this anion
from water to low levels extremely difficult. The existing sulfate treatment technologies include
desaturation by chemical precipitation, biological degradation and ion-exchange. Under low ionic
strength, the desaturation process generates effluent containing about 1800 mg/l of sulfate.
Biological processes generate sulfide gas, require a long residence time and produce sludge that is
difficult to handle. Evaporation and crystallization is an energy-intensive process. Ion-exchange
produces regenerants that are difficult to handle. The primary objectives of this work were to
develop and validate an appropriate nanofiltration (NF) process to reduce the sulfate concentration
in the water as well as to establish an innovative sulfate treatment technology for the membrane
reject. The treated effluent then could be blended with the NF permeate to achieve a higher water
recovery for reuse.
The innovative technology is comprised of a two-stage chemical precipitation process. In the first
stage reactor, desaturation of calcium sulfate took place within 30 minutes of reaction, and sulfate
was reduced from 5000 to 1500 mg/l. The effluent was further treated with aluminum-based salt in
a second stage reactor to precipitate sulfate as a highly insoluble calcium sulfoaluminate mineral.
The reaction was completed within 20-minutes. After solid/liquid separation, dissolved sulfate was
reduced to less than 100 mg/l. The process recovers more than 95% of the aluminum from the
precipitated sludge for reuse. Two pilot studies were conducted to evaluate the performance of the
system: one at a copper mine site in South America and the other at a coal mine site in the USA.
This advanced technology increased overall water recovery from 60 to more than 90%. The
technical and economic aspects of this innovative sulfate reduction process are compared with
those of the other state-of-the-art technologies.

1
INTRODUCTION
In aquatic systems, sulfate is less toxic than trace metals. Consequently, less attention has been
given to removing dissolved sulfate from mine water, despite the high concentrations that may be
present. The accumulation of dissolved sulfate in water potentially reduces the number of cycles for
reuse. Water demand in some parts of the world is so high that recycling of water is required.
Regulatory agencies are becoming concerned about the elevated levels of sulfate in industrial
effluents. New discharge limitations ranging between 250 and 2,000 mg/l are in effect (West,
Kratohvil & Fatula, 2011). In response to such stringent discharge limitations, several mine sites in
the United States, Canada, South America, Australia and South Africa are currently evaluating the
feasibility of sulfate treatment processes.
State-of-the-art sulfate treatment technologies include chemical precipitation, biological
degradation, adsorption and/or ion-exchange and membrane (nanofiltration and reverse osmosis)
processes. Each of these processes has advantages and disadvantages. Under low ionic strength, the
desaturation process generates effluent containing about 1800 mg/l of sulfate. Biological processes
generate sulfide gas, require a long residence time and produce sludge that is difficult to handle.
Evaporation and crystallization is an energy-intensive process. Ion exchange produces regenerants
that are difficult to handle. The primary objectives of this work were to determine and validate an
appropriate nanofiltration (NF) process to reduce the sulfate concentration in the water as well as to
establish an innovative sulfate treatment technology for the NF reject. The treated effluent then
could be blended with the NF permeate to achieve a higher water recovery for reuse.

EXISTING SULFATE TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES

For any particular project, the technology is primarily selected based on the applicability, ease of
implementation, reliability and cost. The available treatment processes can be divided into the
following categories:
 Chemical treatment
 Ion exchange
 Membranes and
 Biological treatment

Chemical treatment

Sulfate precipitation with lime and limestone

This is a common process for sulfate treatment where limestone (CaCO3), lime [Ca(OH)2] or a
combination of both are used as the source of calcium ion to precipitate sulfate as calcium sulfate:
( ) ( ) (1)
( ) (2)
The effluent sulfate concentration is controlled by the solubility of calcium sulfate (gypsum), which
is a function of temperature and ionic strength. Under low ionic strength (0.1 M) and at a
temperature of 25°C, the solubility of calcium sulfate (gypsum) is about 1,800 mg/l as SO4. A
combined limestone/lime process, comprised of a first stage pH adjustment to circum-neutral
condition followed by a second stage pH adjustment to 12 for Mg(OH)2 precipitation, reduced

2
sulfate from 3000 to about 1200 mg/l. Using the recovered CO2 from the first stage, the pH of the
final effluent was adjusted (Geldenhuys et al., 2001). In this case, the key process parameters
included recycling of Mg(OH)2 and gypsum crystals in the second precipitation reactor. Both
enhanced the sulfate precipitation reaction. The limestone sludge produced in the final pH
adjustment tank is pure and can be recycled back to the first stage pH adjustment tank.
Results from a pilot study conducted at a copper mine site in South America revealed that with the
addition of a proprietary seed material while maintaining a specified solids ratio within the reactor
by means of sludge recirculation, sulfate was reduced from 5000 to less than 1300 mg/l as dissolved
sulfate within 30 minutes of reaction (Banerjee et al., 2014). The proprietary seed material was
added only once (during the process start-up). The results also revealed that without the sludge
recirculation, sulfate was reduced to about 2000 mg/l (see Table 1). The data show that sludge
recirculation and seeding have a significant impact on the calcium sulfate desaturation process. The
seed material used in this process has a highly reactive surface, which increases the reaction driving
force and the available free energy of the system. It is anticipated that besides chemical
precipitation, sulfate ions present in the NF reject are adsorbed onto the reactive surface of the seed
material as well as onto the freshly precipitated calcium sulfate solids. In addition to sulfate
precipitation, lime treatment removes metals and oxyanions.

Table 1 Sulfate removal after calcium sulfate precipitation/adsorption using lime and calcium chloride, or
lime only, with seed material in a sludge recirculation system

Sludge Recirculation Ratio 20:1 15:1 10:1 15:1* 0*

pH 9.3 9.3 9.2 12.0* 12.0*

Dissolved Sulfate, mg/l 1,350 1,100 1,200 1,100* 2,000*

*This experiment was conducted only with lime.

Sulfate precipitation with barium salt

The low solubility of barium sulfate (2 mg/l as BaSO4 at 18°C) makes it an excellent candidate for
sulfate treatment. Common barium salts that are used for sulfate precipitation include barium
hydroxide [Ba(OH)2], barium chloride (BaCl2), and barium sulfide. Because of the low solubility of
barium carbonate (22 mg/l as BaCO3 at 20°C), it is not a preferred chemical.
(3)
( ) (4)
(5)
(6)
Barium hydroxide, barium chloride and barium sulfide are very effective in removing dissolved
sulfate over a wide pH range. However, under acidic conditions and even at neutral pH (pH <6.5),
use of barium sulfide generates toxic H2S gas.
The high cost of barium salts often makes this process economically unfavorable. However,
comingling the wastewater stream containing barium with that from the mine site containing
sulfate may make the overall process economically viable.

3
Ettringite precipitation by SAVMIN process
Smit (1999) proposed sulfate removal by Ettringite precipitation as the SAVMIN process. The three
stages of the process include metals removal via hydroxide precipitation by lime addition, followed
by gypsum removal through crystallization, and in the third stage, Gibbsite addition to form
insoluble Ettringite. CO2 is added for final pH adjustment. Using sulfuric acid, Gibbsite is
regenerated from the precipitated Ettringite. Detailed chemical reactions are presented elsewhere
(Lorax, 2003). Pilot study results from the Stilfontein gold mine in South Africa showed that the
SAVMIN process reduced sulfate from 800 to <200 mg/l (Smit, 1999). Regeneration and reuse of
Gibbsite makes this process economically attractive. However, regeneration with sulfuric acid
forms potential scale forming compound within the reactor.

Ettringite precipitation by Outotec

In this process, sodium aluminate is used as the source of aluminum ion for Ettringite precipitation.
Sodium aluminate is generated by the reaction of aluminum hydroxide and sodium hydroxide.
This process does not include regeneration and recycle of aluminum based chemical. As a result,
the economics of the process are unfavorable.

Membrane processes
Membranes used in the mining industry include nanofiltration (NF) and reverse osmosis (RO).
NF/RO relies on a semi-permeable membrane that produces clean water from contaminated water.
With the application of pressure, pure water passes through the membrane as permeate and the
dissolved salts are concentrated in the remaining feed water, known as reject. The application of
membranes for sulfate reduction is becoming popular with the promulgation of new regulations
and increased interest in water reuse. The high rejection capacity of NF for sulfate and other higher
valent cations and anions, as well as the low power consumption, make NF popular among all the
membrane processes. However, in order to meet the low total dissolved solids (TDS) discharge
limitations, RO is required. Both membrane processes generate reject containing high sulfate, and
handling of that becomes problematic. A reliable pretreatment is required to protect the membranes
from scaling and fouling.
Significant information on sulfate treatment by membrane processes (NF/RO) is available in the
open literature [(Bowell, 1998); (Lorax, 2003); (Harris, 1985); (Pulles, Juby & Busby, 1992); (Everett,
DuPlessis & Gussman, 1994)]. Using NF, comprised of three 200-mm-diameter elements (two DOW
90 – 400 elements and one DOW 270 – 400 element), Veolia Water Technologies conducted a pilot
study at a copper mine site in South America. The pretreatment system included iron coagulation,
gravity separation and a Multi Media filter (MMF). Since the raw water contained a high sulfate
concentration, the NF was run at a 60% water recovery with about 2 mg/l of antiscalent. The
detailed procedures are presented elsewhere (Banerjee et al., 2012). Results indicated that the NF
membrane achieved more than 98.5% sulfate rejection. As shown in Figure 1, sulfate was reduced
from 2300 to 35 mg/l. The percent rejection of calcium ranged between 90 and 99%. Calcium in the
NF permeate ranged between 10 and 60 mg/l (see Figure 2).

4
 120 100%

100
Sulfates Concentration, mg/l

Percent Rejection, %
80

60 50%
Sulfates Concentration
Percent Rejection
40

20

0 0%
Feb-11 Feb-11 Mar-11 Mar-11 Mar-11 Apr-11 Apr-11 Apr-11
Date
Fig : NF Permeate
Figure 1- Sulfates Concentrations
NF permeate and Percent
– sulfate concentrations Rejection
and percent rejection

160 100%

140

120
Calcium Concentration, mg/l

Percent Rejection, %
100

80 50%

Calcium Concentration
60
Percent Rejection

40

20

0 0%
Feb-11 Feb-11 Mar-11 Mar-11 Mar-11 Apr-11 Apr-11 Apr-11
Date
Fig : NF Permeate
Figure 2 NF- permeate
Calcium –Concentrations and Percent
calcium concentrations Rejection
and percent rejection

Ion exchange
Ion exchange technology includes the GYPCIX process, which uses lime and sulfuric acid for resin
regeneration (Gussmann and Nagy, 1993). The untreated feed water is passed through a strong acid
cation exchange resin where calcium is removed from the water by following the reaction:
(7)
The effluent from the cation exchanger is pumped to a degasifier to remove carbonate alkalinity,
then the water is pumped to a weak base anion exchange resin bed where SO4 ions are removed.

5
 (8)
As indicated above, the resin bed is regenerated using Ca(OH) 2 and H2SO4.
(9)
(10)
Pure gypsum (CaSO4  2H2O) is produced by combining the two spent renenerants.
Results from the Berkeley Pit in Butte, Montana, revealed that the GYPCIX process reduced sulfate
from 2000 to 200 mg/l, and calcium from 490 to 50 mg/j (Robertson et al., 1993). Pretreatment with
lime precipitation was used prior to the GYPCIX process.
Pilot study results from a copper and gold mine site in Southeast Asia revealed that ion exchange
reduced sulfate from 1600 to <140 mg/l and calcium from 635 to <40 mg/l (Alex, Kratochvil &
Fatula, 2011).

Biological reduction of sulfate

Sulfate is removed from mine water under anoxic conditions as a stable precipitate of sulfide or as
elemental sulfur. Biological sulfate removal occurs in two steps. In the first step, sulfate reduction
takes place by sulfate reduction bacteria:
(11)
The sulfide produced above is oxidized to elemental sulfur in the second step:
( ) ( ) (12)
( ) ( ) (13)
Sulfide removal can also be accomplished after the first stage either by metal sulfide precipitation
or by H2S stripping. The organic substrates used include low molecular weight fatty acids, alcohols,
lactate, acetate or hydrogen gas. The technologies for biological sulfate removal include bioreactor,
constructed wetland and permeable reactive barrier. The latter two are considered to be passive
treatment.
Pilot study results from a coal mine site in South Africa revealed that dissolved sulfate was reduced
from 2200 to 200 mg/l. The data also revealed that the dissolved sulfide concentration in the treated
effluent increased stochiometrically (Maree et al., 2001). Wastewater was pretreated with calcium
carbonate and lime prior to the biological treatment that reduced sulfate from 8300 to 2200 mg/l.
The biological treatment system included sulfate reduction, H2S stripping and aerobic treatment to
remove residual organic matter and to precipitate calcium carbonate.

LoSO4™ technology for sulfate reduction

The process concept includes application of NF for sulfate treatment followed by an advanced
chemical precipitation process for removal of sulfate from the NF reject. The process comprises two
stages of chemical precipitation and reuse of the recovered aluminum-based salt. The treated
effluent from LoSO4 can be blended with the NF permeate to achieve a higher water recovery for
reuse.
The first step in the process uses a Multiflo™ system equipped with a high speed draft tube
(Turbomix®) reactor to desaturate the NF reject and reduce sulfate to less than 1800 mg/l. The
chemical precipitation/adsorption reactions are enhanced by sludge recirculation in the presence of

6
a proprietary seed material. The seed material is added only once during start-up to enhance the
initial calcium sulfate crystal growth kinetics. The first stage produces calcium sulfate sludge,
which can be dewatered and disposed as a solid material. Using calcium and an aluminum-based
salt, the first stage effluent is further treated in a second Multiflo/Turbomix system. The second
stage process precipitates sulfate as a highly insoluble calcium sulfoaluminate mineral known as
Ettringite. This step reduces the dissolved sulfate in the effluent to less than or equal to 100 mg/l.
The treated effluent can either be reused, combined with NF permeate or discharged after pH
adjustment. A portion of the Ettringite sludge is recycled back to the second stage
Multiflo/Turbomix system to enhance reaction kinetics. The aluminum-based compound is
regenerated from the Ettringite precipitate and reused in the system without producing the scale
forming compound (CaSO4). More than 95% of the aluminum-based salt can be recovered and
reused.
In 2010 - 2011, a pilot study was conducted at a copper mine site in South America for process
validation. The first stage calcium sulfate desaturation process was used to treat NF reject for
sulfate removal. As indicated above (section entitled “Sulfate precipitation with lime and
limestone”), the sulfate from the NF reject was consistently reduced to <1300 mg/l in the
desaturation effluent under a controlled pH at a specified sludge recirculation ratio within 30
minutes of reaction in the presence of the seed material, which was added once during the study.
Dissolved sulfate from the desaturated calcium sulfate effluent was further reduced by forming an
insoluble complex known as calcium sulfoaluminate mineral. The associated chemical dosages,
sludge recirculation ratios, and process optimization were determined from the preliminary
laboratory study results. Sulfate reduction kinetics results for the most efficient sludge recirculation
ratio are shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3 Sulfate precipitations kinetics as calcium sulfoaluminate mineral

In 2012 - 2013, a pilot study was conducted at a coal mine facility in the USA to verify the second
stage Ettringite precipitation process with aluminum recovery. Sulfate in the feed water to the
second stage reactor ranged between 1500 and 1600 mg/l. The process was operated at a reaction

7
time of approximately 30 minutes, and under a predetermined sludge recycle ratio. Recovered
aluminum was used as the primary source of aluminum in the Ettringite precipitation process. The
pilot tests demonstrated that the second stage sulfate precipitation process can reduce the sulfate in
the treated wastewater from approximately 1500 to <100 mg/l (with an average of 140 mg/l
dissolved SO4) using 95% recovered aluminum (see Figure 4). The detailed laboratory and pilot
study procedures and results are presented elsewhere (Banerjee et al., 2012 and 2014).
Based on the pilot-scale results, a flow and mass balance calculation was performed, and a
conceptual process was proposed (see Figure 5). The process includes pretreatment for iron and
manganese, total suspended solids (TSS) and other contaminants, followed by NF for sulfate
removal and sulfate treatment of the NF reject by LoSO4 process. The flow and mass balance
calculation for this specific water quality revealed that after blending the treated NF reject with the
permeate, the overall water recovery increased from 60 to 90%.

500

450

400
EFFLUENT SULFATE, mg/l (AVG)

350

300

250

200

150

100

50

0
9/3/13 9/13/13 9/23/13 10/3/13 10/13/13 10/23/13 11/2/13
DATE 0.45 Micron 1.6 Micron
Figure 4 Sulfate removal in pilot studies using recovered aluminum salt

8
 Figure 5 Flow diagram of the LoSO4 process

The inclusion of the step to recover the aluminum-based salt makes the LoSO4 process much more
cost-effective than the other processes described above.

TECHNOLOGIES COMPARISON
Lime and limestone precipitation is a cost effective pretreatment process for low level sulfate
reduction. Depending on the water characteristics, may produce significant gypsum sludge. Use of
barium salt produces water with low sulfate. However, the high cost of barium salt makes this
process expensive. Additionally, generates barium containing sludge which is USEPA TCLP listed
metal. Membrane and ion-exchange produces drinking water quality water. Membrane generates
reject with high sulfate which needs to be treated, prior to disposal. Handling of regenerants from
ion-exchange process is problematic. Ettringite precipitation of sulfate by SAVMIN process as well
as by LoSO4 process can achieve less than 100 mg/L of sulfate. Regeneration and reuse of Gibbsite
makes both the process economically attractive. During Gibbsite regeneration, LoSO4 process does
not produce any scale forming compounds, whereas SAVMIN process potentially generates scale
forming compounds. The advantages and disadvantages of each process are summarized in Table 2

Table 2 Advantages and disadvantages of sulfate treatment technologies

Technology Advantages Disadvantages

Lime and In addition to SO4, removes dissolved metals. Generates mixed sludge.
limestone Reduces SO4 to below the saturation level of Maximum achievable SO4 reduction is
precipitation gypsum (<1600 mg/l as SO4). Treated water between 1200 and 1600 mg/l (as SO4).
can be reused in the mine pool. Cost-effective
pretreatment process for low level (<200
mg/l) sulfate reduction process.

9
Barium salt Low level (<200 mg/l) sulfate reduction can Expensive process (OPEX). Generates
precipitation be achieved. Recycling of BaSO4 sludge sludge containing barium (USEPA
improves process efficiency significantly. TCLP-listed metal).

Ettringite Low level (<200 mg/l) sulfate reduction can Use of sulfuric acid for Gibbsite
precipitation be achieved. Also removes trace metals. regeneration forms potential scale-
Aluminum-based compound can be forming compound within the reactor.
regenerated and recycled.

Membrane Produces good quality water with low Generates reject containing high sulfate.
(NF/RO) sulfate. Treated water can be reused. Reject treatment for sulfate is required.
Reliable pretreatment is required to
protect membrane from potential
scaling.

Ion exchange Produces good quality water. Need significant chemicals (lime and
Treated water can be reused. acid) for regeneration.
Produces significant gypsum sludge
from regenerant processing.

Biological Also removes trace metals as metal sulfide. Long reaction time. Produces various
reduction CO2 and H2S produced can be recycled and sludges. Needs special attention for H2S
reused for other purposes. handling. Cost of carbon source is
potentially high.

LoSO4 Small-footprint technologies. In order to meet TDS or chloride

technology Reuse of recovered Gibbsite makes the discharge limitations, may need a small
process economically attractive. RO. The requirement is site specific.
Does not produce any scale forming
compounds in the regeneration reactror.

CONCLUSIONS
The innovative low level sulfate reduction technology (LoSO4 process) is capable to
achieve <100 mg/L of dissolved sulfate in the treated effluent. The crystal growth and
precipitation kinetics of this process are fast and can be accomplished within 20 minutes of
reaction. More than 95% of aluminum (Gibbsite) was recovered and reused in the process
which has made this technology economically attractive. This innovative concept
increased the water recovery significantly.

REFERENCES
West, A.; Kratochvil, D.; and Fatula, P (2011) Sulfate Removal from Acid Mine Drainage for Potential Water
Re-use, 72nd Proc. 72nd Annual International Water conference, Orlando, FL, November.

Geldenhuys, A. J.; Maree, J.P.; de Beer, M.; and Hlabela, P. (2001) An Integrated limestone/lime process for
partial sulfate removal, Paper presented at the Conference on Environmentally Responsible Mining in
South Africa, Sept 2001, CSIR, Pretoria, South Africa.

10
Banerjee, K.; Muddasani, S.; Blumenschein, C.D.; Buisson, H.; and Zick, R. (2012) An Innovative process for
sulfate treatment of membrane concentrates from mining operations, Proc. 9 th IWA LET Conference,
Brisbane, Australia, June 2012.

Banerjee, K.; Blumenschein, C.D.; Howell, C.; and Buisson, H. (2014) Sulfate Reduction in Membrane
Concentrate Significantly Increases Mine Water Recovery Rate, Proc. 11 th IWA LET Conference, Abu
Dhabi, UAE, May 2014.

Smit, J. P. (1999) The treatment of polluted mine water. Mine, Water, and Environment. IMWA congress,
Seville, Spain.

Lorax (2003) A Review of sulfate Treatment, Report to INAP by Lorax consultants. Electronic document, INAP
website.

Bowell, R. J. (1998) A review of sulfate removal options from mine water, Proc. IWMA, Johannesburg.

Harris, R. C. (1985) A field trial of seeded reverse osmosis for desalination of a scaling type mine water,
Desalination, 56: 227 – 236.

Pulles, W.; Juby, G.J.G.; and Busby, R. W. (1992) Development of the slurry precipitation and recycle reverse
osmosis technology for desalinating mine water, Water Sci. Tech, 25. 25pp.

Everrtt, D.J.; Du Plessis, J. and Gussman, H.W. (1994) The removal of salt from underground mine waters,
Mining Env. Management, March 1994: pp 12 – 14.

Maree, J. P.; Stobos, G.; Greben, H.; Netshidaulu, E.; Steyn, E.; Christie, A.; and Gunther, A. (2001) Treatment
of acid leachate from coal discard, paper presented at the Conference on Solid Waste, Philadelphia.

11
Treatment of Mining Tailings Containing Cyanide –
Considerations when Selecting a Treatment Process
Luiz Teixeira1 and Cristian Marquez2
1. The Pontifical Catholic University of Rio de Janeiro and Peróxidos do Brasil
2. QUIMTIA, Peru

ABSTRACT

In most mining plants in which cyanide is employed as a reagent, the detoxification of

contaminated effluents is made by direct chemical oxidation. The operation must be efficient to
meet discharge limits or water reuse requirements, be fast and economical.

Nowadays (2010), the following three main CN oxidation systems are used on a worldwide basis:
- Hydrogen Peroxide
- Sulphur Dioxide or Metabisulphite + Oxygen
- Caro’s Acid

The three systems have reasonably comparable chemical behaviour – cyanide converts to cyanate,
which in turn hydrolyses to bicarbonate and ammonia.

The present paper describes the main features of each technology and shows criteria to select the
most appropriate detox process for a specific effluent. Some cases show a clear winner from the
beginning, example: a sulphide roaster on site is a source for low cost SO 2, thus in that case no
chance for peroxide or Caro’s acid. On the other hand, if there is interest in recycling treated water
and avoid formation of CaSO4 scale in the circuit, hydrogen peroxide will be the choice from the
beginning. But overall, the decision for the most adequate CN oxidation system will be made on a
basis of cost-effectiveness. The paper will show the simulation of different oxidant price scenarios
and their effects on detoxification costs.

1
INTRODUCTION
Cyanide is a toxic chemical that is used in gold and silver extraction plants as leaching agent, and in
flotation operations as a surface modifier for the differential flotation of metal sulphide minerals
such as Zn and Cu. And as such, it is a substance that ends up in process wastewaters and
entrained in solid tailings.
Reuse of water is standard in the gold and silver extraction industry, and is a growing concept in
mineral flotation plants. The plant effluents containing cyanides normally are discharged onto
waste ponds where solids settle, and the supernatant water is recycled back to extraction. The main
reason for this, in the case of cyanidation operations, is to recycle free cyanide that can be used to
leach more metal at the start of the extraction process. And, for any type of process – cyanidation or
flotation, an important consequence of this is the conservation of water – especially if the plant is
located in a dry region. Recovery processes such as the known AVR, SART and Reverse Osmosis
are able to concentrate the recovered cyanide, and reduce losses of recoverable cyanide that could
occur by natural degradation.
In some plants, in order to avoid excessive accumulation of impurities, part of the circuit water has
to be continuously discharged and replaced by fresh water. Also, some plants, in rainy seasons,
have to discharge excessive water to keep the balance of the circuit. In both cases the discharged
water has to be detoxified prior to release to the environment.
As to the solid tailings that are contaminated with cyanide, these have also to be detoxified prior to
abandonment in ponds or mine caves as back-fill or paste-fill. And as to metal sulphide
concentrates, these have to be washed free from entrained cyanides, and dried prior to shipping.

Detoxification of cyanide effluents and tailings

Natural Degradation

Natural degradation in waste ponds may play an important role in detoxification of effluents
containing cyanides, dissolved metals, ammonia, and flotation reagents. Although it is induced by
powerful external conditions like absorption of CO2 and O2 from atmosphere, action of wind, solar
radiation, and low atmospheric pressure at high altitudes, as well as temperature and indigenous
bacterial activity, natural degradation may be too slow and not very efficient a process – and will
not in most cases ensure residual concentration of cyanide sufficiently low for legal discharge [1, 2,
3]. Therefore, it is best to take advantage of it, making the best use of its low cost, but have it
combined it with fast, well controlled and reliable chemical treatment systems, like direct chemical
oxidation.

Direct Chemical Oxidation

To our knowledge, nowadays the vast majority of plants in the world treat their cyanide effluents
using one of the following main oxidation processes [1, 2, 3]:

- Hydrogen Peroxide (H2O2)

2
 - INCO´s Metabisulphite + Air (Na2S2O5 + O2)
- Caro´s Acid (H2SO5);

These three processes have the following features in common:

1) The processes may be carried out in open stirred tanks;
2) Reaction times are typically in the order of 0.5 to 4 hours depending on initial cyanide
concentration and the oxidative system employed.
3) CN- is converted to CNO- which in turn hydrolyses to bicarbonate and ammonia.
4) Weak acid dissociable cyanide metal complexes (such as of Cu and Zn) are also oxidised,
and the released metal cations hydrolyse and precipitate as hydroxides.
5) In none of the processes strong metal cyano complexes (such as of Fe) get oxidised. The
way to remove this fraction of total cyanide is by precipitation of the Fe(CN)63- (aq) complex
with added extra cations – usually Fe(2+ or 3+) or Cu2+ (that can double as oxidation catalyst)..

Now to the differences:

1) Caro´s Acid is the fastest of the three oxidants, and does not need addition of catalyst Cu 2+
(aq) to the effluent. Both H2O2 and SO2 + air are slower and require addition, or natural
presence, of Cu (aq) (to) in the effluent.
2) Both Caro´s Acid and SO2 + air are acidic systems and require simultaneous addition of a
base (Ca(OH)2 or NaOH) in order to maintain reaction pH not less than pH 9, and avoid
formation of volatile HCN. H2O2 is only very mildly acidic and does not lower the reaction
pH more than 0.5 units – thus does not require addition of a base to maintain pH around or
above 9.
3) If the effluent to be treated is a clear solution, any of the three oxidative systems will
perform well. If it is a slurry effluent, the suspended solids induce self-decomposition of
the oxidants. In this case Caro´s Acid may be the most cost effective as it benefits for its
higher kinetic performance. But, depending on the local prices the plant will have to pay
for H2O2, H2SO4 (for making the Caro´s Acid), SO2 (aq) – normally added as sodium
metabisulphite (Na2S2O5), CuSO4 (as catalyst), and CaO for neutralisation of acidity, even
straight H2O2 may come up more economical than Caro´s Acid or sulphite.
4) If there is a smelter in the facility then SO2 becomes the natural choice for the oxidation
system.
5) And if the treated effluent is to be reused as process water, then hydrogen peroxide will be
the preferred choice. The reason is that the alternatives Caro´s Acid or sulphite yield
sulphate as reaction products, which together with the calcium ions added by the lime will
accumulate in the circulating solution and will end up combined and form scale in tanks
and tubes of the plant. And scale poses well-known operating problems.

3
METHODOLOGY

Overall Reaction Mass Equations:

The following reaction equations are considered for the stoichiometric calculations. In addition, one
has to consider that in real plant treatment, various degrees of excess will be needed to account for
extra consumption of the oxidant species in parallel reactions with other oxidisable contaminants,
self decomposition, and need for minimally adequate reaction speed.

With hydrogen peroxide [4]:

CN- + H2O2  CNO- + H2O (1)

With sodium metabisulphite [5]:

CN- + [½ Na2S2O5 + O2] + ½ CaO  CNO- + ½ Na2SO4 + ½ CaSO4 (2)

With Caro´s Acid [6]:

CN- + [H2SO4 + H2O2] + CaO  CNO- + CaSO4 + 2 H2O (3)

Simple laboratory testing will reveal the necessary consumption of oxidant required to lower initial
[CN] down to the level required for discharge – usually 1 mg/L for total CN, and 0.2 mg/L for
CNwad, in a reasonable time frame (maximum of couple of hours). Having thus established the
consumption dose of gram-mass of oxidant per gram of initial CN, one calculates the
corresponding molar Oxidant:CN ratio, and obtains the required excess value as Excess in % = 100 x
([Oxidant:CN molar ratio] - 1). The experimentally established dose (or consumption) values of
Oxidant to CN ratio and excess parameters lead to the calculation of the chemical costs of the
effluent treatment process for each chosen oxidant.

RESULTS AND DICUSSION - COST COMPARISONS

The compared chemical costs for each oxidant system may also be calculated by simulation as an
aid to doing the laboratory tests, according to the examples below built for three different scenarios
- considered prices of chemicals are typical of the Andean region (in March 2009).

Case 1) Slurry effluent with initial 100 mg/L of cyanide. In this situation the suspended solids cause
excessive consumption of the oxidants by self-decomposition, thus slower oxidants (peroxide and
metabisulphite + air) require a significantly larger excess as compared to Caro´s Acid.

4
 Table 1 Cost comparison showing situation in which Caro´s acid gives lowest treatment cost

Peróxidos do Brasil Ltda / Solvay Group - Innova Andina SA

Luiz Teixeira y Cristian Marquez - May 2009

Cyanide Destruction Processes Reagents USD / ton

Theoretical Chemical Costs

Basis for Evaluation:
Continuous Treatment Na2S2O5 (100% s) 600
Effluent Flowrate (m3/h) 1 H2O2 (50% liq) 750
Initial [CN] (mg/L) 100 H2SO4 (98% liq) 540
pH (fixed) 10 CaO (85% s) 200
CuSO4.5H2O 2500

Excess Oxidant (%) Cost US$ / m3

Metabissulfite + O2 CN + 1/2 Na2S2O5 + O2 + 1/2 CaO = CNO + 1/2 Na2SO4 + 1/2 CaSO4 800 2,20

Hydrogen Peroxide CN + H2O2 = CNO + H2O 1000 2,16

Caro's Acid (1:1) CN + H2O2 + H2SO4 + CaO = CNO + CaSO4 + H2O 250 1,59

Caro's Acid (2:1) CN + H2O2 + 2H2SO4 + 2CaO = CNO + 2CaSO4 + H2O 150 1,78

Simulation of this scenario indicates that Caro´s Acid gives lowest treatment cost.

Case 2) Clear effluent with initial 100 mg/L of cyanide to be treated in plant that has sulphide
smelter where SO2 is generated at residue cost.

5
 Table 2 Cost comparison showing situation in which sulphite gives lowest treatment cost

Peróxidos do Brasil Ltda / Solvay Group - Innova Andina SA

Luiz Teixeira y Cristian Marquez - May 2009

Cyanide Destruction Processes Reagents USD / ton

Theoretical Chemical Costs

Basis for Evaluation:
Continuous Treatment Na2S2O5 (100% s) 100
Effluent Flowrate (m3/h) 1 H2O2 (50% liq) 750
Initial [CN] (mg/L) 100 H2SO4 (98% liq) 540
pH (fixed) 10 CaO (85% s) 200
CuSO4.5H2O 2500

Excess Oxidant (%) Cost US$ / m3

Metabissulfite + O2 CN + 1/2 Na2S2O5 + O2 + 1/2 CaO = CNO + 1/2 Na2SO4 + 1/2 CaSO4 200 0.19

Hydrogen Peroxide CN + H2O2 = CNO + H2O 270 0.73

Caro's Acid (1:1) CN + H2O2 + H2SO4 + CaO = CNO + CaSO4 + H2O 100 0.91

Caro's Acid (2:1) CN + H2O2 + 2H2SO4 + 2CaO = CNO + 2CaSO4 + H2O 50 1.07

Simulation in this scenario indicates sulphite gives lowest treatment cost.

Case 3) Clear effluent with initial 500 mg/L of cyanide containing also [Cu] = 200 mg/L – in this case
reactions with peroxide and sulphite are as fast as with Caro´s Acid.

In that scenario, simulation shows that costs of peroxide and sulphite processes may be competitive.
In such cases, the authors believe that operation with hydrogen peroxide would be simpler as there
would be no need for critical pH control, and this would be a process involving the addition of only
one reagent.

6
 Table 3 Cost comparison showing situation in which sulphite and peroxide give rather equivalent lowest
treatment costs

Peróxidos do Brasil Ltda / Solvay Group - Innova Andina SA

Luiz Teixeira y Cristian Marquez - May 2009

Cyanide Destruction Processes Reagents USD / ton

Theoretical Chemical Costs

Basis for Evaluation:
Continuous Treatment Na2S2O5 (100% s) 600
Effluent Flowrate (m3/h) 1 H2O2 (50% liq) 750
Initial [CN] (mg/L) 500 H2SO4 (98% liq) 540
pH (fixed) 10 CaO (85% s) 200
CuSO4.5H2O 2500

Excess Oxidant (%) Cost US$ / m3

Metabissulfite + O2 CN + 1/2 Na2S2O5 + O2 + 1/2 CaO = CNO + 1/2 Na2SO4 + 1/2 CaSO4 200 3.66

Hydrogen Peroxide CN + H2O2 = CNO + H2O 270 3.64

Caro's Acid (1:1) CN + H2O2 + H2SO4 + CaO = CNO + CaSO4 + H2O 100 4.55

Caro's Acid (2:1) CN + H2O2 + 2H2SO4 + 2CaO = CNO + 2CaSO4 + H2O 50 5.35

CONCLUSIONS

1) For each of the following specific conditions there will be a probably best detox system:

a) For cases where the effluent is a slurry: The best choice will probably be Caro´s Acid.
Sulphite and peroxide might also sustain a chance if their prices are low, and H2SO4 price is
high.

b) For the case where there is a smelter / roaster (generation of SO2) in plant: The preferred
choice will be sulphite / air.

c) For the cases where there is interest in water reuse or difficulty in controlling pH in
operations with sulphite or Caro´s Acid: the preferred choice will be peroxide as it does not
acidify the effluent and will not cause accumulation of CaSO4 in the circulating waters.

2) For other non-specific conditions – like the effluent is a clear solution with various dissolved
species like metals; free and complex cyanides; tiocyanate; and organics:

In such cases, the three considered reaction processes will all be capable of performing well.
The best – cost effective process will depend on the minimum required dose (consumption)

7
 of oxidant and complementary chemicals, like catalyst CuSO4, and on the local prices of the
respective chemicals considered.

REFERENCES
Smith, A. & Mudder, T. (1991) Tratamiento de Residuos de Cianuración, Versión Española Fernando
Hevia Cangas, Mining Journal Books Ltd, London

Australian Government Department of Resources, Energy and Tourism (2008) Cyanide Mangement – Leading
Practice Sustainable Development Program for The Mining Industry

Ritcey, G. M., (2005) Tailings management in gold plant, Hydrometallurgy 78, 3 –20
Kitis, M., Akcil, A., Karakaya, E. & Yigit, N.O. (2005) Destruction of cyanide by hydrogen peroxide in tailings
slurries from low bearing sulphidic gold ores, Minerals Engineering 18, 353–362

Devuyst1, A., Conard, B.R. & Hudson, W. (1984) Commercial Operation of Inco´s SO2 / Air Cyanide Removal
Process, In: Proceedings of the Conference on Cyanide and the Environment, Tucson, Arizona.,
Publlsbed by Geotechnical Engineering 47 – 53

Teixeira, L. A. C.; Andia, J. P. M. & Yokoyama, L. (2005) Oxidation of Cyanide Solutions Using Caro´s
Acid, In; Proceedings ENPROMER 2005 -2nd Mercosur Congress on Chemical Engineering , Rio de
Janeiro 97 - 113

8
Oxygen Respiration Rates Measurements: A Valuable
Field Test for Biological Wastewater Treatment
Plants Operation
Jorge Arrueste1 and Jorge Yoplac2
1. DISAL Group, Chile
2. DISAL Peru

ABSTRACT
Development of reliable field measurements is very important during the operation of activated
sludge wastewater treatment plants. What is typically monitored in an on-site laboratory, include
sludge settling quality, dissolved oxygen concentration in reactors, sludge blanket level in clarifiers,
turbidity and residual chlorine in effluent, among others. Depending on plants size and needs, the
on-site laboratory may also have the capacity to analyse influent, effluent and sludge chemical
parameters for monitoring and reporting.
The main goal of this publication is to highlight, to plant design engineers and operators, the
importance of including equipment in the field laboratory and procedures to measure the mixed
liquor oxygen respiration rates under different simulated plant conditions, as part of regular plant
monitoring and control. The Oxygen Uptake Rates (OUR) of the biomass provide the operators
valuable operating information, including: oxygen demand, bacterial activity, presence of toxic
elements in influent that can poison the biological system, as well as others.
OUR measurements provide useful field information that allows operators to achieve a more stable,
efficient and economical wastewater treatment plant operation. OUR´s on-site tests can easily be
developed on sludge samples obtained from biological reactors. The presenting author´s experience
in Israel is described, with the use of a simple manual (batch) respirometer, implemented in the
operation of various pilot plants and the Gush Dan (Tel-Aviv) wastewater treatment plant. The
development of short response time for Basic, Total, Carbonaceous, Maximum Carbonaceous,
Maximum Nitrification and Endogenous OUR´s tests are presented and explained. Material and
methods used for the implementation of a manual respirometer are shown, and the market
availability of the equipment is discussed.

1
INTRODUCTION
Development of reliable field measurements is very important during the operation of activated
sludge wastewater treatment plants in operation in industrial, mining camps and municipal
applications. What is typically monitored in on-site laboratories include: sludge settling quality,
dissolved oxygen concentration in reactors, sludge blanket level in clarifiers, turbidity and residual
chlorine in effluent. Depending on plants size and need, the on-site laboratory may also have the
capacity to analyse chemical parameters of influent, effluent and sludge concentration (MLSS and
MLVSS) for monitoring and reporting.
The main goal of this publication is to highlight to plant design engineers and operators the
importance of including equipment and procedures in the field laboratory to measure the mixed
liquor Oxygen Uptake Rates (OUR), or respiration rates, under different simulated plant and
laboratory conditions, as part of a regular plant monitoring and control programme. The OUR of
the biomass provides the operator valuable operating information, such as: basic and total oxygen
demand, maximum bacterial respiration, changes of bacterial activity, biodegradability of the
wastewater and presence of toxic substances that can poison the biological system.
OUR measurements provide useful field information that should allow the operators to achieve a
more stable, efficient and economical wastewater treatment plant operation and, as required, to
compare performance among different treatment plants under their management. OUR´s on-site
tests can easily be developed for sludge samples obtained from biological reactors. The presenting
author´s experience in Israel, using a simple manual (batch) respirometer during the operation of
various pilot plants and the full-scale Tel-Aviv´s wastewater treatment plant is described. The
development of useful short response time tests are also presented with an explanation and
interpretation of the results. Material and methods used for the implementation and operation of
the in-house assembled manual respirometer are shown, and the market availability of the
equipment is discussed (Arrueste, 1982, 1989, 1994).

RESPIRATION AND OXYGEN DEMAND

The activated sludge process is, basically, a biochemical reaction, where the oxygen supply is one of
the primary factors that governs its progression, in addition to the Food to Microorganism ratio
(F/M) and the temperature. The formulae used for oxygen demand calculation have been
developed by different investigators, during studies in which pilot plants were operated under
different operational conditions (Tchobanoglous, 2002). In one case, the OUR of the biomass was
measured by a manual respirometer, and the results were correlated with various pilot plants
operational parameters, such as: F/M, mixed liquor total suspended solids (MLSS), volatile MLSS
(MLVSS), Sludge Age (SRT), temperature, as well as others (Arrueste, 1982).
The oxygen required by the heterotrophic microorganisms for metabolism of organic matter is
critical for their synthesis and endogenous respiration. Regarding the autotrophic microorganisms,
the organic nitrogen is transformed to ammonia (NH4-N), and their activity on the NH4-N implies
also an important oxygen demand, the respiration for nitrification. This respiration shall be
considered when estimating the total oxygen demand. When the denitrification process has been
considered in plant design, the oxygen demand should be lower due the gained oxygen from
nitrates (NO3-N) reduction to nitrogen gas (N2).

2
Organic matter removal and respiration
The oxygen demand is the measure of the energy that can be released due to the bacterial
metabolism. During the oxidation of organic matter, the molecule is split, releasing CO2, H+, and
energy. CO2 is released as gas, but the hydrogen ion stays in solution, and must be removed via a
receptor atom. Under aerobic conditions, the receptor of the H+ is oxygen (O2) producing water
(H2O). This process releases energy in proportion to the O2 consumed. During the process of
organic matter removal, in addition to the O2 required for the bacterial synthesis, a certain mass of
O2 should be supplied in proportion to the volatile mass of solids that disappear from the biological
system due to the endogenous respiration.

Respiration for synthesis

When the aerobic heterotrophic microorganisms are in contact with organic matter in the
appropriate physic-chemical environmental conditions, part of the organic matter is oxidized to
generate H2O and CO2.. The energy released as heat is directly proportional to the O2 consumed due
to respiration for synthesis. The chemical reaction can be expressed as follows:
Organic Matter + Organic Matter Non-Biodegradable + O2 + Nutrients + Microorganisms --------------
-------------- New Microorganisms + CO2 + H2O + Additional Non-Biodegradable Matter
(1)

Endogenous respiration
When the organic matter has been removed from the wastewater, the microorganisms oxidize their
own cellular material. There is a net loss of live organic mass in order to provide energy for cells
activity, and oxygen is consumed due to endogenous respiration. The oxidation of cellular material
represented by C7 H11 NO3 would be the following:
C7 H11 NO3 + 7.5 O2 --------- 7 CO2 + 4 H2O + NH4
(2)

Nitrification and respiration

The nitrification is defined as the biological oxidation of the wastewater nitrogen – originally
present as NH4, or bonded to organic matter – in nitrites (NO2-N) and nitrates (NO3-N). This
biological process occurs under aerobic conditions, requiring the presence of dissolved atmospheric
oxygen.
The aerobic autotrophic microorganisms known as nitrifiers, are the responsible of the nitrogen
oxidation in two stages – first, the NH4 is converted to NO2 by the bacteria of the group
Nitrosomonas and, afterwards, the NO2 is converted to NO3 by the bacteria of the group
Nitrobacter. The following reactions represent those stages:
2 NH4 + 3 O2 ------------- 2 NO2 + 2 H2O + 4 H
(3)
2 NO2 + O2 ------------- 2 NO3
(4)
2 NH4 + 4 O2------------- 2 NO3 + 2 H2O + 4 H ; 1.0 mg NH4-N requires 4.6 mg O2
(5)

3
Denitrification and respiration
The denitrification is defined as the biological respiratory reduction of NO 3 and NO2 to nitrogen gas
(N2). This process occurs without free dissolved oxygen (anoxic environment), therefore forcing the
facultative heterotrophic bacteria to utilize the oxygen bonded to the radical NO 3. These
microorganisms are the responsible for denitrification by the respiration of the NO3, where organic
matter acts as the electron donor, and the NO3 is the receptor. The following reaction depicts the
denitrification process:
NO3 + 6 H + 5e ------------- ½ N2 + 3 H2O ; NO2 + 4 H + 3e- ---------- ½ N2 + 2 H2O
(6)
The requirements for denitrification are nitrification, organic matter and anoxic conditions. O2
prevents the denitrification process. If O2, NO3 and NO2 are present, electrons are transferred to the
O2, instead of NO3. During the denitrification process, part of the O2 invested during nitrification is
returned:
2.8 gr NO3-N = 8 gr O2 ; 1.0 gr NO3-N = 8/2.8 = 2.86 gr O2 = 2.9 gr O2
(7)
4.6 – 2.9 gr O2 = 1.7 gr O2 per mg NH4-N
(8)

RESPIRATION MEASUREMENTS
The respirometric measurements provide a valuable tool for the operator of wastewater activated
sludge treatment plants in operation in industrial, mining camps and municipal applications. These
measurements should be part of an operator daily routine, and the field laboratory should be
equipped with a suitable manual respirometer (Hagman, 2007).
The equipment can be either assembled in-house, or be purchased from a specialized vendor. The
present publication describes the author´s experience in Israel with a manual respirometer, during
the operation of pilot plants, and the Tel-Aviv´s wastewater treatment system. Figure 1 shows the
schematic drawing of the equipment successfully used by the author and, is recommended here
(Arrueste, 1982).

Figure 1 Manual Respirometer

4
Table 1 summarizes the different components of the OUR measurement system. The register could
be replaced by manually recording the DO variation in the reaction vessel, every 30 seconds.

Table 1 Main Components of Manual Respirometer

Components Notes

Portable dissolved oxygen meter and Sensor Minimum accuracy 0.1 %, membrane type

Register and thermometer Variable speed (cm/min)

Stirrer magnetic with stir bar With/without heating

Reaction vessel with lid, with orifices for sensor Plastic transparent of 300 ml, approximately.
DO, syringe or thermometer Hermetic lid, appropriate weight

Syringes for injection 5 ml, 20 ml, other

Erlenmeyer of 500 ml, with stopper Plastic or glass

Plastic receptacle outside the reaction vessel For overflow from reaction vessel

Respirometer Calibration
Prior to starting with the daily OUR´s measurements, the operator should calibrate the DO meter
and the register. The authors recommended to calibrate the DO sensor with water, for zero mg/l
and saturation concentration. The recommended calibration procedure is as follows:
 Aerate manually the water sample in the Erlenmeyer. Measure the water temperature, and
obtain the saturation concentration from the table. Calibrate the DO meter for that
concentration.
 Reduce and calibrate the DO to zero mg /l by adding sodium sulphite (NaSO3) to the water. Use
about 80 mg NaSO3 per mg O2 to be reduced.

OUR Measurements
OUR measurements should be started after respirometer calibration. The following are the basic
steps to be considered by the operator:
 Manually aerate the mixed liquor sample within the Erlenmeyer. Pour 300 ml in the reaction
vessel. Magnetic stir bar should be within the reaction vessel. Close the lid. Excess mixed liquor
will be overflowed to the receptacle. Activate the magnetic stirrer.
 Insert the DO sensor and thermometer in their places. Start register operation at the required
velocity.
 Measure mixed liquor temperature, and take out the thermometer.
 Inject wastewater, mixed liquor and/or chemical product(s) at the required rate, as needed by
the OUR test to be performed. Prior to injecting wastewater or mixed liquor, the syringe should
be manually stirred to prevent suspended solids settling within.
 The DO reduction, due to microorganism respiration, will be registered in the paper chart. If
register is not available, the DO should be manually recorded as function of time, every 30
seconds.

5
 Calculate the slope of DO reduction within a time interval (OUR, mgO2/l h)
The OUR tests procedure is compatible with the EPA recommendation (EPA, 2001). A sample of
mixed liquor should be sent to chemical laboratory for MLSS and MLVSS concentration analysis, in
case Specific OUR (SOR) information is also required (mg O2/h-gr dry solids).

OUR Basic
To obtain information of the instantaneous OUR in the biological reactor at a specific time, the test
indicated above should be developed with the specific sample of mixed liquor, without any
injection, as shown in Figure 2.

OUR Total
To obtain a dynamic simulation of the aeration tank in the respirometer, small amounts of
wastewater, or mixed liquor from the previous tank, shall be injected at a constant rate into the
reaction vessel. These OUR measurements, represent the total oxygen demand to be managed by
the aeration tank capacity. The liquid shall be fed (in ml volumes) to the reaction vessel at
predefined time intervals (30 seconds), simulating the aeration tank operation. After injection, the
OUR will increase rapidly, as shown by the DO decrease. If the injection is stopped for more than
one minute, the OUR will decrease slowly to the OUR Basic. Figure 2 shows test results of a
measurement of OUR Basic and Total. In this case, the OUR Basic and Total were 39 and 57 mgO2/l
h, respectively (Arrueste, 1982).

Figure 2 Effective OUR Measurement

6
OUR Carbonaceous and Nitrification
To obtain the Carbonaceous and Nitrification OUR in the aeration tank, it should be necessary to
inhibit the nitrifying bacteria in the mixed liquor sample during the OUR Total test performance. A
single injection of 4 ml of Allythiourea (ATU) solution (0.5 gr ATU/l), equivalent to 6.7 mg ATU/l of
mixed liquor, will be enough for complete nitrification inhibition. The OUR obtained, before and
after the injection, will give the nitrification respiration rate. Immediately after the ATU injection,
the OUR will decrease abruptly, and remained without variation during the whole test period. The
OUR Carbonaceous will be the difference between the OUR Total and the OUR Nitrification,
typically 75 – 80% of the OUR Total (Arrueste, 1982).

OUR Carbonaceous Maximum

To obtain the Maximum Carbonaceous OUR, corresponding to the maximum heterotrophic
microorganism activity, a single 20 ml wastewater shock load, after the 4 ml ATU injection, should
be necessary. After the wastewater injection, the OUR will increase abruptly, stabilizing for 3-4
minutes, before decreasing rapidly. Figure 3 shows test results of a measurement of OURN Max. In
this case, the Basic OUR after the ATU injection, increased from 33 to 102 mgO 2/l h, representing the
OUR Carbonaceous Maximum (Arrueste, 1982).

Figure 3 Maximum Carbonaceous OUR

OUR Nitrification Maximum

To obtain the Maximum Nitrification OUR, corresponding to the maximum nitrifying activity, a
single 5 ml shock load of ammonia solution (NH4Cl), equivalent to 4.4 mg NH4-N/l, should be
required in order to rise the NH4-N concentration up to at least 5 mg/l. This concentration will
assure the maximum OUR Nitrification. Figure 4 shows a test results, in which the Basic OUR, after
the NH4Cl and ATU injection, decreased 48 to 36 mgO2/l h. The difference of 12 mgO2/l h represents
the OUR Nitrification Maximum. It can be observed that after the NH4Cl injection, the Basic OUR

7
remained the same due that the NH4-N concentration in the sample was sufficient to get the
maximum nitrifiers activity (Arrueste, 1982).
A daily follow-up of OUR tests results is recommended to identify potential OUR Maximum
Nitrification reduction, as an advance warning of nitrifying bacterial losses (wash-out) from the
biomass, before ammonia increase in the effluent. This situation can occur due to operational
reasons, such as plant operation at a lower sludge age than required, or toxic conditions. In this
case, the operator would have the possibility of modifying plant operational parameters to prevent
the problem from occurring. After bacterial wash-out occurs, nitrification process recovery will not
be easy.

Figure 4 Maximum Nitrification OUR

Figure 5 shows an operational example of nitrification failure in Tel-Aviv pilot plants, in which the
daily OUR Maximum Nitrification showed a reduction from 12 to 3 mg O2/lh about 6-7 days before
a severe deterioration of effluent quality, raising the NH4-N from 1 to 17 mg/l (Arrueste, 1982).

Figure 5 OUR Maximum Nitrification and NH4-N Effluent

8
OUR Endogenous
To measure the OUR Endogenous, a mixed liquor sample (> 2 litres) should be aerated for a
minimum of 2 hours, before measuring the OUR Basic. A small air compressor or blower should be
used for aeration. During the first 1.5 – 2 hours of aeration, the OUR decreases abruptly due to the
decrease in synthesis respiration. Afterwards, the OUR would be fairly constant, correlating to the
oxygen requirements due to cells decay, but always decreases very slowly (Arrueste, 1982).

RESPIROMETERS IN THE MARKET

Some respirometers are available from specialized vendors, as shown in Figure 6. According to the
presenting author´s experience, these equipment are more appropriate R&D laboratories rather
than at harsh field conditions. Nevertheless, depending on plant operation and size, they could
provide a valid alternative to an in-house manufactured equipment, as described in this
publication.

Figure 6 Strathtox Respirometer

Strathtox is a fully integrated multifunctional desktop respirometer (Surcis, 2015) comprising

several sub-systems. Its software provides automated results and graphs. Tests that can be
developed, according to manufacturer information, and include the following:

 Respiration tests. Respiration inhibition (toxicity). Nitrification inhibition

 Aeration efficiency
 Sludge health monitoring
 Critical oxygen point analysis
 Short-term BOD
 Plant capacity

9
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
 OUR measurements represent a valuable tool for the operator of wastewater activated sludge
treatment plants in industrial, mining and municipal applications. These measurements should
be part of operator daily routine work, and the field laboratory should include an appropriate
manual (batch) respirometer.
 OUR measurements represent microorganism respiration for synthesis and oxidation of their
own cellular material (endogenous respiration). The nitrification process requires an aerobic
environment, in which 1.0 mg NH4-N requires 4.6 mg O2. The denitrification process requires
anoxic conditions, in which 2.9 gr O2 invested during nitrification is returned. Therefore, the
nitrification-denitrification process requires a total of 1.7 gr O2 /NH4
 The OUR of the biomass will provide the operator valuable operating information, such as:
basic and total oxygen demand, maximum bacterial respiration, changes of bacterial activity,
biodegradability of the wastewater and presence of toxic components that can poison the
biomass.
 The DO meter should be well calibrated before starting with the daily OUR´s measurements.
Calibration should be with water, for zero mg/l and saturated concentrations, prior
respirometer operation.
 The OUR information should be obtained from the slope of the DO reduction within a certain
time interval. Solutions of Allythiourea (ATU), a nitrification microorganism inhibitor, and NH4
Cl, should be injected to obtain the maximum nitrification OUR. A shock loading of wastewater
shall be injected to obtain the maximum carbonaceous OUR. A sample of mixed liquor should
be aerated a minimum of 2 hours to obtain the endogenous OUR.
 Daily results of maximum OUR Nitrification can be used as a marker of bacterial presence and
wash-out from the biomass, allowing the operator to make operational changes in advance,
about one week before, to prevent nitrification failure. Returning to the previous conditions
will be difficult.
 Some respirometers are available from specialized vendors. According to author´s experience,
the commercially available equipment is more suitable for laboratories involved in R&D.
Nevertheless, depending on plant operation and size, they can be considered as a viable
alternative, to the described and recommended in-house constructed equipment.

10
REFERENCES
Arrueste J, (1982), “Oxygen Respiration Rates Measurements in the Activated Sludge System”.
Investigation developed for the Degree of Master of Science (M.Sc.) in Environmental
Engineering in the Israel Institute of Technology (Technion), Israel.
Arrueste J, et al (1989), “Operation of the Soreq Wastewater Treatment Plant with a Single Stage
Nitrification-Denitrification Activated Sludge System”. Wat. Sci. Tech. Vol. 21, Pp. 1359-
1372.
Arrueste J, (1994), “Nitrificación-Desnitrificación Simultánea en un Reactor de Lodos Activados de
Operación Continua”. Paper presented at the XXIV Congreso Interamericano de Ingeniería
Sanitaria y Ambiental (AIDIS), Buenos Aires, Argentina.
Hagman M, La Cour Jansen J, (2007), “Oxygen Uptake Measurements for Application at
Wastewater Treatment Plants”. Water & Environmental Engineering, Dep. Of Chem. Eng.,
Lund University.
Surcis (2015), “Multifunctional Respirometry Systems”, www.surcis.com/en/, Barcelona, Spain
Tchobanoglous G, et al (2002), “Wastewater Engineering: Treatment and Reuse”. Metcalf & Eddy,
USA.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2001), “Method 1683 – Specific Oxygen Uptake Rate in
Bio-solids”, EPA-821-R-01-14

11
Degradation of Thiocyanates from Goldmine
Industry Effluents by Solid and Liquid Ferrate (VI)
Carolina Gonzalez-Merchan1, Thomas Genty2, Bruno Bussière1, Robin Potvin2,3, Marc
Paquin4, Mustapha Benhammadi1 and Carmen Neculita1
1. Research Institute on Mines and Environment (RIME), University of Quebec in Abitibi-
Témiscamingue, Canada
2. Technological Centre for Industrial Waste (CTRI), Canada
3. Cegep of Abitibi-Témiscamingue (CEGEPAT), Canada,
4. Research and Service Unit in Mineral Technology (URSTM), Canada

ABSTRACT
Sustainable treatment of thiocyanates (SCN -), which are formed by cyanidation of sulfidic ores
during the gold extraction, is currently an important issue for the goldmine industry. Despite the
satisfactory performance of several available technologies for cyanides (CN -) degradation, the
simultaneous treatment of CN- and SCN- is still challenging. Ferrates [Fe(VI)], as strong agents
involved in advanced oxidation processes, could represent a promising option for the simultaneous
treatment of both, CN- and SCN-. However, the performance of the Fe(VI) seems related to their
phase: liquid (Na2FeO4) versus solid (K2FeO4). Consequently, in the present study, the SCN -
degradation and the efficiencies of both ferrate phases were compared, following the evaluation
with synthetic effluents containing 120 mg/L of SCN-. The main results showed that: (i) the
concentrations, in terms of SO42-, OCN-, NO3-, and NH4+, generated by liquid Fe(VI) treatment were
higher relative to those produced by solid Fe(VI); and (ii) significant differences were found
between liquid and solid Fe(VI), with efficiencies in SCN - degradation of 99% and 52%,
respectively. These findings suggest that almost complete SCN- removal could be yielded by liquid
Fe(VI). However, the performance of liquid Fe(VI) to remove the SCN - still requires testing on real
effluents from goldmine sites.

1
INTRODUCTION
The cyanidation process is widely used in the mining industry for the extraction of gold and silver
(Mudder & Botz, 2004). The high concentrations of cyanide (CN-) employed for the extraction of
gold from sulfidic ores entail the generation of thiocyanates (SCN-) (Gould et al., 2012; Kuyucak &
Akcil, 2013). The presence of CN- and SCN- can have toxic effects on aquatic ecosystems (Bhunia,
Saha & Kaviraj, 2000) and their treatment in goldmine effluents is required to limit pollution of the
receiving waters.
Chemical technologies, such as Degussa (H2O2 and Cu) or INCO (SO2 and air/oxygen) processes
allow the efficient treatment of CN-. However, SCN- is not destroyed in most of these processes, and
additional treatment technologies for SCN- removal are necessary (Botz, Mudder & Akcil, 2005;
Gould et al., 2012). Biological treatment of SCN- is one efficient and economical approach (Kuyucak
& Akcil, 2013). However, the range of application is limited to low pollutant concentrations,
because of the possible inhibitory effects on microorganisms’ activity (Botz, Mudder & Akcil, 2005).
Another sustainable option is the use of ferrates [Fe(VI)], which could allow to treat efficiently the
contaminated effluents from goldmines because of their very high oxidative capacity (Sharma, 2002;
Burnett, 2001; Lorengo, 2013). The residual iron(III) generated by the reduction of iron(VI) is a
nontoxic by-product and an excellent coagulant/flocculent (Jiang & Lloyd, 2002). Fe(VI) is widely
known as an excellent oxidant/disinfectant used for drinking water and wastewater treatment
(Jiang & Lloyd, 2002). Hence, Fe(VI) seems a good candidate for the treatment of CN- and SCN- in
gold mill effluents (Sharma et al., 2002; Lorengo, 2013).
To produce Fe(VI), a synthesis process is required, and three different preparation methods are
known (Thompson, Ockerman & Schreyer, 1951; Perfiliev & Sharma, 2008; Macova et al., 2009; Sun
et al., 2013): (1) electrochemical (to produce solid K2FeO4); (2) dry (to produce solid K2FeO4); and
(3) wet (to produce soluble Na2FeO4). The main disadvantages of the first option are: (i) time
consuming and expensive; (ii) relatively low in yield; (iii) problems with the separation of the final
product (Waite, 2015). Therefore, in this study, Fe(VI) liquids [Fe(VI)L] and Fe(VI) solids [Fe(VI)S]
are evaluated.
Previously reported results showed the advantages in terms of conservation and efficiency of
Fe(VI)S to remove several pollutants from goldmine effluents (Burnett, 2001; Lorengo, 2013).
However, its production with satisfactory stability is very expensive, as it requires several
separation steps. In terms of cost, the production of Fe(VI)S could be 12 times more expensive than
of Fe(VI)L. In consequence, it could be more advantageous to generate Fe(VI)L on mine sites (Waite,
2015).
As the performance of Fe(VI) is phase related (liquid or solid), the purpose of this paper is: (i) to
evaluate the degradation of SCN- by Fe(VI)L and Fe(VI)S; (ii) to compare the treatment performance
of SCN- by Fe(VI)S and Fe(VI)L. Treatability tests were carried out using Fe(VI)L and Fe(VI)S on a
synthetic effluent. This article compares Fe(VI)L and Fe(VI)S, in terms of by-products generated
following the SCN- removal. The knowledge acquired in the present study would allow a better
evaluation of the applicability of this treatment approach for the industrial cyanide-contaminated
wastewaters.

2
METHODOLOGY
To evaluate the performance of Fe(VI)S and Fe(VI)L, treatability tests were carried out on a synthetic
effluent of about 120 mg/L SCN-, which was prepared with distilled water and ACS grade of KSCN.
Several jar tests, consisting of six beakers with 1L capacity, that were filled with 500 ml of synthetic
effluent, were then performed (USEPA, 1999). The Fe(VI) was dosed with 80, 140, 280, 380, and
500 mg/L of Fe(VI), whereas a sixth beaker, containing no oxidant, was the control. The end of the
oxidation reaction was confirmed by the turning of purple color of Fe(VI) to red-brownish color of
Fe(III) oxides/hydroxides. If the final color was not obvious, the end of reaction was verified by the
presence of the residual Fe(VI), which was detected with potassium iodide starch paper, usually
used for strong oxidizers. If the oxidation reaction was not finished after one hour, the process was
stopped with ascorbic acid until obtain the Fe(VI) oxidation, which reacts rapidly (in less than one
second) with Fe(VI) (Cyr & Bielski, 1991). After 30 min of decantation, the supernatant was then
filtered (0.45 μm).
Providing complete reaction (Eq. 1), the stoichiometric degradation of SCN- could be achieved by
using four moles of Fe(VI) for each mole of SCN- (Sharma et al., 2002).

(1)
The following parameters were analysed on the effluent, before and after the treatability tests: pH,
ORP, sulfates (SO42-), nitrites (NO2-), nitrates (NO3-), cyanates (OCN-), SCN-, and ammonia (NH4+).
The pH and ORP were measured employing a selective electrode (Symphony VWR SB 90M5). All
ions, excepting for NH4+, were analyzed by colorimetric methods (WAH, 2009). For SO42-, samples
were acidified with HNO3 to avoid possible interferences with the colorimetric method. For NO 2-,
and NO3-, the samples were mixed during 2 min with zeolite, using a ratio (solid:liquid) of 1:10, and
which were then filtered (0.45 μm), to avoid colorimetric interference with the Fe(III). For OCN-, at
the beginning, the concentrations were analyzed using standard method 4500-CN-L (APHA, 2012),
which involves the measurement of NH4+ by an ion-selective electrode, before and after the
hydrolysis of OCN-. Then, OCN- concentrations were analyzed by ion chromatography (CEAEQ-
MA 315, 2012). In the case of SCN-, under acidic conditions, ferric ion (Fe3+) and SCN- produced a
colored complex, which absorbance was measured at a wavelength of 460 nm (Csikai & Barnard,
1983). The NH4+ was determined with a selective electrode, according to standard method 4500-
NH3-D (APHA, 2012).

Ferrates(VI)
To achieved the objectives of the study, the influence of the solid and liquid phases of Fe(VI) on the
performance of the treatability process was evaluated.

Liquid ferrate(VI)
The Fe(VI)L method is based on the oxidizing a very alkaline solution of iron(III) salt (Caddick,
Murtagh & Weaving, 2000). To do so, the preparation of Fe(VI)L involves the formation of Na2FeO4
by reacting Fe(NO3)3 with NaOCl, in the presence of NaOH (Eq. 2). This preparation method was
adapted from the available literature, and showed the development of a red purple color, indicating
the presence of iron(VI) (Thompson, Ockerman & Schreyer, 1951; Jiang & Lloyod, 2002; Sun et al.,
2013).

3
 (2)

(3)

The spontaneous decomposition of Fe(VI) in water leads to the formation of molecular oxygen
according to equation 3 (Sharma, 2011).
Afterwards, the Fe(VI) concentration can be estimated by UV-VIS spectroscopy considering the Bee
Lambert laws: Cc = A·120/(510nm·l). Considering that Cc is the concentration in g/L, l is the cell path
length (1 cm), and an absorbance A maximum at 510 nm wavelength with a molar absorption
coefficient of 510nm = 1150 M-1.cm-1 (Sharma et al., 2002). The concentration of Fe(VI)L were about
7 g/L.

Solids ferrate(VI)
The Fe(VI)S is generally stable in a dry atmosphere and can be safely transported (Delaude &
Laszlo, 1996). For this study a commercial K2FeO4 was used. The Fe(VI)S can be synthesized from a
Fe(VI)L preparation, which is then crystallized with KOH, following the equations 4 et 5
(Thompson, Ockerman & Schreyer, 1951; Delaude & Laszlo, 1996; Caddick, Murtagh & Weaving,
2000).

(4)

(5)
Two main separation steps are necessary to obtained K2FeO4: (i) washing with non-polar solvent
(e.g., benzene); and (ii) drying with methanol (Thompson, Ockerman & Schreyer, 1951). The Fe(VI)S
doses were estimated considering the concentration suggested by the provider (about 97%).
However, some impurities of KOH, K2CO3 and KCl were found in the solid product.

Statistical analysis
In order to identify the variation of parameters (e.g., pH) relative to Fe(VI) doses, the coefficient of
variation (CV) was estimated as the ratio (%) between the standard-deviation () and the mean ().
A low variation was considered when CV 20%.
A statistical comparison between the treatability tests (i.e., the efficiency of Fe(VI)S and Fe(VI)L in
treating the SCN-) was carried out with the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test, which is a non-parametric
test. The difference was considered significant when P value < 0.05 (threshold of 5%)

4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

pH and ORP
The pH and ORP values after treatment of SCN- by Fe(VI)L and Fe(VI)S are presented in the Figure
1. The pH increased sharply after the treatment by Fe(VI)L (from 5.7 to on average 13) and by
Fe(VI)S (from 5.5 to on average 10). The presence of residual concentrations of NaOH in the liquid
phase of Fe(VI) explain the more important increase in pH relative to Fe(VI)S. These results show
low variation (CV < 20%), when the Fe(VI) doses increase, as a result of the presence of residual
Fe(VI), which is stable in alkaline solutions (Sharma, 2011).
The ORP decreased, after addition of 80 mg/L of Fe(VI)L (from 332 mV to 76 mV), whereas for the
doses between 140 mg/L and 500 mg/L, the ORP increased (from 240 mV to 320 mV; Figure 1). At
the same time, for the treatment by Fe(VI)S, the ORP increased for all doses (from 379 mV to on
average 440 mV). Overall, these results highlight the strong oxidizing properties of Fe(VI), despite
the relatively low variations of ORP, at increasing Fe(VI) doses (CV = 5%).

Fe(VI)L
14 500
Fe(VI)s
12 400
ORP (mV)

10 300
pH

8 200

6 100

4 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 0 100 200 300 400 500
Fe(VI) - Doses [mg/L] Fe(VI) - Doses [mg/L]

Figure 1 Variation of pH and ORP in function to Fe(VI) doses

Evaluation of SCN- degradation by Fe(VI)L and Fe(VI)S

The concentrations of the main products of SCN- degradation (SO42- and OCN-; Eq. 1) are presented
in Figure 2. For the treatment by Fe(VI)L, 140 mg/L were required to completely remove the SCN-,
when the maximum concentrations of SO42- and OCN- achieved were of 1.7 mmol/L (163 mg/L) and
of 2 mmol/L (84 mg/L), respectively. Moreover, for the Fe(VI)L doses between 280 mg/L and
500 mg/L, same products showed a stable trend, because the SCN- was completely transformed in
SO42- and OCN-.
On the contrary, to achieve the maximum of SCN- removal by Fe(VI)S 3.6 times more oxidant was
required (i.e., 500 mg/L), whereas the maximum concentrations of SO42- were only of 0.6 mmol/L
(58 mg/L) and of OCN- were below detectable limit.

5
 2.5 2.5 SCN-
SO2-
2 2 4
-
[mmol/L] OCN

[mmol/L]
1.5 1.5

1 1

0.5 0.5

0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 0 100 200 300 400 500
Fe(VI) - Doses [mg/L] Fe(VI) - Doses [mg/L]

(a) (b)
Figure 2 Main degradation products of SCN- by: (a) Fe(VI)L; (b) Fe(VI)S

The evolution of concentrations of nitrogen compounds, in terms of NH4+, NO2-, and NO3-, relative
to Fe(VI) doses are showed in Figure 3. The NO2- concentrations were usually below detectable
levels. The treatment using Fe(VI)L produced NH4+ and NO3- having concentrations of 2 mmol/L
(36 mg/L) and 4 mmol/L (248 mg/L), respectively. At the same time, the concentrations of NH4+ and
NO3-, when Fe(VI)S was used, increased with a constant trend and the maximum concentrations
were 0.1 mmol/L (1.8 mg/L) and 0.75 mmol/L (46.5 mg/L), respectively.

NH+4
4 0.8 NO-2

3 0.6 NO-3
[mmol/L]
[mmol/L]

2 0.4

0.2
1
0
0 0 100 200 300 400 500
0 100 200 300 400 500 Fe(VI) - Doses [mg/L]
Fe(VI) - Doses [mg/L]

(a) (b)
Figure 3 Nitrogen compounds from SCN- degradation by: (a) Fe(VI)L; (b) Fe(VI)S

Balance of SCN- compounds

The balance of compounds in terms of S, C, and N was estimated after the treatment of SCN-, by
Fe(VI)L and Fe(VI)S, and is presented in Table 1.
Firstly, when using Fe(VI)L, after the addition of 80 mg/L of Fe(VI)L, S concentrations decreased
(from 65 mg/L to 34 mg/L), whereas for doses between 140 mg/L to 500 mg/L, S concentrations
increased. This trend is similar to that observed for the ORP, which could explain the favorable
conditions for S oxidation. For the treatment by Fe(VI)S, the concentration of S decreased (from
70 mg/L to on average 62 mg/L), when the Fe(VI) doses increased. Overall, after treatment by both,
Fe(VI)L and Fe(VI)S, S concentrations showed low variation (CV < 20%) as an indication that S
present in SCN- was oxidized in SO42-. In summary, the concentrations of SO42- produced by Fe(VI)L
were about 12 times higher than those generated by Fe(VI)S (Figure 2).

6
 Table 1 Balance of SCN- compounds after treatment by Fe(VI)L and Fe(VI)S

Fe(VI) Fe(VI)L Fe(VI)S

doses S N C N
C [mg/L] S [mg/L]
[mg/L] [mg/L] [mg/L] [mg/L] [mg/L]
Control 65 24 31 70 27 31
80 34 24 59 66 25 30
140 54 24 65 60 21 29
280 50 24 87 63 20 31
380 54 26 97 62 18 31
500 55 22 105 53 13 27
 52 24 74 62 21 30
CV (%) 19 5 37 9 23 6

Secondly, in the case of C, the concentrations were reduced by half (from 27 mg/L to 13 mg/L),
when Fe(VI)S was used, and showed high variation (CV = 23%; Table 1). The precipitation of C (as
carbonate), originating in SCN-, could account for this difference. In the case of Fe(VI)L, when the
doses increased, the C showed low variation (CV = 5%). The generation of OCN- could explain these
results. However, the concentrations of OCN-, when using Fe(VI)S, were lower than those generated
by Fe(VI)L (Figure 2).
Finally, the concentration of N showed low variation when Fe(VI)S doses increased (CV = 6%; Table
1). For Fe(VI)L, N concentrations increased about three times the initial values (from 31 mg/L to
105 mg/L), and showed high variation (CV = 37%). Higher concentrations of NH4+ and NO3-
generated by the use of Fe(VI)L can explain these results (Figure 2). Moreover, residual NO3-
originating in the salt used as source of Fe(III) during NaFeO4 preparation could account for
differences between Fe(VI)L and Fe(VI)S.

Efficiency of Fe(VI)L and Fe(VI)S

The treatability tests show that Fe(VI)L is significantly more effective than Fe(VI) S (P value < 0.05).
Indeed, the efficiency of SCN- removal (Figure 4) was about 99% and 52%, for Fe(VI)L and Fe(VI)S,
respectively. A more rapid dissolution of Fe(VI)L and a better oxidizing potential could explain
these findings. The presence of NaOCl in the preparation of Fe(VI)L appears also to influence the
treatment of SCN- (Botz, Mudder & Akcil, 2005).
Fe(VI)L
Fe(VI)s
100

80
(%) Removal

60

40

20

0
80 140 280 380 500
Fe(VI) - Doses [mg/L]

Figure 4 Comparison of treatment efficiency between solid and liquid Fe(VI)

7
To highlight the efficiency of Fe(VI)L versus Fe(VI)S, Table 2 compares the performances of both
oxidants based on the molar ratio Fe(VI):SCN-. Results found in the present study show that three
times more Fe(VI)S, i.e. 1.9 moles, yielded about half of the efficiency (52%) of SCN- removal relative
to Fe(VI)L, which allowed 99% of SCN- treatment by the use of only 0.6 moles.
Reported findings in the literature (Sharma et al., 2002; Waite, 2015) show that the treatment of
SCN- and CN-, in presence of a real effluent using Fe(VI)L yielded 60% of SCN- removal (at a molar
ratio 1.4:1), whereas the Fe(VI)S removed 98% of SCN- in a synthetic effluent (at a molar ratio 4:1)
(Table 2). Overall, three times more moles of Fe(VI)S than Fe(VI)L were required for SCN- removal.
These findings emphasize the pertinence of the Fe(VI) use for the efficient degradation of SCN- and
point out the Fe(VI)L as a powerful oxidant for its treatment in a real effluent.
Even though the treatment of SCN- by Fe(VI)L seems effective, the concentration of by-products
(such as NH4+) increased, and hence, additional/longer treatment could be required (Sharma, Bloom
& Joshi, 1998).
Finally, although encouraging, these results are nonetheless provisional and have yet to be
confirmed. In addition to the high costs of Fe(VI)S ($60/pound) relative to Fe(VI)L ($5/pound), the
impurities found in the first led to an analyzed concentration of about 20% (non-confirmed by the
producer). As a result, the used doses might be divided by five. Nevertheless, based on these
findings, approximately 100 mg/L of Fe(VI)S allows lower efficiency of SCN- degradation (52%) than
80 mg/L of Fe(VI)L, which yielded 70% of SCN- removal.

Table 2 Comparison with the previous works of the maximum oxidation efficiency to remove SCN- with the
molar ratio Fe(VI):SCN-

Types of SCN-initial SCN- removed

Fe(VI) :SCN- Effluent References
Fe(VI) [mg/L] (%)
Fe(VI)L 0.6 :1 118.0 99
Synthetic: SCN- Fe(VI) studied in this paper
Fe(VI)S 1.9 :1 127.0 52
Real effluent from a
Fe(VI)L 1.4 :1 60.0 60 Waite (2015)
goldmine in Peru
Synthetic: SCN-, CN-,
Fe(VI)S 4.0 :1 7.3 98 Sharma et al. (2002)
and CuCN

CONCLUSION
The main objective of the present study was to compare the performance of solid and liquid Fe(VI)
for the treatment of SCN- in synthetic effluents. The results showed significant differences between
the performance of Fe(VI) L and Fe(VI)S, with efficiencies in SCN- degradation of 99% and 52%,
respectively. These findings indicate that almost complete SCN - removal could be yielded by
Fe(VI)L.
The degradation of SCN- by Fe(VI)L and Fe(VI)S showed that the concentrations of SO42-, OCN- and
NO3- increased when SCN- concentrations decreased.

8
As the bench scale has proven the most effective way to determine the minimum dose of Fe(VI)
required to achieve treatment goals, this preliminary study considered a synthetic effluent with
SCN-. Moreover, to finalize the testing, the high pH values would require correction in order to
protect the receiving waters.
Therefore, future treatability studies must be carried out using synthetic effluents, with two
contaminants (SCN- and NH4+). The results will then be validated on real goldmine effluents.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study was funded by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada
(NSERC), Agnico Eagle limited, and Mabarex. The authors acknowledge the help of Mélinda
Gervais and Joey Isabelle during the experimental works.

REFERENCES
American Public Health Association (APHA), American Water Works Association (AWWA) and Water
Pollution Control Federation (WPCF) (2012), Standard Methods for the Examination of water and
wastewater, 22th Edition, American Public Health Association, Washington DC, USA.

Bhunia, F., Saha, N.C., Kaviraj, A. (2000), Toxicity of thiocyanate to fish, plankton, worm, and aquatic
ecosystem, Bull, Environ. Contam. Toxicol., vol. 64, pp. 197–204.

Botz, M.M., Mudder, T.I., Akcil, A.U. (2005), Cyanide treatment: Physical, chemical and biological process,
Dev. Miner. Process., vol. 15, pp. 672-702.

Burnett, C.R., (2001), Ferrate(VI) oxidation of thiocyanate, cyanide, and copper(I) cyanide with emphasis on
gold mill wastewater, (Ms. Thesis) College of engineering at Florida Institute of Technology:
Department of Environmental Science, 138p.

Caddick, S., Murtagh, L., Weaving, R., (2000), Potassium ferrate on wet alumina: Preparation and reactivity.
Tetrahedron, vol. 56(47), pp. 9365-9373.

Centre d’Expertise en Analyse Environnementale du Québec (CEAEQ) (2012), Détermination des cyanates:
méthode par chromatographie ionique, MA. 315-CNO 1.1, Rév. 3. Ministère du Développement
Durable, de l’Environnement, de la Faune et des Parcs du Québec, 9 p.

Csikai, N.J., Barnard, Jr. (1983), Determination of total cyanide in thiocyanate-containing waste water, Anal.
Chem., vol. 55, pp. 1677-1682.

Cyr, J.E., Bielski, B.H.J. (1991), The reduction of ferrate(VI) to ferrate(V) by ascorbate, Free Radic. Biol. Med.,
vol. 11(2), pp. 157-60.

Delaude, L., Laszlo, P. (1996), A novel oxidizing reagent based on potassium ferrate (VI), J. Org. Chem., vol. 61,
pp. 6360-6370.

Gould, D. W., King, M., Mohapatra, B.R., Cameron, R.A., Kapoor, A., Koren, D.W., (2012), A critical review on
destruction of thiocyanate in mining effluents, Miner. Eng., vol. 34, pp. 38–47.

Jiang, J.Q., Lloyd, B., (2002), Progress in the development and use of ferrate(VI) salt as an oxidant and
coagulant for water and wastewater treatment, Water Res., vol. 36, pp. 1397-1408.

Kuyucak, N., Akcil, A., (2013), Cyanide and removal options from effluents in gold mining and metallurgical
processes, Miner. Eng., vol. 50-51, pp. 13-29.

9
Lorengo, J.M., (2013), Ferrate Iron (Fe6+) as an Alternative Method for the Detoxification of Cyanide and
Cyanide Species in Gold Cyanidation Leach Tails, (Ms. Thesis) Colorado school of mines: Department
of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, 98p.

Macova, Z., Bouzek, K., Hives, J., Sharma, V.K., Terryn, R.J. Baum, J.C., (2009), Research progress in the
electrochemical synthesis of ferrate(VI), Electrochim. Acta., vol. 54, pp. 2673-2683.

Mudder, T.I., Botz, M.M., (2004), Cyanide and society: a critical review, Eur. J. Miner. Process. Env. Prot., vol.
4, pp. 62–74.

Perfiliev, Y.D., Sharma V.K., (2008), Higher Oxidation States of Iron in Solid State: Synthesis and Their
Mössbauer Characterization. Am. Chem. Soc., Chapter 7, pp 112-123.

Sharma, V.K., Bloom J.T., Joshi, V.N., (1998), Oxidation of ammonia by ferrate(VI), J. Environ. Sci. Health, vol.
33(4), pp. 635-650.

Sharma, V. K., Burnett, C.R., O’Connor, D. B., Cabelli, D.E., (2002), Iron(VI) and iron(V) oxidation of
thiocyanate, Environ. Sci. Technol., vol. 36, pp. 4182-4186.

Sharma, V.K., (2002), Potassium ferrate(VI): an environmentally friendly oxidant, Adv. Environ. Res., vol. 6(2),
pp. 143-156

Sharma, V.K. (2011), Oxidation of inorganic contaminants by ferrates (VI, V, and IV)-kinetics and mechanisms:
A review. J. Environ. Manage., vol. 92, pp. 1051-1073.

Sun, X., Wang, L., Lic, W., Tuo, W. (2013), Preparation of liquid ferrate and the optimization of process
parameters, Adv. Mater. Res., vol. 772, pp. 884-887.

Thompson, G.W., Ockerman, L.T., Schreyer, J.M., (1951), Preparation and Purification of Potassium Ferrate, VI,
J. Chem. Soc., vol. 73, pp. 1379–1381.

USEPA (1999), Enhanced coagulation and enhanced precipitative softening guidance manual, EPA 815-R-99-
012.

Waite, T., (2015), Treatment of mine wastewaters for cyanide destruction and thiocyanate removal with
ferrate(VI), Symposium 2015 mines and the environment in Rouyn-Noranda, Québec Canada, June
14-17, 6p.

Water Analysis Handbook (WAH) (2009), Hach 4th Edition, 442p.

10
 C HAP T E R 8

MANAGEMENT OF
ACID MINE DRAINAGE
Nanofiltration of Acid Mine Drainage from Copper
Mining
Camila Bustos1, Karen Ambiado2, Rodrigo Bórquez3 and Alex Schwarz4
1. Civil Engineering Department/Faculty of Engineering, Universidad de Concepción, Chile
2. Chemical Engineering Department/Faculty of Engineering, Universidad de Concepción, Chile
3. Centre of Water Resources for Agriculture and Mining (CRHIAM), Universidad de
Concepción, Chile
4. Centre of Water Resources for Agriculture and Mining (CRHIAM), Universidad de
Concepción, Chile

ABSTRACT
Copper mining, one of the main economic activities in Chile, is a major source of water pollution.
The acid mine drainage generated from waste rock and tailings contaminates soils, surface water
and ground water. At the same time, acid mine drainage can be a source of valuable metals, and
their recovery can partially or totally offset the cost of treatment.
Passive and active technologies can be employed to treat acid mine drainage. Active technologies
are considered more appropriate for the operational phase of projects, or when acid mine drainage
flows are significant. Membrane filtration, still considered an emerging technology for the active
treatment of mine water, has a relatively small footprint and does not involve significant dosing
with chemicals or the generation of chemical sludge.
In this work, we evaluated the performance of reverse osmosis (RO98pHt) and nanofiltration
(NF99) membranes for the treatment of acid mine drainage from a large copper mining operation.
Using a pilot membrane filtration system, we studied the effect of pressure and feed flow on ion
removal and permeate flow. With both membranes, metal rejection (>95%) and sulfate removal
(>98%) were significant. The RO98pHt membrane showed a slightly better removal performance,
however, permeate flows were significantly less (greater than 75% difference). In view of its lower
energy costs and good filtration performance, nanofiltration holds promise for the treatment of acid
mine drainage with the goals of either removing toxic metals or concentrating valuable metals.

1
INTRODUCTION
The formation of acid mine drainage (AMD) is a natural process in which the sulfides present in
rock oxidise to produce sulfuric acid, which leaches from the rock when it is exposed to water and
air. AMD is then transported by rainwater to nearby soils and water bodies. During mining
operations, large quantities of rock are exposed to oxidising agents, increasing the formation of
AMD and its negative effects on the ecosystem (SERNAGEOMIN, 2002). One recently developed
alternative for AMD treatment is the use of semipermeable membranes (Ramos et al., 2013; Mullet et
al., 2014; Rieger et al., 2009; Al-Zoubi et al., 2010a; Al-Zoubi et al., 2010b). Research into, and
application of, this kind of treatment are still limited; however the few results reported are
promising. This work studies such treatments applied to AMD from a Chilean copper mine, using a
pilot system for reverse osmosis filtration and nanofiltration.

METHODOLOGY

Equipment used
The equipment used for reverse osmosis filtration and nanofiltration was the Alfa Laval Pilot Unit
2,5 RO/NF (Figure 1). In addition, a PolyScience cryostat with a 50% solution ethylene-glycol/water
was connected to the RO/NF module in order to maintain constant temperature during the
experiments. All assays were carried out at a temperature of 25 ± 1 °C.

Figure 1 Alfa Laval Pilot Unit 2,5 RO/NF used in this study

Pre-treatment
The AMD pre-treatment system was a RhodiaOrelis KeraSep ceramic microfiltration equipment,
cut-off 0.45 µm. This allowed larger solids present in the affluent to be removed so as to reduce
dirtying and obstruction of the nanofiltration and reverse osmosis filtration membranes, increasing
their working life.

2
Membranes used
Two membranes were used: the NF99 (Alfalaval) for nanofiltration and the RO98pHt (Alfalaval) for
reverse osmosis filtration. The effective area of both membranes was 0.7 m2.

Description of the AMD used

The AMD sample used was obtained in September 2014 from an operating Chilean copper mine.
The characteristics of the sample are summarised below in Table 1.

Table 1 Characterisation of the AMD used

Parameter Units Concentrations

Al mg/L 21.5
Cu mg/L 348.8
Fe mg/L 0.4
Mn mg/L 101.1
Zn mg/L 37.9
Sulfate mg/L 1700
pH --- 4
Conductivity mS/cm 4.4

The values shown in the table are metal and sulfate concentrations, pH and conductivity after
microfiltration.

Operational parameters
The permeate flow (J) is defined as the volume of permeate which flows through one unit of
membrane area in a limited period of time, calculated as follows:

𝑉𝑝 (1)
𝐽=
𝐴𝑚 ∙ 𝑡

Where Vp, Am and t are the volume of permeate in litres, the area of the membrane in square metres
and the time in hours respectively.

The removal or rejection of solutes (R) has been defined as:

𝐶0 − 𝐶𝑝 (2)
𝑅=( ) × 100
𝐶0

Where C0 and Cp are the solute concentrations in the feed and permeate respectively (Sogaard,
2004). To find the total ion removal, C0 can be replaced by the conductivity of the feed (K0) and Cp
by the conductivity of the permeate (Kp) (Riegar et al., 2009).

3
RESULTS

Permeate flows
First the permeabilities of the NF99 and RO98pHt membranes can be compared for pure water and
AMD. As shows, the permeate flows for the nanofiltration membrane are significantly greater than
for the reverse osmosis membrane, more than five-fold for pure water and more than four-fold for
AMD.
The permeate flows for AMD are smaller than for pure water in both membranes. This is because
the permeability of the membranes is affected by osmotic pressure when AMD is treated. In
particular, when AMD is treated by nanofiltration the linear ratio between pressure and flow is not
maintained at high pressures. These results agree with those found by Riegar et al. (2009). As the
permeate flow is greater for the NF99 membrane, the accumulation of ions is higher in the same
period of time than for the RO98pHt membrane. This means that the concentration due to
polarisation is accentuated and that the variation from linearity between permeate flow and
pressure is more remarkable.
The effect of the feed flow on the permeability of the membranes is more remarkable for the
nanofiltration membrane. Increasing the flow produces greater permeate flows for high feed
pressures and the linear ratio between pressure and permeate flow is maintained over a greater
range of pressures. This is because the greater flow increases the turbulence, reducing the
concentration due to polarisation.

Figure 2 Comparison of the infuence of pressure on permeate flow for pure water and acid mine drainage at
25±1°C

The volumetric fraction of treated effluent recovered as permeate was low, because of the small
filtration area involved, and because the plant was operated in a closed mode, with recirculation of
both permeate and concentrate. For example, for NF99 at a flow of 1150 L/h and 40 bar (Figure 2),
the effluent fraction recovered was only 13%. Hence, concentrate metal and sulfate concentrations
did not increase significantly.

4
Total ion removal
Figure 3 shows that for reverse osmosis the total ion removal is not affected by the flow and
increases slightly at higher pressures. For nanofiltration on the other hand, the feed flow is
observed to have a strong influence on total ion removal. Total ion removal increases with pressure
(at low pressures), as proposed by Riegar et al. (2009). For pressures over 20 bar however, a
decrease in total ion removal is observed with the NF99 membrane, while it remains constant with
the RO98pHt membrane.
We did not observe any precipitates in the brine nor significant pH changes in both permeate and
brine compared with the AMD.

Figure 3 Total ion removal by operating pressure

Sulfate removal
Figure 4 shows that, as with total ion removal, the RO98pHt membrane presents better sulfate
removal than the NF99 membrane, removing practically all the sulfate originally present.
Furthermore there is no change with variations in the flow. The NF99 membrane presents
significant differences between the two feed flows studied. Riegar et al. (2009) found sulfate
removal higher than 95% with nanofiltration and higher than 98% with reverse osmosis, agreeing
with the findings of our tests for both flows with reverse osmosis and the higher flow with
nanofiltration.
It is important to note that Riegar et al. (2009) worked with a smaller feed flow (meaning that their
removal should be lower than ours), however their initial concentrations were higher (which would
explain such high removal rates, despite the smaller flow). It should also be considered that Riegar
et al. (2009) worked with a laboratory scale filtration system, with a much smaller filtration area (63
cm2) than used in our study.

5
 Figure 4 Sulfate removal by operating pressure

Metals removal
Figure 5 shows that both membranes present good levels of removal of dissolved divalent metals
such as copper. Just as occurs with the total removal of ions and sulfate, the RO98pHt membrane
removes more than the NF99; furthermore the removal of the latter increases as the flow is
increased. If we compare the copper removal graph with the total ion removal graph (Figure 3), we
see that when the nanofiltration membrane is used, the metals removal is higher than the total ion
removal. This is because of the positive electrical charge in the membrane, since the metals studied
are present in the AMD in polyvalent form facilitating their removal by electrical repulsion.
The metals studied presented varying removal percentages. Zinc permeated the membranes most,
with removal levels of 90% with nanofiltration and 92% with reverse osmosis. The removal rates of
the other metals studied were higher than 95% for both membranes.

6
 Figure 5 Copper removal by nanofiltration and reverse osmosis for two concentrate flows

CONCLUSIONS
AMD is a problem involving high environmental risk for water resources. Conventional chemical
treatment methods are inefficient in energy terms and/or not environmentally sustainable, which
makes the use of semipermeable membranes very attractive. AMD treatment using filtration
membranes offers the advantage that it needs less physical space for the treatment plant, fewer
chemical additives, and generates a considerably smaller volume of waste than other treatment
methods. Filtration technology is particularly attractive where brines can be co-disposed with
tailings or treated in evaporation ponds.
The results obtained validate on a pilot scale the experiments done by Rieger et al. (2009) on a
laboratory scale. The removal observation range in this work includes all the admissible pressures
for each membrane and studies the influence of the feed flow. We conclude that AMD treatment
with membranes is satisfactory for the removal of total ions, dissolved metals and sulfate. Total ion
removal was 92% with the NF99 membrane and 98% with the RO98pHt membrane, while the
sulfate removal rates were 98% and 100% respectively. The removal of Al, Cu and Mn was greater
than 95% for both membranes, while Zn presented the lowest rejection rates of 90% with
nanofiltration and 92% with reverse osmosis.
Although the RO98pHt reverse osmosis membrane achieved slightly higher removal rates than the
NF99 membrane for all the species studied, the permeate flows were considerably lower.
Nanofiltration is therefore recommended over reverse osmosis for AMD treatment, due to the
lower energy consumption and higher treatment capacity.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are grateful to FONDAP/CRHIAM project 15130015 for financing the research.

7
REFERENCES
Al-Zoubi, H., A. Rieger , P. Steinberger , W. Pelz , R. Haseneder& G. Härtel (2010a) Nanofiltration of Acid
Mine Drainage, Desalination and Water Treatment, 21(1-3), 148-161

Al-Zoubi, H., Rieger, A., Steinberger, P., Pelz, W., Haseneder, R., & Härtel, G. (2010b). Optimization study for
treatment of acid mine drainage using membrane technology. Separation Science and
Technology, 45(14), 2004-2016.

Mullet, M., R. Fornarelli and D. Ralph (2014) Nanofiltration of mine water: impact of feed pH and membrane
charge on resource recovery and water discharge. Membranes, 4(2), 163-180

Servicio Nacional de Geología y Minería (SERNAGEOMIN), 2002. Guía metodológica sobre drenaje ácido en
la industria minera. Servicio Nacional de Geología y Minería, 209 páginas. Santiago, Chile.

Ramos, R., O. Cunha, F. Rodrigues, W. Scassiotti, M. Riberiro and A. Peter (2013) Remediation of
environmental impact of acidic dam of mines through membrane process. Reliable Mine
WaterTechnology, 705-710.

Rieger, A., P. Steinberger, W. Pelz, R. Haseneder, and G. Härtel, (2009). Mine water treatment by membrane
filtration processes-Experimental investigations on applicability. Desalination and
WaterTreatment, 6(1-3), 54-60.

8
Sludge Production in Active Treatment for
Passivation Coatings and Inhibiting Acid Mine Water
Generation from Mining Residues
Manuel García1, Miguel Mejias1, Francisco Carranza2 and Alfonso Mazuelos2
1. AGQ Mining & Bioenergy, Spain
2. Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Seville, Spain

ABSTRACT
Sludge production in active treatment of acid waters from waste rock in mining operations is
developed as an artificial coating for inhibiting the acid rock drainage in residues installation.
Biological ferrous oxidation in high efficiency continuous packed-bed columns is the first stage in
process, when all iron is as ferric form, a soft neutralization stage is conducted for sludge coating
production at pH=5.5. After this soft neutralization stage and liquid/solid separation, another
neutralization stage is used for total metal precipitation at pH=11.0. The sludge of second
neutralization stage is recirculated to the early soft neutralization stage.
The sludge produced is pumped up to waste rock installation to form an artificial impermeable and
protective coating. Some of the sludge percolate throw the waste rock piles but when holes are
filling the sludge form a layer in the dump surface that prevents rainfall water, and oxygen,
percolation and contacting acidic producing species of waste rocks.
From an active bio-oxidation and neutralization it can be achieve a passive treatment with high
diminish in acid water generation. It is an effective way for producing an impermeable, and stable,
coating using the water produced in the dump, and also a solution for neutralization sludge
disposal from active acid mine waters treatment.

1
INTRODUCTION

Presence of pyrites in mining wastes installations and its acidification potential forming acid mine
drainage (AMD) has been recognize as one of the most important environmental problems in much
mining areas of the world (Environment Australia, 1997; Kinney, 1964; Kempe, 1982; Glover, 1982;
Letterman & Misch, 1978; Johnson & Thornton, 1987; and Herlihy et al 1990).
Chemical reactions which participate in sulfur oxidation and acid forming are well known but
different depending which other rocks and minerals are as part of mining residues (Nordstrom &
Alpers; 1999). However main factors are related to how oxygen and waters are in contact with these
sulfides minerals, and superficial contact area of particles.
Oxidation catalyzed by microorganism has been widely studied as a preliminary stage for acid
water with ferrous iron in solution. Best results are achieved with biofilm attached to packed bed
columns (Carranza et al,1990) ; Mazuelos et al 2000).
Nowadays a wide range of legal normative is dealing with mining waste installations from
geotechnical and geochemical point of view. Their objective is to prevent failure on waste
installations and prevention of AMD generation. Residues dumps is one the installations more used
and different techniques for construction are elsewhere detailed. In waste rocks dumps presence of
hetero-granular particles is crucial design variable (IGME; 2007).
European Union recently published in 2009 (EU; 2009) a referent document on Best Available
Techniques for Management of Tailings and Waste-Rock in Mining Activities where inhibiting
systems for AMD production are promoted. Artificial coatings have been found to form an
impermeable and protective coating on sulfide minerals surfaces, inhibiting the progress of acid
rock drainage. The protective layer must be consistent in order to minimize access of one of the
ingredients that generate acid waters.
Recently, state of the art reports for research purposes, with substantial amounts of literature
references included, are available free on the internet (www.mimi.kiruna.se) A significant number
of these publications are the result of research initiatives that are currently being undertaken, or
that have been undertaken during the last 15 - 20 years, within large research programs such as
MEND (2000), USEPA (1994), US Fish and Wildlife (2008) and ICARD (ICARD, 2000-2003).

2
ACID MINE WATER SAMPLE CHARACTERIZATION AND PREVIOUS TEST

Underground drainage from Mina La Esperanza to River Odiel in Huelva province (Spain) was the
ADM selected for this study (37º45´34,67 N – 6º40´56,44 O). It is an old mine closed in the middles
of XX century and one of the most contaminated strains to the river Odiel.

Figure 1 External gallery of Mina Esperanza where ADM flows out

Along the two years’ time of Project duration many samples were taken, in the following table
shows the average physical parameters in summer, spring and autumn:

Sulfat
Conductivity Turbidity
Average sample Mine pH e
(dS/m) (NTU)
(mg/L)
Summer Mina Esperanza 3,57 2,30 4,27 3.505
Spring Mina Esperanza 3,63 2,35 0,53 3.495
Autumn Mina Esperanza 2,91 2,47 1,23 3.050

Table 1 Average physical data in three seasons

In all the samples, the pH´s values are low as expected in an AMD. Also, conductivities are high
due of sulfates salts in solution.

Main cations in dissolution are aluminum, magnesium, iron, manganese, zinc and copper.

3
 Main cations
900
800 Aluminio mg/l
Concentration mg/l 700
600 Cobre mg/l

500
Hierro mg/l
400
300 Manganeso mg/l
200
Zinc
100
0
Tanda 1 Tanda 2 Tanda 3
AMD sample

Figure 2 Cations concentration in different periods

Total iron decrease from summer to autumn, is during autumn and winter when rains are heavier.
It is significant that most of iron concentration is as ferrous iron.

Minoritary elements concentrations are shown in Figure 3, high concentrations for toxic metals as
As, Pb, Co and Cd can be observed.

Minority elements
600
Antimonio µg/l
500
Concentration µg/l

Arsénico µg/l
400
Cadmio µg/l
300
Cobalto µg/l
200
Cromo µg/l
100
Níquel µg/l
0
Plomo µg/l
Tanda 1 Tanda 2 Tanda 3
Titanio µg/l
Muestra de agua

Figure 3 minority cations concentration in different periods

Along 2 years and before pilot plant scale test, laboratory experiments were carried out for
optimizing ferrous iron bio-oxidation and neutralization of selected AMD bio-oxidized.

4
No inhibitory effects in bio-oxidation process was detected, the AMD from Mina Esperanza was
efficiently processed with laboratory scale bioreactors.
Calcium hydroxide was the selected neutralization reactive due to its cost and manageability.
Neutralization process is more effective when aeration is employed during alkaline dosage. At pH
of 11.0 metals precipitation was completed.
Sludge produced at pH=11.0 presents high solubility of certain metals as Zn and Al. By the other
hand, at pH between 5.0 and 6.0 around 95% of totals metals are precipitated, and sludge solubility
is less than sludge produced at higher pH´s.
An extensive experimental work was conducted which is the base of pilot plant design and
variables process selection. In this paper we are focused in pilot plant results presentation, and will
be published elsewhere all related and previous data.

PILOT PLANT CONTINUOUS PROCESS

In figures 4 and 5 a flow sheet and a picture of global pilot plant installation are presented:

Figure 4 pilot plant diagrams

5
Figure 5 Pilot plant. At front the two thickeners. Behind two neutralization reactors, and lime pulp preparation
tank. Bio-oxidation column and feed tank at the left side

Stainless steel and propylene plastic are the two materials employed in equipments; the acidity of
AMD treated requires anti-corrosion materials. Also, ferric iron, as strong oxidant, is another factor
to take in account.
Pilot plant was constructed and operated in the installations of AGQ Mining&Bioenergy in
Burguillos, province of Seville (Spain). Twice a week, a tanker truck was responsible for AMD
water transportation from Mine Esperanza to Burguillos. Travel duration is around two hours. The
tanker truck discharge is in feed tank to process.
From previous results two neutralization reactors were needed, one for precipitation at pH=5.5, and
second one for final depuration and precipitation at pH=11.0. Lime in water pulp addition to both
reactors with peristaltic pumps was designed. Reactor volumes are different, R1with 100 L and R2
with 30 L.

Two deep cone thickeners were installed following the two neutralization reactors. For improve
thickening, a sludge recirculation continuous system was arranged, but no flocculants were needed.

Reactors and thickeners are installed in a cascade configuration for easily operation and less costs of
pumping.

Monitoring of pH, redox potential and oxygen (in output stream of bio-oxidation reactor) were
employed in order to control pilot plant operation and variables management. Three samples a day

6
were taken for chemical analysis, two of them for total and ferrous iron concentrations, and the
third for a complete analysis of cations and anions.

Fe(II) BIOLOGICAL OXIDATION

A total of 4000 h, the bioreactor has been running with AMD from Mina Esperanza with complete
conversion of ferrous to ferric iron. Some problems with feed stops or air supply malfunction were
not mean reason for decreasing oxidation yields. After troubleshooting the yields in bio-oxidation
were quickly recovered.

Bio-oxidation reactor dimensions are:

• Total volume: 63 liters
• Reactor height: 2.70 m
• Bacterial bed height: 2.00 m
• Column diameter: 0.20 m
• Porosity: 0.47
• Aeration flow rate: 600 L/h

In the bioreactor can be distinguished three zones:

• Lower chamber (Stage 0), where water feed and air are mixed for optimal O2 dissolution.
• Bacterial supported bed
• Upper chamber for discharge.

For bacterial bed two species were used: Acidithiobacillus ferroxidans and Leptospirillum ferroxidans.
Both are extremophile microorganisms able to survive in water with low pH and high metallic
concentrations. This mixture of microorganisms was isolated in River Tinto mining area (30 km
away from Mina Esperanza), and maintained in Chemical Engineering Department laboratories at
the University of Seville.

Bacterial biofilm was formed on siliceous stone of an average particle size of 6-8 mm. The gravel
was cleaning previous biofilm formation with acid solution for carbonate dissolution.

Biofilm formation and consolidation was carried out throw three stages: discontinuous ferrous
oxidation with bacterial mixture isolation; recirculating system with external ferrous source; and,
continuous feed of fresh ferrous liquors in an increasing flow-rate.

During biofilm formation a synthetic liquor – FeSO4.7 H2O - was employed, but for continuous
process the water from Mina Esperanza was pumped into the bioreactor. No limiting effects by
metals in solution were detected.

7
The special requirements for air distribution and mixing with AMD feed were achieved with multi-
air distributors in the bottom of the column (lower chamber). The air and water flows up from this
mixer zone, and cross the bacterial bed. Bacterial bed is loaded in a stainless steel grid which
separates the two parts of the column.

• Upper chamber.

• Bacterial bed

• Lower chamber (Stage 0)

Figure 6: Bio-reactor configuration

The overall bio-oxidation process, with more than 4000 hours operation without planned stop and a
continuous flow rate of 45 L/h, was run. Almost complete conversion with 96% of ferrous oxidation
was obtained, with an initial concentration of 0.7 g Fe(II)/L, and a output stream of 0.03 g Fe(II)/L.
The average ferrous iron oxidation production was 31.5 g/h of Fe(II).

In figure 7 results ofbio-oxidation along the continuous test on pilot plant are plotted.

In following tests, with higher ferrous iron concentration at the same flow rate, have reached
productivities around 150 g/h of Fe(II) oxidation.

The only limitation factor found for these yields is the initial ferrous iron concentration. Also,
higher flow rates are allowed to run the bioreactor, and higher productivities can be reached, but 45

8
L/h was selected for the overall process including neutralization and sludge coating passivation
step.

Figure 7: Bio-oxidation results along pilot plant run tests

TWO STEPS NEUTRALIZATION

From previous tests, the two-step neutralization process was established, and the differences
between the two sludges characterized. In a open neutralization circuit, the sludge produced at
pH=5.5 has a composition with high Fe, Al, Ca, Zn and Cu content, and its mechanical properties
are better from a chemical stability point of view. Moreover, sludge generated at pH=11.0 has high
concentrations of Fe and Al a significant Mn concentration, and other metals (Cd, Co and Ni) in
oxyhydroxides form.

The main differences between both sludges are the higher metals content and its chemical stability
in the first one. The sludge produced at pH=11.0 is less concentrated in metals, but higher solubility
in normal conditions water leaching is found.

Bio-oxidation column discharge was pumped to first neutralization reactor. With all iron as ferric
ion, the hydroxide precipitation is favored and easily produced at relatively low pH values.

In closed circuit with a recirculation loop, the behavior of the sludges becomes different, and
accumulative concentration of metals is observed in solid phase. Sludge produced in the second
reactor (R2) still has neutralization potential available for reaction in first reactor (R1). This system
presents two advantages:
 Lime consumption optimized.
 Chemical stabilization of the only one sludge produced.

9
 Stag Stag

R1 R2
A pH 11 Efflu
pH 5,5

Sludge for
Figure 8: Two steps neutralization process.

Recirculating
A slurry of lime and fresh water (10% w/w) was used for both neutralization reactors.
With a water feed of 45 L/h, the sludge produced in first thickener, as sludge for coating, is of 1 L/h,
and solid concentration of 220 g/L. So 220 g/h of solids are produced with this process
configuration.

During the plant pilot test, the solid mass and the elements concentrations were balanced, and it
was found that As, Mn and Cd forming labile hydroxides that are soluble at pH=5.5, but they do
not exit the system and they tend to concentrate in the loop cycle. So, a purge was necessary to
stabilize the process.

With a purge of 0.15 L/h from the second thickener (pH=11.0), pulp was enough to reached an
equilibrium.

Sludge produced in second thickener has a composition of 27% of Fe. Iron is forming hydroxides
with some water molecules as oxy-hydroxides. Other element concentrations are 0.1% Al; 0.5% Cu;
0.08%Mn; 0.03% Mg and 0.01%Zn. The other main component of sludge is anhydrite.

The other final stream of the process is the water generated in second thickener at pH=11.0, named
as process effluent. In the following table a composition comparison is presented. It is remarkable
the diminishing of sulfate concentration to 1819 mg/L, which is in equilibrium with calcium, the
only cation with higher concentration than feed water. This one is the main advantage to employ
calcium as alkalis.

10
 Effluent
Water feed 2ºthickener
Sulfate mg/L 4004 1819
Iron (total) mg/L 830 2
Calcium mg/L 136 793
Aluminum µg/L 20372 53
Manganese µg/L 4445 705
Copper µg/L 1951 5
Zinc µg/L 179 5
Chromium µg/L 264 5
Cobalt µg/L 90 2
Nickel µg/L 170 17
Arsenic µg/L 47 0.3
Cadmium µg/L 2 0.1
Table 2 Effluent composition. pH=11.0 thickener solid/liquid separation

SLUDGE AS PASSIVATION COATING

The process objective is producing sludge suitable for encapsulating mine waste dumps. Via an
active mine water treatment two products are produced: the mentioned sludge and a water treated
effluent.
This active treatment is oriented to diminish (or eliminate) the leaching and acid water production
in mine dumps. All the sludge produced is employed to form a layer over the dump to avoid
infiltration of rainwater and also the oxygen penetration inside the dump.
To test the efficiency of this dump passivation with the sludge coating, different sludge produced
during the pilot operation were used to form coating layers in some mining waste. These residues
were recollected around all mining operations in Rio Tinto (Huelva. Spain). All the materials were
in dumps that generate acid water . Materials were partially oxidized and with an heterogeneous
particle size distribution.
Previous tests for percolation system were performed through mining residues column. It was
observed that sludge is retained in 10-15 cm of the top of the column.
For pilot plant scale tests, the mining residues were placed in IBC containers (opened by top side).
The most effective way for sludge distribution was sectoral discharge of pumped sludge pulp.
When one sector was full of solid, the pipe position was changed to other sector. This gradual
disposition is sequentially shown in the following photographs.

11
 Figure 9 Sludge distribution in simulated mining dump

When the top of the dump was covered by a sludge layer, an artificial rain simulation was
employed. In this geographical area the average year rain is around 600 mm/m 2. When rain water
was added was observed like only a small quantity pass through the dump, this is an indirect
measure of coating effectiveness.
In order to determine the permeability of the coating layer an assay for the determination of Darcy
permeability coefficient was performed.

12
 Figure 10 Darcy permeability coefficient calculation

The permeability coefficient calculated was 1.57·10-6 cm/s, which shows a low permeability and
confirms that sludge produced is a good quality coating material.

CONCLUSIONS

This process is a cost-effective active treatment for the reduction of acid forming in mining wastes
dumps. Leachate treatments to avoid pollution of superficial and underground waters, implies a
solid production that can be uses as a coating layer for passivation of acid generation in dumps.
Optimal sludge in terms of permeability coefficient is obtained at pH values close to neutral
equilibrium. Their chemical and physical properties makes a good sealing material. It can be easily
pumped to top of the dumps and distributing in all area selected to be sealed. The water/solid pulp
flows through the upper part of the dumps penetrating and closing spaces between packed bed
particles of mining residues, when this occur the sludge forms a superficial layer over the top of the
dumps than can be pressed to optimize its low permeability.
The use of this bio-oxidation flooded bed bioreactor provides a strong improvement of the
performance of ferrous iron oxidation. A very stable, with total ferrous iron conversion, behavior is
observed during a long test period. The biological device was quickly recovered after some
operations troubleshooting. For Mina Esperanza AMD, the productivity limitation was the ferrous
iron concentration, a rate production of 1000 g Fe(II)/h.m 2 was reached. But higher rates exceeding

13
4500 g Fe(II)/h.m2 with the same bioreactor and other mining water with higher ferrous iron
concentration was produced.
This process is also capable of achieving low metals concentration in the treated effluent. The
second neutralization stage at pH=11.0 makes a precipitation of mayor and minor metals as one of
the best physical-chemical AMD active treatment process.
The use of two neutralization stages is an effective process for alkali consumption and inert sludge
production. Moreover, a purge of solids is necessary for eliminating some metals as As, Mn and Cd.
This purge must be done in pH=11.0 neutralization stage.
Sludge production to form an artificial impermeable and protective coating layer on dumps top
area is proportional to acid and Fe amount in AMD.
The overall process can be considered as a solution for sealing of dumps and can be planned in a
temporal period of time and implemented as a modular technology easily transportable and
manageable.

REFERENCES
Carranza, F., Garcia, M.J., 1990. Kinetic comparison of support materials in the bacterial 438 ferrous iron
oxidation in packed-bed columns. Biorecovery 2, 15–27.

Environment Australia. 1997: Managing sulphidic mine wastes and acid drainage. Best Practice Environmental
Management in Mining.

European Commission COM 664; 2000

Glover HG. 1982: Mine water pollution: An overview of problems and control strategies in the United
Kingdom. In: Mine Water Pollution, P.E. Odendaal, ed., Pergamon Press, New York, 59-70.

Herlihy, A.T., Kaufmann, P.R., Mitch M.E., Brown D.D. , 1990: Regional estimates of acid mine drainage
impact on streams in the Mid-Atlantic and Southeastern United States. Water Air Soil Pollut. 50, 91-
107.

ICARD, 200-2003: Proceedings from the International Conferences on Acid Rock Drainage.

IGME, 2007: Estudio y modelización geoquímica de las aguas ácidas del lago minero de la corta de
Aznalcóllar.

Kempe J.O., 1982. Review of water pollution problems and control strategies in the South African mining
industry. In: Mine Water Pollution, P.E. Odendaal, ed., Pergamon Press, New York, 27-58.

Kinney E.C. 1964: Extent of Acid Mine Pollution in the United States Affecting Fish and Wildlife. US Dept
Interior, Fish and Wildlife Circular 191, Washington, D.C.

Letterman R.D. & Mitsch W.J. ,1978: Impact of mine drainage on a mountain stream in Pennsylvania. Environ
Pollut. 17, 53-73.

Mazuelos, A., Carranza, F., Palencia, I., Romero, R., 2000. High efficiency reactor for the biooxidation of ferrous
iron. Hydrometallurgy 58, 269–275.

MEND, 1996: Review of passive systems for treatment of acid mine drainage.

14
Nordstrom, D.K. y Alpers, C.N. 1999: Geochemistry of acid mine waters, The environmental geochemistry of
mineral deposits.

Skousen, J., Rose, A., Geidel, G., Foreman, J., Evans, R. y Hellier, W. 1998: Handbook of technologies for
avoidance and remediation of acid mine drainage.

Johnson CA, Thornton I., 1987: Hydrological and chemical factors controlling the concentrations of Fe, Cu, Zn
and As in a river system contaminated by acid mine drainage. Wat Res. 21, 359-365.

USEPA(1994): Acid Mine Drainage Prediction.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Anchorage Fish and Wildlife Field Office, 2008: Acid Mine Drainage and Effects
on Fish Health and Ecology: A Review.

15
Comparative Efficiency of Calcite- and Dolomite-
Based Dispersed Alkaline Substrate for the Pre-
Treatment of Highly Contaminated Acid Mine
Drainage
Tsiverihasina Rakotonimaro1, Carmen Neculita1, Bruno Bussière1 and Gérald Zagury2
1. Research Institute on Mines and Environment (RIME)-University of Quebec in Abitibi, Canada
2. RIME- Polytechnique Montreal, Canada

ABSTRACT
Passive treatment of highly contaminated acid mine drainage (AMD) is challenging. Dispersed
alkaline substrates (DAS), consisting of fine alkaline and coarse organic materials, seem promising
to limit coating and clogging issues. However, their efficiency is still unconfirmed, when used as
pre-treatment units, especially for Fe removal in highly contaminated AMD. Performance of DAS
systems, consisting of calcite or dolomite, in different proportions (20%v/v, 50%v/v, 80%v/v), and
wood chips was tested in duplicated batch reactors for 90 days, for the treatment of highly
contaminated iron-rich AMD (2.5g/L Fe, 6.0g/L SO42, at pH 4).
Results showed better efficiency of calcite- relative to dolomite-DAS (maximal Fe removal of 61%
and mean removal of 20%, respectively), regardless of tested proportions, during the first 14 days.
Then, the performance was comparable, except at 80%v/v dolomite or calcite, with dolomite-DAS
slightly better than calcite-DAS (40% and 35%, respectively). The removal of sulfates was partial in
all mixtures.
The calcite- or dolomite-DAS gave limited efficiency in Fe pre-treatment, but they could be
potentially substituted when used as a polishing unit of a passive treatment system. However, in
long term operation, the dolomite-DAS could minimize gypsum clogging. Confirmation of these
results is currently undertaken in column reactors under continuous flow.

1
INTRODUCTION
In the Quebec’s Province of Canada, 18 abandoned mine sites are presently in a reclamation process,
whereas 81 sites are still to be reclaimed (Proulx et al., 2015). One of the major concerns of these sites is the
generation of acid mine drainage (AMD), which is characterized by low pH (-3.6<pH<6) and high
concentrations of dissolved metals and sulfate (SO 42-) (Nordstrom, Blowes  Ptacek, 2015). Several
technologies are available to limit/prevent or to treat AMD (Aubertin et al., 2015; USEPA, 2014). Although
passive treatment is preferred for the rehabilitation of abandoned and closed mine sites, the long-term
efficiency can be limited by passivation and/or clogging by minerals (e.g. gypsum, metal oxides-
hydroxides). Reactive mixtures composed of highly porous material (wood chips) and neutralizing agents
(e.g. MgO, CaCO3) known as dispersed alkaline substrate (DAS) were reported to overcome these issues
(Ayora et al., 2013).
The AMD at an abandoned mine sites in Quebec has typical characteristics of ferriferous AMD, with high
Fe concentrations (> 500 mg/L), which treatment can be very challenging (Bussière, 2009; Genty et al.,
2015). The precipitation of ferric iron as hydroxide (Fe(OH)3) (Eq.12), which starts at pH above 4,
depending on total concentration of iron, lower the pH and hinder the removal of divalent metals, which
precipitation requires higher pH (pH >8.5).

Fe2+ + 1/2 O2 + 2H+  2Fe3+ + H2O (1)

Fe3+ +3H2O  Fe(OH)3 + 3H+ (2)

Consequently, removal of Fe is a priority before conveying water to a second treatment unit for the
removal of other metals, if present, and of SO42–.
In a passive system for the pre-treatment of Fe, the use of the available materials on site or more economic
substitutes is recommended. Previous research results suggest the use of dolomite as a neutralizing agent
in the treatment of very acidic water (Potgieter-Vermaak et al., 2006; Huminicki  Rimstidt, 2008; Genty,
et al., 2012). Therefore, calcite-DAS could be replaced by dolomite-DAS, which main advantage would be
the postponing of gypsum (CaSO4·2H2O) formation and thus armoring phenomenon. Indeed, in contact of
strong acid, particularly sulphuric acid from AMD, calcite dissolution allows calcium release and its
forthwith availability (Eq.3). On the contrary, in the case of the dolomite, the dissolution of MgCO 3 gives
opportunity for calcium to be released belatedly (Eq.4).

2CaCO3 (s) + H2SO4 (aq)  2Ca2+ +2 HCO3—+ SO42- (3)

CaMg (CO3)2 + H2SO4 (aq)  Ca2+ + Mg2+ + 2 HCO3—+ SO42- (4)

Also, in some case such as the treatment of moderately contaminated AMD in an anoxic condition, the use
of dolomite could be advantageous as efficiency of calcite and dolomite was similar (alkalinity in the same
range for a hydraulic residence time of 15h) (Genty et al., 2012).
In this context, the objective of this article is to evaluate the efficiency of a dolomite-DAS as an alternative
to calcite-DAS to be used in a pre-treatment unit for Fe removal. Physicochemical characteristics of the
two types of DAS as well as Fe and SO42– removal efficiencies are presented and compared.

1
METHODOLOGY

Physicochemical characterization of materials composing the mixtures

Six reactive mixtures composed of natural materials, i.e. wood wastes (wood chips), and neutralizing
agents (calcite and dolomite) were evaluated in batch tests. The wood chips were provided from P.W.I.
industries (QC), the calcite from the quarry of Perth (ON), and the dolomite from the Temiscamingue
region (QC). Grains size of calcite and dolomite was selected to be less than 5 mm in order to allow almost
complete dissolution, before eventual armoring during the treatment of ferriferous AMD. Some
physicochemical characteristics of these two solids were previously determined, such as relative density
(Gs), surface area (Ss), particle size, mineral and elemental composition (Genty et al., 2015).
In this study, paste pH of the six substrates was determined in deionized water using a solid liquid ratio
of 1:10 (ASTM, 1995). Water content was evaluated in duplicate by drying samples at 40°C during 2 days.
Specific surface (Ss) was determined by a Micromeritics Gimini III 2375 surface analyzer on dry samples
(nitrogen adsorption with BET method). Particle size analysis was carried out using different openings of
sieves (ISO R-20) in order to obtain size corresponding to 10% and 60% by weight of passing, as well as
uniformity coefficient (D10, D60 and Cu respectively) (Aitcin, Jolicoeur  Mercier, 1983). Loss of ignition
(LOI) was determined by weigh of samples before and after calcination at 375°C for 16 hours to determine
the content of organic matters. Each mixture was grinded and sieved through 0.25 mm opening before
being digested in a strong mineral acids mixture (HNO3, Br2, HCl, and HF) (Potts, 1987). Then, the
resulting liquid was analyzed for calcium and magnesium content by Inductively Coupled Plasma-
Atomic Emission Spectrometry (ICP-AES; relative precision of 5%) using a Perkin Elmer OPTIMA 3100
RL.

Batch testing description

Six batch reactors, in duplicate, were set up in 1L glass flasks at room temperature (21°C). Each flask was
filled with 200g dry mixture and 600 mL of synthetic AMD (Neculita  Zagury, 2008). The first type of
mixture was composed of calcite and wood chips (calcite-DAS), while the second of dolomite and wood
chips (dolomite-DAS) (Table 1).
Table 1 Compositions and relative proportions of components of the six reactive mixtures tested in batch reactors

Calcite Dolomite Wood Total

Reactors
(%v/v) (%v/v) chips (%v/v)
C20 20 - (%v/v)
80 100
C50 50 - 50 100
C80 80 - 20 100
D20 - 20 80 100
D50 - 50 50 100
D80 - 80 20 100
C: Calcite; D: Dolomite

The characteristics of AMD simulated the typical water quality encountered on several abandoned mine
sites in Abitibi-Temiscamingue (QC, Canada) (Table 2). The testing was performed over a 90-day period.

2
Table 2 Quality of synthetic ferriferous AMD used in batch testing

Concentration
Elements Source
(mg/L)
Al 1.6±0.6 Al2(SO4)3●18H2O
Fe 2500±300 FeSO4●7H2O
Mg 33.5±3.8 MgSO4●7H2O
Mn 8.2±1.0 MnSO4●H2O
Ni 0.7±0.4 NiSO4●6H2O
Pb 0.2±0.1 Pb(NO3)2
Zn 0.2±3.0 ZnSO4●7H2O
Ca 430±5 CaSO4●2 H2O
SO4 5395±1000 Na2SO4●10H2O
pH 4 -

Sampling and analysis of water quality

Measurements of pH, Eh, and conductivity, as well as analysis of alkalinity, acidity, total iron (Fet), and
SO42- concentrations were performed weekly, over the entire testing period. Water pH was measured with
an electrode AccupHast 13-620-114 ATC /BNC and the electric conductivity with an Accumet 13-620-100
electrode. The two electrodes were connected to Accumet Excel XL-60®. Redox potential was measured
with a potentiometer (Sension1 POR HACH 51939-00) coupled with an internal Pt/Ag/AgCl electrode. The
reading was then corrected to the normal hydrogen electrode (NHE) to calculate the Eh (relative precision
± 0.2 mV). Alkalinity and acidity were determined with a Metrohm Binkmann, 716 DMS Trinitro titrator
(APHA, 1995). The concentrations of Fet and SO42- were determined on filtered samples (0.45 µm), in the
first 1-2h after collection, with a DR/890 HACH colorimeter (Method 8008 – 1, 10 phenantroline and
Method 8051– barium chloride powder pillows, for Fet and SO42-, respectively). Total metal concentrations
were analyzed by ICP-AES, at the beginning and the end of the experiments, on filtered (0.45 µm) and
acidified (with 2% (v/v) of nitric acid) samples.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Physicochemical characteristics of the substrates

Initial paste pH of calcite- and dolomite-DAS ranged from 6.02 to 8.80, according to the mixture
composition. Water content was 0.3-2.2%, as an indication that the substrates were dry. Specific surfaces
(Ss) of all substrates were relatively low (0.16 -0.55 m2/g). Nonetheless, the dolomite-DAS had Ss double
relative to calcite-DAS, except for the C20 (Table 3). The substrates had spread grains size and contain low
fines (D10=0.18-0.26mm, D60=0.7-1.4mm, Cu=D60/D10=3.18-6.36). The C20 and D20 had higher content of
organic material, with LOI values of 28.3% and 44.3%, respectively (Table 3). Based on the results on
water content and LOI, significant organic carbon might be present in the substrates with less than 50% of
calcite or dolomite, originating in the wood chips. This might be advantageous for the sorption of metallic
ions on negatively charged surface of organic material components. However, given the low Ss values of

3
substrates, sorption could play a limited role as removal mechanism. All substrates had high Ca contents,
while Mg in dolomite-DAS was 10 to 100 times higher than in calcite-DAS.
Table 3 Physicochemical characteristics of substrates used in batch testing

Water content
Mixtures pH Ss (m2/g) LOI (%) Ca (g/kg) Mg (g/kg)
(%w/w)
C20 6.51 0.46 1.8 28.3 170 0.5
C50 7.41 0.21 0.8 12.0 224 1.3
C80 8.73 0.16 2.0 6.6 300 5.5
D20 6.02 0.43 2.2 44.3 115 65.0
D50 8.02 0.43 1.0 12.6 354 55.0
D80 8.80 0.55 0.3 3.5 182 53.0

Evolution of pH, Eh, conductivity, acidity and alkalinity

Regardless of the proportions of calcite or dolomite in the mixtures, water pH increased from 4 to around
5, in the dolomite-DAS reactors, and to around 6, in calcite-DAS reactors (Fig.1a). At the same time, Eh
decreased from 405mV to only 206mV, which still show oxic condition (Fig.1b).

(a) (b)
Figure 1 Evolution of pH (a) and Eh (b) in all batch reactors type calcite- and dolomite-DAS

No difference was found between the conductivity for calcite- and dolomite-DAS, with stable values
around 3.7 mS/cm after 35 days, which then decreased to around 1 mS/cm. The acidity in all reactors
decreased gradually from 3870 to 2580 mg/L as CaCO3, which correspond to 33% of reduction (Fig.2a). On
the other hand, alkalinity in reactors with calcite was in average twice higher to those with dolomite (62-
133.5mg/L as CaCO3 vs 33-75mg/L as CaCO3, respectively). Noteworthy, the alkalinity in the dolomite-
DAS reactors increased to around 222.2 mg/L as CaCO 3, at the end of the experiments (Fig.2b).

4
 (a) (b)
Figure 2 Comparison of acidity (a) and alkalinity (b) in the reactors type calcite- and dolomite-DAS

These results are explained by the faster reactivity of calcite relative to dolomite, which allows a more
rapid release of HCO3— that contributes to the increase of water alkalinity. As a result, the armoring of
calcite by gypsum, in the presence of SO42- occurs faster than that of dolomite (Genty et al., 2012).
Therefore, in long term operation, dolomite-DAS could be more effective to neutralize acidity than calcite-
DAS. Nonetheless, further post-characterization of solid phase (e.g. by using scanning electron
microscopy, thermogravimetric analysis) has to be performed to corroborate this hypothesis, particularly
during highly contaminated AMD treatment.

Total iron and sulfate removal

Maximal removal of Fet with calcite-DAS occurred after 14 days with around 61%, whereas, in this same
period, dolomite-DAS removed only 20%, on average (Fig.3a).

(a) (b)
Figure 3 Removal of iron (a) and sulfate (b) in batch reactors type calcite- and dolomite-DAS

This difference is also probably due to the rapid reactivity of calcite. Thereafter, efficiency of both DAS
was comparable, around 27% for DAS containing less than 50% of calcite or dolomite. Only slight
difference was observed for D80 and C80, with an average efficiency of 40% and 35%, respectively.
Interestingly, Fe concentration decreased over time in the D80 reactor (as low as 500mg/L) which worth
further investigation (Fig.3a). The SO42– removal in all reactors was very low (less than 10%) (Fig.3b).

5
Other metals removal
In all reactors, Al removal was > 99.9%, while for Zn the efficiencies were of 23-90%. In addition, Pb also
decreased, 41-68% for calcite-DAS and 33-78% for dolomite-DAS, whereas the Mn was not removed.

CONCLUSION
The results of the present study showed that the efficiency of both calcite and dolomite-DAS was similar,
regardless of the calcite or dolomite proportion. In terms of Fe removal, calcite-DAS was more efficient
(61%) relative to dolomite-DAS (20%), only in a very short term. However, over time, both substrates gave
similar performances (around 27%). All substrates allowed the removal of other metals, except for the Mn.
Consequently, calcite- and dolomite-DAS gave comparable performances, can be substituted and used in
either a pre-treatment or a polishing unit for the ferriferous AMD. The low reactivity of dolomite could be
beneficial into retarding clogging issues caused by gypsum formation, thereby improving long term
stability of a dolomite-DAS system. All tested mixtures have limited effectiveness in removing sulfates, so
an additional unit for treating sulfates would be necessary. Since batch test only provides treatment
efficiency results in static condition, ongoing research work for the evaluation of the performance of Fe
pre-treatment under a continuous flow, in columns reactors is undertaken.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study was funded by the NSERC (Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada)
and the industrial partners of the RIME (Research Institute on Mines and Environment) – UQAT
(University of Quebec in Abitibi-Temiscamingue) – Polytechnique Montreal, AGNICO EAGLE, MINE
CANADIAN MALARTIC MINE, IAMGOLD, RAGLAN MINE GLENCORE, and RIO TINTO.

NOMENCLATURE
AMD Acid mine drainage
DAS Dispersed alkaline substrate

REFERENCES
Aitcin, J.C., Jolicoeur, G., Mercier, M., (1983), Technologie des granulats, Les éditions Le Griffon d’Argile inc., Sainte-
Foy, France.

APHA (American Public Health Association), (2005), Alkalinity titration, Standard methods for the examination of
water and wastewater, 19th ed. Greenberg A. (ed), Washington DC, USA.

ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials), (1995), Standard test method for permeability of granular soils.
Annual book of ASTM Standards.08. D 2434 – 68, Philadelphia, PA, USA.

Aubertin, M., Pabst, T., Bussière, B., James, M., Mbonimpa, M., Benzaazoua, M., Maqsoud, A., (2015), Revue des
meilleures pratiques de restauration des sites d’entreposage de rejets miniers générateurs de DMA, Mines and
Environment Symposium, Rouyn-Noranda, Québec, Canada, June 14-17, 67p.

6
Ayora, C., Caraballo, M.A., Macías, F., Rötting, T.S., Carrera, J., Nieto, J.-M., (2013), Acid mine drainage in the Iberian
Pyrite Belt: 2. Lessons learned from recent passive remediation experiences, Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res., vol. 20, pp.
7837–7853.

Bussière, B., (2009), Acid Mine drainage from abandoned mine sites: Problematic and reclamation approaches, In: Proceed. of
the International Geoenvironmental Engineering. ISGE2009, September 8-10, Hangzou, China, 15p.

Genty, T., Bussière, B., Benzaazoua, M., Neculita, C.M., Zagury, G.J., (2015), Passive treatment of ferriferous acid mine
drainage in biochemical reactors: role of sorption in iron removal. J. Hazard. Mater. (in evaluation)

Genty, T., Bussière, B., Potvin, R., Benzaazoua, M., Zagury, G.J., (2012), Dissolution of calcitic marble and dolomitic rock in
high iron concentrated acid mine drainage: Application to anoxic limestone drains, Environ. Earth. Sci., vol. 66, pp.
2387–2401.

Huminicki, D.M.C., Rimstidt, J.D., (2008), Neutralization of sulfuric acid solutions by calcite dissolution and the application
to anoxic limestone drain design, Appl. Geochem., vol. 23, pp. 148–165.

Neculita, C. M., Zagury, G.J., (2008), Biological treatment of highly contaminated acid mine drainage in batch reactors: Long-
term treatment and reactive mixture characterization, J. Hazard. Mater., vol. 157, pp. 358–366.

Nordstrom, K., Blowes, D.W., Ptacek, C.J., (2015), Hydrogeochemistry and microbiology of mine drainage: An update. Appl.
Geochem. vol. 57, pp. 3-16.

Potgieter-Vermaak, S.S., Potgieter, J.H., Monama, P., Van Grieken, R., (2006), Comparison of limestone, dolomite and fly
ash as pre-treatment agents for acid mine drainage, Miner. Eng., vol. 19, pp. 454–462.

Potts, P.J., (1987), A Handbook of Silicate Rock Analysis, Blakie & Son Ltd., 622p.

Proulx, S., Dionne, J., Trudel, S., Lafrance, P.-A., (2015), État de la situation de la restauration des sites miniers abandonnés
au Quebec, Ministère de l’Énergie et des Ressources Naturelles, Québec, Mines and Environment Symposium
Rouyn-Noranda, June 14-17, Rouyn-Noranda, Québec, Canada, 4p.

USEPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency), (2014), Reference Guide to Treatment Technologies for Mining-
influenced Water. EPA 542-R-14-001, 94p.

7
Uptake of Pollutants from Mine Waters Using
Magnetic Manganese Dioxide as Adsorbent
Fernando Valenzuela, Pablo González, Alejandro Briso, Carlos Basualto and Gonzalo
Montes
Laboratorio de Operaciones Unitarias e Hidrometalurgia, Universidad de Chile

ABSTRACT
It was studied the removal of some toxic heavy metals from acidic mine waters, by using as sorbent
a magnetic manganese oxide (MMO). However, this sorbent could be used also for removal of some
anionic contaminants given its amphoteric character. The experiments were conducted in a
discontinuous reactor by contacting suitable amount of the sorbent with a sample of an acidic mine
water, being obtained an efficient removal of the contaminants. The initial content of the pollutants
in the aqueous solutions were over the established values by the national environmental
regulations. The sorbent is a composite easily obtained by using a simple method starting from
magnetite and MnO2, which can be used in its mineral form or prepared form a manganese source.
The resulting material presents a particle size distribution in the order of nanoparticle having a
pHPZC or point of zero charge pH, between 3 and 4, which explains its behavior as an amphoteric
adsorbent. The magnetization of the hybrid material is smaller than that of magnetite, however, still
in a range where a simple solid-liquid separation is possible by applying standard magnetic
separation devices. Therefore, the magnetic solid-liquid separation of the pollutant-loaded sorbent
from the treated solution is fast and complete by means of a moderate magnetic field achieved with
a commercial magnet. Because of the small particles and the respective large specific surface,
sorption is fast too. It was achieved a good removal of Pb(II), Zn(II), Cd(II) and Cu(II) being the
adsorption favored by increasing the pH of the aqueous solution and above the pH value of the
point of zero charge. The metallic ions sorption mechanism would be based on a cation exchange of
the metal ions for hydrogen ions from the surface groups of the material.

1
INTRODUCTION
This study addresses one major environmental problem concerning the management of liquids in
mining countries like Chile: the natural generation of acidic mine drainages (AMD) through
chemical and/or microbial oxidation of sulphides in presence of air and water. Acidic mine waters
exhibit an important amount of chemical contaminants, either dissolved or suspended, at
concentrations that normally surpass the limit fixed by the national discharge regulations which
set the wastewaters quality so to be able to discard them into surface and groundwater bodies.
The general goal of this study is to study the application of novel sorption methods to eliminate
the inorganic contaminants existent in samples of Chilean acidic mine drainages.

We have prepared as sorbent magnetics hydrous manganese oxide, which corresponds to a

composite prepared by mixing Fe3O4 and δ-MnO2 in different proportions enable generating
surface acid oxides having sufficient ferromagnetic characteristics to ensure a good solid-liquid
separation of the pollutant-loaded sorbent from the treated solution using a magnet device.

The charge of the hydrous oxide surface will depend on the acidity of the solution. At pH above
the point of zero charge, pHPZC, the surface charge of oxide is negative, then, magnetic MnO2
function as cationic species sorbent. At pH < pHPZC the sorption of anionic species is enhanced.
The composites used in this research will seek to remove toxic and dangerous pollutants present
in low or trace concentrations in AMD.

From a theoretical standpoint, this work includes the study of the mechanisms governing the
pollutants sorption process, based on a mass transfer process in conjunction with chemical
reaction. As an overall practical result, it is expected to implement an efficient integrated sorption
process treatment of acidic mine drainages samples which will allow reporting streams depleted
of main fractions of heavy metals and anionic pollutants species. However, it is important to
highlight that the scope of this research is not restricted to AMD case. Indeed, it can also be
applied to any residual and natural aqueous solutions polluted with a high burden of ionic
species generated in a wide ranges of mining and industrial activities.

AMD occur when sulfide ores, mainly iron and copper bearing sulfides minerals, are exposed to
water and air, resulting in the formation of sulfuric acid and metal hydroxides that release toxic
heavy metal ions, and acidic hydrogen into surface and ground waters 4,5). They are also generated
at waste disposal sites and around abandoned mine sites. Its formation is primarily a function of
the local geology and hydrology. The AMD usually consist of an aqueous solution that exhibits a
variable acidity and contains many and variable toxic or valuable dissolved metals, with a high
content of SO42- and other anions like phosphates, nitrate, molybdates and chloride, and a high
amount of colloidal-type suspended fine solid difficult to settle, becoming a water pollution
problem difficult to remediate. The metals remain in solution until the pH rises to a level where
precipitation occurs. However, precipitation presents many problems, such as re-dissolving of
precipitates, the need of a huge amount of chemicals, generating a large volume of sludge whose
disposal is quite complex. Some chemical reactions that represent the chemistry of AMD formation
are as follows 6,7):

2
 (1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

Equation (1) represents the oxidation of pyrite by oxygen. This reaction generates two moles of acid
per mole of oxidized pyrite. Reaction (2) involves the conversion of Fe(II) into Fe(III), reaction that
is enhanced by the bacteria Acidithiobacillusferrooxidans (whenever these microorganisms are
present in the system). Reaction (3) represents the hydrolysis of iron with the formation of the
corresponding hydroxide and the production of new acid molecules. Finally, reaction (4)
represents the oxidation of additional pyrite by ferric iron generated in the previous reactions.
These equations are based on the dissolution of pyrite (FeS); however, it is expected they also occur
simultaneously with other metal sulfides present in the ore. An overall chemical reaction cycle
takes place very rapidly and continues until either the ferric iron or the metal sulfide is depleted.
The latter implies that a variety of metals and anions may dissolve in the process both conferring a
significant toxicity to the streams containing them and turning AMD into a potential source of
many valuable and sometime scarce metal.

EXPERIMENTAL METHODOLOGY
Samples of acidic mine drainages originated in central part of Chile and collected around the mine
sites were used in this study. Their average composition include important contents of sulfate
anions, some low concentrations of Cu(II), Fe(II+III), Zn(II), Mn(II), and a pH variable between 2-4.
Most of these contaminants are being study using other new sorption methodologies, however,
these AMD samples used to contain also minor and toxic components as Cd(II): 5-20 mg/L; Pb(II):
8-30 mg/L, among others plus a TSS: 60-250 mg/L. The concentrations of these ionic species in the
AMD samples is superior to the maximum allowable limits to discharge into surface water bodies
by the environmental regulations. First experiments were conducted using synthetic aqueous
solutions that simulates this composition.

Preparation of manganese dioxide with magnetic properties

Although MnO2 is very abundant in nature, and practical applications of this oxide must be
accomplished using natural MnO2 mixed with magnetite, in this study we are working with a δ-
MnO2 prepared using a simple oxidative precipitation method, using as starter materials MnCl 2 or
Mn(NO3)2 solutions and KMnO4. In order to obtain a manganese oxide with magnetic properties,
magnetite (Fe3O4) was added during the precipitation in variable MnO 2/Fe3O4proportions. During
the process, a constant agitation was applied. When the reaction is completed, the solid were
separated using a hand magnet.

3
Characterization of the prepared magnetic manganese oxide

The obtained magnetic solid was analyzed physically and chemically. The magnetic properties
were determined using alternating gradient magnetometer measurements. The surface area was
also determined using BET measurements. Particle size distribution was obtained using the
Malvern Mastersizer equipment. SEM and TEM micrographs and X-ray powder diffraction analysis
of the synthesized solid were carried out along with atomic absorption analysis to measure the
contents of manganese, iron in the magnetic oxides and the concentrations of the other metallic ions
in aqueous solutions. The ζ-potential of the solid particles as a function of pH was measured using
a Zeta-sizer micro electrophoresis apparatus at 25ºC. The variation of the electrophoretic mobility of
the particles allowed the determination of the point of zero charge (pHPZC) of the surface of
oxides.

Toxic ionic-species sorption experiments onto magnetic manganese oxide in batch

reactors

Sorption tests of AMD contaminants onto magnetic manganese oxide were carried out. Batch-typy
reactors were employed. The first experiments were conducted using the synthetic solution and the
laters using AMD samples. A pH control and adjustment of this solution was done in order to
study the effect of this variable on sorption process. Particular attention was paid to low
concentrations of metals Cd, Pb, Cu and Zn. After performing the sorption process, in all
experiments, either using the synthetic or the real AMD solution, the contaminant-loaded-sorbent
was separated from the remaining solution by applying standard magnetic separation devices. Test
were carried out in order to check and estimate the regeneration of adsorbents and their possible re-
use in new sorption-desorption cycles.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

In this work was synthesized a sorbent material based on MnO2 which presents magnetics
properties to be used for removing some common inorganic pollutants existent in samples of
Chilean acidic mine. The sorbent was prepared using magnetite (Fe 3O4) covered with MnO2, using
oxidative precipitation methods, one in acid medium, the other under basic conditions, using
different MnO2:Fe3O4proportions.
The sorbent was chemical, physical and magnetically characterized In Figure 1 is shown SEM
micrographs of the adsorbent. SEM micrographs show that the material would be comprised of
very tiny spherical structures with particles agglomeration whose size is less than 1 µm. It is
observed that the sorbent is composed of very tiny and uniform structures with a morphology
almost spherical.

4
 Figure 1 Structure of the sorbent by means of SEM analysis

The crystallinity is due to the magnetite composition, which corresponds to the nucleus of the
particle surrounded by an amorphous layer of MnO2.
TEM analysis indicated that the average particle size varies between 6 and 9 nm. BET porosimetry
analysis pointed out that sorbent has a surface area around 100 m2/g or slightly lower, comprising
this way an important number of active sites for the sorption process. DRX analysis showed that the
composite consists of a magnetite crystalline nucleus covered by nanometric layers of amorphous
MnO2. The DRX analysis is shown in Figure 2, which corresponds to an adsorbent prepared using
a MnO2:Fe3O4 proportion of 1:1.

Figure 2 DRX analysis of the adsorbent

Measurements of magnetic saturation demonstrated that the nanoparticles have superparamagnetic

characteristics. The results are presented in Figure 3. Magnetite presented the maximum magnetics
saturation close to 57 emu/g. In return, the manganese oxide did not presented any magnetic
behavior.

5
 Figure 3 Magnetics measurements of the adsorbents

However the synthesized sorbent presented enough magnetic saturation that ensures a suitable
separation of the pollutants-loaded adsorbent from the aqueous solution. It is possible that during
the sorbent preparation, a partial oxidation of magnetite occurs due the strong oxidative conditions
in the process, producing a fraction of maghemite (Fe 2O3) which poses a less magnetic character
that magnetite. However, the prepared sorbent was easily separated from the raffinate after the
sorption process.

The sorption capacity of the composite synthesized in basic medium was higher being achieved a
synthesis yield around 98%. This synthesis method is better because does not present gas evolution
neither thermal energy is requested, being the sorbent so prepared more chemically stable.
Preliminary sorption tests were carried out using aqueous solutions containing Cu 2+,Cd2+,Zn2+ and
Pb2+ ions, being stablished that the sorption of metals increases with the augment of the solutions
pH, which is coherent with the zeta potential values measured for the sorbent. As can be observed
in Figure 4, the sorption of Pb(II) and Zn(II) were higher than those observed for Cd(II) and Cu(II),
although these results corresponds just to preliminary sorption experiments. A pseudo-second-
order sorption kinetics model fitted well the observed experimental data. It was also concluded that
a minimum ionic strength is required in the aqueous phase to ensure an adequate metal sorption.

6
 Basic medium
Basic medium
Acid medium
Acid medium
90
100
80

90
70

+2
80 60
+2

% Extracciَ n Zn
% Extracciَ n Pb

50
70
40
60
30

50 20

10
40
0
3,0 3,5 4,0 4,5 5,0 5,5 6,0 3,0 3,5 4,0 4,5 5,0 5,5 6,0

pH pH

Figure 4 sorption of Pb(II) (left) and Zn(II) (right) using a sorbent prepared in basic and acid
medium

CONCLUSION
A new sort of adsorbent was prepared based on a composite whose nucleus is formed by magnetite
which has an external layer of amorphous MnO2. The sorbent was prepared using both an acid and
a basic medium, presenting the later a better synthesis performance and an improved sorption
behaviour. The material was fully characterized. Preliminary sorption tests revealed that the
sorption of Pb(II) and Zn(II) is very good, almost quantitative, and much better than that observed
for Cd(II) and Cu(II). Further sorption experiments will be conducted in a near future in order to
optimize the sorption capacity of this sorbent based on MnO2 with magnetic properties that
permitted a complete and easy separation of he loaded sorbent from the aqueous raffinate.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors deeply thanks to The National Fund of Science and Technology. FONDECYT-Chile for
the economical support through Research Project N°1140331

7
REFERENCES
Calderón, C., Franzreb, M., Valenzuela, F., Hoel, W., (2010), Reactive & Functional Polymers, vol. 70, 516-523.

Long, F., J. Gong, J., Zeng, G., Chen, L., Wang, X., Deng, J., Niu, Q., Zhang, H., Zhang, X., (2011) Chemical
Engineering Journal, vol. 171, 448-455.

Mustafa, S., Zaman, M., Khan, S., (2006) Journal of Colloid Interfacial Science, vol. 301, 370-382.

Valenzuela, F., Cabrera, J., Basualto, C., Sapag, J., (2007) Separation Science and Technology, vol. 42, 363-371.

Wisskirchen, C., Dold, B, Friese, K., Spangenberg, J., Morgenstern, P., Glaesser, W, (2010) Applied
Geochemistry, vol. 25, 1107-1114

8
 C HAP T E R 9

PREDICTION,
EVALUATION AND
MITIGATION OF
ENVIRONMENTAL
IMPACTS
Effect of Heavy Metals on Chemical and Biological
Soil Indices in Conditions of Environmentally
Polluted Area Middle Spiš, Slovakia
Bobuľská Lenka and Angelovičová Lenka
Department of Ecology, Faculty of Humanities and Natural Sciences, University of Prešov, Slovakia

ABSTRACT
Mining activity in the Middle Spiš region (Slovakia) has special historical tradition. Mining of
minerals and their subsequent processing in industrial plants has led to the accumulation of waste
material which has been deposited in the form of mining waste dumps and sludge beds. When
mining activities were finished in this region, insufficient remediation of deposits became a source
of toxic substances, which penetrated into the soil and water ecosystem.
The aim of the study was to determine the long-term influence of soil pollution by heavy metals in
the surrounding of processing plant on chemical and biological soil indices. The study was
performed in 2015 year at the heaps and grassland in the cadaster of Krompachy (Slovakia). Total
content of toxic heavy metals (Cu, Zn, Hg, Pb), biological (activity of urease, acid phosphatase and
alkaline phosphatase) and chemical (soil reaction, organic carbon, available nutrient contents) soil
properties were assessed. Extremely high and about the limit value of heavy metals were
determined at all sampling sites. Heavy metals exhibit toxic effect on soil enzymatic activity, what
resulted as decreasing soil enzyme activity with the increasing heavy metals content. Significant
correlations were found between heavy metals and some enzymes themselves. Significantly acid
environment on the heaps of waste material was found, compared to grassland. Increased content
of heavy metals in the soil environment is a serious problem that adversely affects soil
characteristics, resulting in a reduction of soil productivity as well as its environmental function.
We can conclude that toxicity on biological properties in spatial and time horizon is more sensitive
to environmental stress and are considered as a very useful indicator of soil health and quality.

1
INTRODUCTION
Contamination of soils is a particularly serious problem because of the impact on the whole
ecosystem, as well as on soil functioning. Although some contamination is due to natural processes,
most of it is generated by daily anthropogenic activity, such as industrial processes, transportation,
construction, uncontrolled discharges, waste generation or agriculture (Adriano et al., 1999; Ross,
1994). Mining activities result in extensive soil damages, altering microbial communities and
affecting vegetation leading to destruction of vast amounts of land. The mining of heavy metals has
a long and historical tradition in Slovakia, especially in the Middle Spiš region (Angelovičová &
Fazekašová, 2014). Soil contamination from heavy metals released from mining activities is also a
worldwide environmental problem, because these elements become mobile, contaminate soil and
affect the quality of surface and ground water, and finally, human health (Chandra, Kumar & Jain,
2015). In the process of mining activity, heavy metals enter into soils accompanied with dust, which
have caused seriously environmental problems and endangered the health of human beings (Liao,
Liao & Li, 2008; Chen, Liao & Huang, 2005).
After long-term exposure to heavy metal, the growth and metabolism of soil microorganisms can
also be affected and soil quality will get worse. Microbial community structure and their activity
are two sensitive indices of soil quality, which may change with the respect to the level of heavy
metal concentrations in the soil (Qu et al., 2011; Wang et al., 2007). Soil microbes are an essential
component of most terrestrial ecosystems. Indeed, as decomposers they regulate nutrient dynamics,
and they also act as a highly labile nutrient pool, so that soil microbes are also considered as a
sensitive indicator of soil fertility (Chandra, Kumar & Jain, 2015). Microbial activity is a key factor
affecting the functioning of all terrestrial systems. It has an important role in decomposition and
nutrient cycling. It is of great importance to study the effect of heavy metal contamination on soil
enzymatic activities for further understanding the influence of heavy metals pollution on soil
fertility and soil quality. The use of enzymatic activities bioindicators to evaluate the degree of soil
contamination by heavy metals have been proposed (Fazekašová & Bobuľská, 2012; Badiane et al.,
2001; Nannipieri, 1994). Soil enzymes are involved in nutrient cycling and availability to plants and
can be used as an index of soil function (Huashan et al., 2008). The effects of heavy metals on soil
enzymes have been investigated in numerous studies, particularly in the past 25 years. However, as
the effects are conditioned by methodological factors, which vary widely between studies, it is
difficult to reach any general conclusions (Li et al., 2008; Renella et al., 2008; Khan et al., 2007;
Bandick & Dick, 1999).
Recently, the attention has been paid to the situation of heavy metals contamination and its impact
on human health, as well as some remediation forms that would improve soil physical, chemical
and biological properties. Some results on contents and characteristics of heavy metals were
reported on Krompachy sites, but only little work has been done on the effect of heavy metal
contamination on soil enzymatic activities (Bobuľská, Angelovičová & Fazekašová, 2012).
Therefore, the aim of our investigation was (i) to analyze the heavy metals content of soils on heaps
and grasslands, (ii) to estimate some chemical and biological (soil enzymes) soil properties in the
polluted soils and (iii) to evaluate the ecological risk of heavy metals in this region for local
ecosystem and human populations.

2
METHODOLOGY

Study area
One of the most loaded and polluted site in Slovakia is Middle Spiš area that covers 372 km2 and is
located in the Hornad river valley. In the terms of pedology view, mostly moderate to slighty heavy
cambisols are typical. This region is known by long-time mining and smelting activities,
predominantly focused on copper and mercury. Heaps of mining waste material are stored along a
Slovinky and Poracsky creek and represents the source of toxic elements, which contaminate
environmental components.

Soil samples collection

Soil samples from a depth of between 0.15 and 0.20 m were taken from 9 sites in Krompachy
cadaster [48 54'741''; 20 52'420''] from heaps (K1-K5) and grasslands (K6-K9) (every sample
comprised of 3 subsamples) (Figure 1). Soil samples were air dried, sieved (sieve with 2 mm size
opening), homogenized prior to analyzing of measured soil properties. The collection of the soil
samples was provided during the summer period (June – August) in 2015 year.

Figure 1 Study area map showing sampling location sites

3
Analytical studies
The collected soil samples were analyzed for chemical and biological soil properties. Soil reaction
was determined by using pH meter in the suspension of soil in 0.01M CaCl 2 in the ratio of soil:CaCl2
solution = 1:3. Organic carbon content was determined by the Turin’s method (Fiala et al., 1999) and
available content of nutrients (P, K, Mg) were determined in accredited laboratory. The urease
activity was estimated using the method based on ammonia formation in the urea amended soil
samples. The soil was incubated at 37 C for 24 hours and ammonium determination was carried out
by spectrophotometer at 410 nm (Khaziev, 1976). The activities of both acid and alkaline
phosphatases were determined using the modified method according to Grejtovský (1991), which
involved the use of phenyl phosphate solution for 3 hours at 37 C. Phenol release was provided by
spectrophotometer at 510 nm. The total metals content (Cu, Zn, Pb) were determined by the atomic
adsorption spectrophotometry (AAS) and X-ray florescence spectroscopy (XFS). Total content of Hg
was determined by direct mercury analyzer (DMA 80). Assessed values of heavy metals in soils
were compared to the limit values of Slovak soils (Act No. 220/2004 Coll. of Laws).

Data analysis
Statistica 10 software was used for all data analysis. The significance level between the heavy
metals and other soil chemical and biological indices was calculated by Spearman’s correlation
coefficient.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Soil characteristics and heavy metal contents of the soil samples collected in the Middle Spiš area
are listed in Table 1. Results clearly show extremely high and above the limit values of heavy
metals concentration in the heap sites. The high content of heavy metals was also shown in the
grassland areas which might be explained by short distance of the source of pollution and heaps
sites, as well as the translocation and accumulation of heavy metals in the surrounding areas. The
results showed that the heavy metal polluted soils impact soil quality in terms of nutrient contents
and microbial activity that was also shown in studies of Angelovičová & Fazekašová (2014).
Overall, polluted sites were found poor in nutrient contents and microbial activity. The lower level
of organic carbon and available nutrients in this soils might be due to the disruption of ecosystem
functioning, depletion of soil organic pool and also due to the loss of litter layer during mining,
which is an integral storage and exchange site for nutrients (Chandra, Kumar & Jain, 2015).

Table 1 Characteristics of the soil properties in the selected sites in Krompachy cadastre (Slovakia)

Site pH Cox Pavail Kavail Mgavail URE ACP ALP Hg Cu Zn Pb

K1 7.5 2.85 21 158 394 0.06 5.53 5.70 0.48 0.44 0.35 85.7

K2 7.4 1.98 20 95 130 0.08 12.70 10.33 0.62 21.50 0.91 166.5

K3 7.5 3.05 20 112 122 0.12 13.72 28.04 1.74 1.87 0.92 293.0

K4 5.7 4.10 23 136 201 0.15 33.16 7.98 1.16 1.10 1.08 404.9

K5 6.8 1.64 20 101 280 0.16 89.90 106.60 1.92 1209.0 1019.0 377.0

4
 K6 5.8 3.68 69 50 235 0.17 103.30 122.30 4.57 718.0 857.0 218.0

K7 5.2 2.71 40 45 266 0.20 186.30 179.70 3.39 436.0 463.0 143.0

K8 4.9 5.49 179 216 101 0.21 183.00 119.60 6.74 1271.0 1333.0 380.0

K9 4.9 2.05 99 374 102 0.45 250.40 198.90 0.45 89.0 126.0 25.0

Organic carbon content (Cox) [%], Available nutrients (Pavail, Kavail, Mgavail) [mg.kg-1], Urease activity (URE) [mg
NH4+-N g-1 d-1], Acid phosphatase activity (ACP) [mg P g-1 3hours-1], Alkaline phosphatase activity (ALP) [mg
P g-1 3hours-1], Total heavy metal content (Hg, Cu, Zn, Pb) [mg.kg -1]. Limit values for Slovak soil (Act No.
220/2004 Coll. of Laws) are as follows: Hg 0,5 mg.kg -1, Cu 60 mg.kg-1, Zn 150 mg.kg-1, Pb 70 mg.kg-1.

The heavy metals contamination of the soil samples is relatively high and is dominated by
extremely high content of lead and mercury. These high heavy metal concentrations had a clear
inhibitory influence on enzyme activity of soils. On the other hand, the research of Gzik et al. (2003)
showed no inhibition effect of the high concentration of heavy metals on microorganisms and soil
enzyme activity that was explained by the high clay content in the soil samples. The decrease of
enzyme activities may be attributed to biological response to inhibition of microbial activity.
Microbes consumed more energy to converse heavy metals and adapt to contaminated
environment, which declined enzyme synthesis and activities (Renella et al., 2005). Several studies
demonstrate that heavy metal pollution can affect enzyme activity by changing the structure of
microbial community construction (Qu et al., 2011). In fact, all of the enzymes that we assayed were
negatively affected by heavy metal pollution. Some authors show that activity of phosphatases
(both acid and alkaline) is the enzyme most commonly considered in these studies because metal
toxicity basically affects the P cycle (of which phosphatase is the key enzyme) and microbial activity
in the soil ecosystem (Gzik et al., 2003; Marzadori et al., 1996). In this study there was a significant
effect of acid phosphatase on phosphorus content (p<0,05*) that also show close relation of these
two characteristics. Urease activity is usually the most sensitive of the hydrolytic enzymes. It
usually decrease to a lesser extent that other hydrolytic enzymes, indicating that a large part of the
urease in soil is stabilized on soil colloids and that in these locations, the enzyme suffers less
degradation than the microbiota (Wang, Zhou & Cang, 2009; Bellas et al., 2012).

It is believed that only the bioavailable fraction of metals, rather than the total metal content should
be considered when evaluating the effects on enzymes (McGrath, 1994; Chaperon and Sauvé, 2007).
The size of this fraction relative to the total content is determined by physical and chemical
characteristics of the soil. The soil pH influences the solubilization processes and determine the
concentration of the soluble ionic form of the metal. On the other hand, the organic matter content,
or the particle size distribution of the inorganic soil fraction also affect the retention of different
exchangeable forms of the metal, as well as the fraction that are stabilized in an organic matter. The
importance of the soil properties in determining the effects of heavy metals on enzymes has been
confirmed in numerous studies. The effects are greater in acidic soils that in alkaline, as the metals
are soluble at low pH (Renella et al., 2003, Bååth, 1986). Results obtained in this work showed that
soil pH and organic matter content were adversely affected by high concentration of heavy metals.
Many authors agree that low pH reduces solubility and speciation of metals in soil and soil solution
which directly rubs off in soil organic matter (Nwaugo et al., 2008; Oliveira & Pampulha, 2006). This
was the case of this study where pH and organic matter in the heaps were lower compared to

5
grassland ecosystem. Soil acidity significantly affects decreasing in activity of soil enzymes which is
also shown in this research (p<0,01**). The soil texture also determines the effect of the metal on the
soil enzymatic activity, and metals have been found to be most toxic in sandy and sandy-loam soils
(Haanstra and Doelman, 1991). The most sensitive enzyme activity was acid phosphatase which
had almost six times less activities in the heaps compared to grasslands areas. The other enzymes
also showed high sensitivity to heavy metals content. On the other hand, there was a clear effect on
soil enzymatic activity and heavy metal content in the term of distance from the mercury
processing plant that was also shown in the study of Chen, Liao & Huang (2005). The sites that
were further away from the source of pollution showed lower values in heavy metal content and
therefore, the enzymatic activity, as well as other chemical properties were represented in higher
values.

The results suggest it is feasible to use soil enzymatic activities to indicate the pollution situation by
combined heavy metals in the soil of mine areas, which was also proven by study of Chen, Liao &
Huang (2005). The total contents of selected heavy metals in our sites exceeded the critical level of
environmental quality standard for soil in Slovakia, which indicated that soils in this area were
highly contaminated. Because of the very high and above the limit heavy metal concentration,
sample sites in Middle Spiš area presented a relatively high ecological risk for humans and animals.
That contaminated soil cannot be use for the agricultural use and have to be monitored and the
concentration of the heavy metals efficiently regulated.

CONCLUSION
The soils were polluted by combined heavy metals, and mercury and lead are the main pollutants
in this post-mine area. Moreover, the contents of heavy metals in contaminated soils in the heaps
showed higher values that in grassland. Results also show that with the distance away from the
mercury processing plant decreasing contents of the heavy metals. Soil pollution by heavy metals
caused decreases in enzymatic activities, as well as other selected chemical soil properties. The
pollution of combined metals alleviated their toxicity to enzymes. The soil enzymatic activity
decreased significantly with increasing contamination of heavy metals, especially for both
phosphatases that varied most on our research and it may considered as be a good indicator of soil
quality for polluted soils. Heavy metals persist in the soil ecosystem for years as they are often
highly resistant to natural degradation and their toxicity may be therefore be prolonged. That
polluted soil represents a serious risk for human health and it is not suitable for plant biomass
production. Therefore, it is very important to pay a special attention to long-term monitoring on the
post-mine sites and to use the methodologies to eliminate pollutants from the soil environment.

6
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The work was supported by the Agency of Ministry of Education, Science, Research and Sport of
the Slovak Republic, the project ITMS 26110230119.

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8
Changes of Landscape Structure Under the Influence
of Long-Term Mining Activities During Two
Centuries
Lenka Angelovičová & Lenka Bobuľská
Department of Ecology, Faculty of Humanities and Natural Sciences, University of Presov,
Slovakia,

ABSTRACT
Former Middle Spis mining area has been, since the 12th century, one of the most important and
extensive areas were copper ore was mined in Slovakia. Long-term mining and subsequent
processing activities changed the landscape structure of its villages in terms of space and time.
Open pit mining is one of the fastest growing human modifications of the Earth's surface, which
transforms the landscape and ecological functioning. Remote sensing system and geographical
information system represent modern procedures for land use changes detection, landscape
planning and resource management.
The main objective of this study was to determine landscape changes comparing four moments
along a period of two centuries (1785, 1822, 1986 and 2010) and detect the total change of landscape
structure in Krompachy village. Four landscape indices: the Shannon diversity index, the ecological
stability index, the index of anthropogenic pressure and the index of landscape originality, were
used in terms of assessing the landscape structure situation in different time horizons. Through the
combined use of historical maps, remote sensing system, geographic information system, landscape
indices and transition matrix a comprehensive analyse was peformed to identigy the influence of
mining activities on the landscape status and landscape changes.
The study showed, along the two century long period studied, a significant decrease of the forest
area (of more than 15 %), increase of technical units such as mines, tailing ponds and processing
plant areas, followed by residential unit and transport unit development. At the end of the 20th
century, when mining activities were completed, the situation in the region becomes changed for
better, but still a lot of negative landscape elements remained. The worst situation, characterized by
the high proportion of negative landscape elements, lowest ecological stability, and highest
anthropogenic pressure was reported in 1986, when industrial development was prioritized.

1
INTRODUCTION

With the rapid development of the modern society, landscape damage, the same as environmental
pollution, has become more and more serious (Lescot et al. 2013; Dankoub et al. 2012). While the
increase in global demand for minerals and strategic metals raised the pressure for extraction,
mining activities were considered a sign of the regional economic prosperity (Delgado, 2010;
Ceseña, 2012), and numerous open pits, waste rock dumps, tailing ponds and huge industrial areas
caused irreversible changes into the landscape structure and significantly decreased the
environmental stability of the landscape itself.
Mining activities and mining related industries represented, since the 13th century, an important
source of livelihood in Slovakia. Krompachy village, as an important source of copper ores,
represents a typical mining village in Slovakia. Industrial development at the beginning of the 19th
century was followed by an increase of inhabitants as to its attractiveness for the whole region:
residential and transport units were built and lot of inhabitants were moved to this part of Slovakia.
The situation changed at the beginning of the 20th century, when mining wasn’t as profitable
anymore: huge areas of the mines, environmentally loaded waste rock dumps, tailing ponds and
industrial areas were abandoned, without any remediation procedures. These mining facilities are
not only unsightly element in the landscape, but also the source of undesirable release of toxic
substances, such as heavy metals.
Monitoring and analyzing landscape changes are important activities in landscape planning and
resource management. A lot of methods and approaches were developed to reach important data
about landscape changes and designing strategies for sustainable development.
Geographical information system (GIS) provides a flexible environment for entering, analyzing,
and displaying digital data from various sources necessary for land type identification, change
detection and database development (Liu and Yang 2015). Landscape indices can be used to
evaluate the state of the landscape in terms of environmental stability, diversity or anthropogenic
pressure. Integrating historical maps, GIS, satellite imagery and landscape indices can help to create
a comprehensive view to landscape changes during the centuries.
The study performed aims to map and analyse landscape changes along a research period and use
landscape indices to compare the state of landscape structure at different times.

METHODOLOGY
Study area

According the environmental regionalization, the study area, as part of the former middle Spis
mining area, was included in the “environmentally loaded and unhealthy areas” of Slovakia
(Figure 1). The area of the Krompachy village [48° 55' 23.3'' N; 20° 51' 32.3'' E] was long known for
its copper ore deposit. Mining activities, and later also smelter activities, became the main source of
livelihood for years. The village area occupied 2285.56 ha with 8889 inhabitants.

2
From a geographical point of view, the area is localized in Slovenske rudohorie Mountains and
belongs to the Hornad river catchment area. The meteorological features are typical of the inner and
the mountainous regions, and include the moderately warm – moderately wet climate region with
an average January temperature -5 to -2° C (Džatko 1989).

Figure 1 Map illustrating the position of Krompachy village in Slovakia

Map preparation and analyses

Historical maps were selected depending important historical events:

 Maps from the 1785 first military mapping were chosen as first available maps for research.
 Maps from 1822 second military mapping were chosen as representative for the second
period.
 Maps from 1986 were chosen because the biggest expansion of mining activities is dated to
the beginning of the 19th century, and represent the largest extend of the mining expansion.
 Actual statement of landscape structure was evaluated using digital maps originating from
a 2010 form WMS server showing the declination of the mining activities which started at
the beginning of the 20th century.

Because historical maps were obtained in paper form, it was necessary to scan them and
subsequently georeferenced and transferred to S-JTSK coordinate system. The map of 2010 was
used as baseline for georeferenced. Map preparation was performed in QGis.

3
According to Petrovič and Muchová (2008), eight landscape categories were identified on the maps:
1.forest, 2. grasslands, 3. arable fields, 4. subsoil and substrate, 5. watercourses and water bodies, 6.
residential units/areas, 7. technical units, 8. transport units. Land use categories digitalization was
performed by the on screen method, using analogue visual interpretation. Mathematical indices are
considered as objective tool for description of different aspects of landscape structure (McGarigal
2000). Shannon diversity index (SH) (McGrigal and Marks 1995), ecological stability index (ES)
(Míchal 1994), index of anthropogenic pressure (AP) (Kupková 2001), and index of landscape
originality (LO) (Žigrai 2001) were computed for each time horizon. Landscape changes detection
and evaluation was performed using transition matrix, which reflect the structure and states of
transition changes of land use categories (Wan et al. 2015). The relationship between landscape
indices and the correlation relationship between land use categories and indices were computed by
Spearman’s correlation coefficient.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Land use changes

Though it has been reported repeatedly that mining activities started in Slovakia during the 13th
century, no technical units represented by mine facilities were identified either on the map of 1787
nor on the one of 1822. Kanianská et al. (2010) reported that the maps of the first and the second
military mapping (maps of 1785 and 1822) had poor quality and bad readability. On the map of
1986 an area of 24.24 ha has been detected as technical unit, which on the map of 2010 increased
twice its size. As industrial development of the village was closely related to its attractiveness to
inhabitants, the residential units’ area increased in almost 5 times from 1785 until 1986. The
following reduction of production automatically negatively influenced the number of inhabitants
and in 2010 a decrease of residential units area was identified, as well as in the transport units’ area.

The area and the percentage of landscape categories at each research period are listed in Table 1.

Forest unit: though until today, the forest occupies more than 50% of the Krompachy village, the
most significant change was detected between the years 1822 and 1986 with a decrease of 16.53 %,
while the decrease over the whole period is 17.15% .
r 1986, when mining activities weren't so profitable anymore, the situation changed and
people started to cultivate fields again.

Table 1 The area (in hectares [ha]) and the percentage of land use categories in Krompachy village
in four time horizons.
Year 1787 1822 1986 2010

Land use category [ha] [% ] [ha] [%] [ha] [%] [ha] [%]

1: forest 1670.7 73.10 1712.6 74.89 1429.53 62.55 1418.31 62.1

2: grassland 406.9 17.80 376.7 16.48 555.35 24.30 484.96 21.2

4
 3: arable fields 83.5 3.65 96.6 4.23 90.36 3.95 220.15 9.62

4: subsoil and substrate 0 0 0 0 2.15 0.09 0.67 0.03

5: water courses and water 55.8 2.45 28.0 1.23 33.57 1.47 15.77 0.69
bodies
6: residential units/areas 14.8 0.65 28.2 1.24 73.77 3.23 50.88 2.23
7: technical unts 0 0 0 0 24.24 1.06 41.75 1.83
8: transport units 53.5 2.35 44.1 1.93 76.58 3.35 53.06 2.32
Landscape indices
Shannon diversity index 1.71 1.74 1.72 1.36
Ecological stability index 0.88 0.89 0.84 0.82
Index of anthropogenic 0.07 0.08 0.132 0.191
pressure
Index of landscape 24.86 21.62 21.9 8.89
originality

Shannon diversity index ranged between 1.36 to 1.74. The highest diversity was reported in 1822,
when we also reported the lowest ecological stability. The values of the ecological stability index
varied between 0.89 to 0.82. The human, as the main landscape changes originator, caused
irreversible changes, which in some cases cannot be remedied. The anthropogenic pressure to the
landscape has increasing tendency. The highest index of anthropogenic pressure was reported in
2010, the same as the lowest index of landscape originality.

Transition matrix
Trajectories of landscape changes between years 1785/1986 and 1785/2010 are expressed in Table 2,
Table 3 respectively. Since 1785 to 1822, 1321.43 ha of study area stayed unchanged. The grassland
area was created on the original forest area (occupied 360 ha of original forest). Arable fields were
also predominantly created on the original forest area (50 ha), or original grassland area (31 ha).
Industrial development brought increase of residential units and technical units, which occupied
predominantly original grassland areas. Transport units were created at the expense of forest.

Table 2 Transition matrix between years 1785 and 2010 in Krompachy village area
Land use categories in 1785
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Sum
1 1192.3 160.59 17.08 0 24.19 3.98 0 27.46 1425.6
2 363.37 118.2 35.48 0 18.17 3.9 0 16.63 555.57
3 50.905 31.32 3.32 0 2.23 1.15 0 1.44 90.365
4 1.08 1.051 0 0 0.006 0 0 0 2.1368
Land use categories in 1986 5 18.57 6.78 3.69 0 2.08 0.93 0 1.51 33.56
6 8.48 42.73 13.66 0 3.06 2.95 0 2.87 73.75
7 1.54 17.31 1.88 0 2.3 0.13 0 1.08 24.24
8 33.96 26.93 8.24 0 3.21 1.75 0 2.58 76.67
Sum 1670.67 406.85 83.56 0 55.82 14.81 0 53.59 2285.79

5
Total change of landscape structure is expressed in Table 3. Between years 1785 and 2010, 1340.64
ha of landscape stayed unchanged. Grasslands occupied original forest area, or were created at
original arable fields. The area of arable fields has increasing tendency, especially after 1986, when
mining activities were stopped, or reduce their activity. The arable fields were created
predominantly at original forest (100.14 ha), or grassland area (89.75 ha). Only 16.13 ha of original
arable fields, stayed at the original place. Residential areas and technical areas were created at the
original grassland area, or original forests.

Table 3 Transition matrix between years 1785 and 2010 in Krompachy village

Land use categories in 1785

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Sum
1 1213.59 140.16 10.82 0 24.15 1.98 0 27.58 1418.32
2 305.43 106.07 35.35 0 15.07 6.87 0 15.89 484.68
3 100.14 89.75 16.13 0 7.13 2.61 0 4.36 220.15
4 0.66 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 0.67
Land use categories in 2010 5 7.74 2.92 2.78 0 1.43 0.22 0 0.65 15.76
6 9.22 27.78 8.24 0 2.16 1.86 0 1.61 50.91
7 7.05 23.44 5.15 0 3.9 0.28 0 1.92 41.75
8 26.84 16.69 5.06 0 1.95 0.97 0 1.56 53.07
Sum 1670.67 406.85 83.56 0 55.82 14.81 0 53.59 2285.79

Correlation relationship

Correlation relationships between land use categories and landscape indices are listed in Table 4.
Significant negative relationship (P<0.01) was found between forests and grasslands, what was
confirmed by transition matrix. Large areas of forest were transformed to the grasslands during the
period studied. Residential areas, the same as technical areas, were created on behaf of original
forest or original grassland area. Forest gave significant negative correlation with residential (P<0.5)
and technical areas (P<0.01). Grasslands gave significant negative correlation with residential areas
(P<0.01) and transport units (P<0.05). Attractiveness of mining area brought intensive expansion of
industrial areas, such as smelters (Banasová and Lackovičová, 2004). Job opportunities caused an
increase of inhabitants, followed by constructions of new residential units, the same as transport
units. Statistical evaluation confirmed, significant positive relationship between residential units
and technical units (P<0.01), and between residential units and transport units (P<0.01). All
evaluated landscape indices were sensitive to increasing tendency of technical units. Category of
technical units gave significant negative correlation with the ecological stability index (P<0.001) the
same as the index of landscape originality (P<0.01), and significant positive correlation with the
Shannon diversity index (P<0.01) and the index of anthropogenic pressure (P<0.001). Category of
the forest gave significant positive correlation wtih the ecological stability index (P<0.001) and
negative correlation with the index of anthropogenic pressure (P<0.001).

6
Table 4 Correlation relationship between land use categories and landscape indices

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 SH ES AP LO
1 -0.004** ns ns ns -0.03* -0.003** ns ns 0.0013*** -0.002** ns
2 ns ns ns -0.002** ns -0.002** 0.004 -0.02* ns ns
3 ns ns -0.018* ns -0.0001*** ns 0.02* -0.0002***
4 ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns
5 ns ns ns ns ns ns ns
6 0.05* 0.04* ns ns ns ns
7 ns 0.02* -0.0002*** 0.0001*** 0.03*
8 ns ns ns ns
*P<0.05;**P<0.01, ***P<0.001, ns – not significant

7
 Figure 2 Land use categories in Krompachy village in 1785 (a), 1822 (b), 1986 (c) and 2010 (d)

8
CONCLUSION

The intensive and long-term mining activities in Krompachy village (Slovakia) caused irreversible
changes in the landscape structure. The evaluation of four moments, from 1785 until 2010, shows
that the most important changes were caused by industrial development between the years 1822
and 1986. Significant decrease of forest and intensive increase of residential units, technical units
and transport units changed the character of the landscape. A lot of negative landscape elements,
such as open pits, waste rock dumps, tailings ponds and industrial areas were created and
disturbed the ecological stability of the landscape. Significant decrease of the landscape originality
index, and increase of the Shannon diversity index and index of the anthropogenic pressure was
found. After 1986, when mining and smelting activities weren’t so profitable anymore, the area lost
its attractiveness for the inhabitants and many moved away: the residential unit area decreased in
size; the arable fields unit increased; and on the abandoned waste rock dumps and industrial areas
grass began to grow again.

REFERENCES
Banasová, V., Lackovičová, A. (2004) Degradation of grasslands next to the copper processing plant in
Krompachy (Slovnenské Rudohorie Mts.) Bulletin of Slovak Botanical Company, vol. 26, pp.153-161.

Ceseña, A.E. (2012) Geopolitics, toxic mega-mining and socioenvironmental devastation Latinamerican
Observatory of Geopolitics of the Autonomous National University of Mexico Magistral Conference
of the Forum (Conferencia magistral del Foro): Towards an integral reform of the mining legislation
with human rights perspective October 22, 2012. Instituto de Investigaciones Jurı´dicas de la UNAM.

Dankoub, Z., Ayoubi, S., Khademi, H., Lu, S.G. (2012) Spatial distribution of magnetic properties and selected
heavy metals in calcareous soils as affected by land use in the Isfahan Region, Central Iran.
Pedosfere, vol. 22, pp. 33-47.

Delgado, G.C. (2010) Latin America and Caribe as mineral strategic reserves. In: Delgado, G.C. (Ed.), Political
Ecology of Mining in Latin America. UNAM, pp. 17–58.

Džatko, M. (1989). Pedoecological, productive and environment aspects o the land use classification in
Slovakia. Soil conservation and environment. Proceedings of VIIth Czechoslovak soil science
conference, pp. 208-210.

Kanianská, R., Kizelková, M., Nováček, J., Zeman, M. (2010) Using historical and current map data to
determine the production potential of biomass. Cartographical letters, vol. 18, pp. 76-86.

Kupková, L. (2001) Data about the landscape, today and tomorrow. Geoinfo, vol. 1, pp. 16-19.

Lescot, J.M., Bordenave, P., Pett, K., Leccia, O. (2013) A spatially- distributed cost-effectiveness analysis
framework for controlling water pollution. Environmental Modelling and Software, vol. 41, pp.107-
122.

Liu T., Yang X. (2015) Monitoring land changes in an urban area using satelite imagery, Gis and landscape
metrics. Applied Geography, vol. 56, pp. 42-54.

McGarigal, K. (2002) Landscape pattern metrics. Encyclopedia of Environmentalistics, vol. 2. El-Shaarawi A.

H. - W. Piegorsh, W. W. (eds.). England: John Wiley& Sons, Sussex, pp. 1135-1142.

9
Míchal, I. (1982) The principles of the evaluation of landscape area. Architecture and Urban Planning, pp. 65–
87.

Petrovič, F., Muchová, Z. (2008) The development of the landscape with scattered settlements (case study:
Horné Hámre village, Slovakia). Geographical revue (FPV UMB Banská Bystrica), vol. 4, pp. 350-363.

Wan L., Zhang, Y., Zhang, X., Qi S., Na X. (2012) Comparison of land use/land cover change and landscape
patterns in Honghe National Nature Reserve and the surrounounding Jianjiang Region, China.
Ecological Indicators, Vol. 51, pp. 205-214.

Žigrai, F. (2001) Integrated approach to the research of cultural landscape. Landscape, man, culture. pp. 16-19.

10
Life Cycle Assessment of Iron Ore Production in
Brazil: A Case Study
Giancarlo Lovón-Canchuman1, Francisco Souza1, Marcelo Guimarães2 and Lilian Elabras3
1. Centro de Tecnologia Mineral - CETEM, Brazil
2. Fundação Oswaldo Cruz - FIOCRUZ, Brazil
3. Instituto Federal de Educação, Ciência e Tecnologia do Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

ABSTRACT
Iron mining is an important role in Brazil’s economy. In 2013, Brazil exported 329,6Mt of ore
mining, an amount of US$ 32.5 million. Mining sector has a relevant consumption of resources and
consequently a high level of greenhouse gas emissions, effluents and solid waste. So it is very
important to make an assessment of the sector with regard to environmental issues, making it
necessary to understand, quantify and qualify the resources input, wastes and emissions generated.
The Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), environmental management tool that identifies the
environmental aspects and assesses the environmental impacts associated with products
throughout their life cycle, from cradle to gate. The primary purpose of this study is to assess the
environmental impacts associated with the iron pellet production. Through a case study in a
Brazilian company producing iron ore pellets, using the methodology of Life Cycle Assessment
(LCA) based on ISO 14040 standards. The methodology which includes four steps starting from
goal and scope definition, life cycle inventory analysis, to life cycle impact assessment, and
interpretation. The study has extended to the entire life cycle of iron pellet, which includes mining,
beneficiation, transportation and pelletizing processes. According to the results obtained for the
damage categories Human Health, Ecosystems and Resources the most relevant impact categories
are, respectively: Particulate Matter (92.8%), Ecosystem Climate Change (60.8%) and Mineral
Depletion (93.5%). LCA presents beneficial insights to the mining industry as it seeks to develop
environmental management and environmentally sustainable projects.

1
INTRODUCTION
The Brazilian iron ore mining industry is relevant on a global scale, exporting the beneficiated
products to the world's largest consumer markets. This industry displays high levels of resource
and power consumption, which as a consequence generates large quantities of gas, liquid and solid
emissions that are polluting for the atmosphere (Lima et al. 2015).
Within this context, the importance of carrying out Life cycle Assessments - LCA - is highlighted.
LCA is an instrument for evaluating the environmental and health-related impact exerted by a
product or process, taking into account different stages. These stages go from the extraction of the
raw materials that are present in nature, through to the mining system (cradle), all the way to the
disposal of the final product after its use (gate).
International experience in carrying out LCA where iron mining is concerned is as yet
underdeveloped. In general terms, the aforementioned mining activity is approached by means of
steel production LCA studies. (Markus Engineering Services, 2002; Chen, Yang, & Ouyang, 2011;
Burchart-Korol, 2013).
In an article about LCA in mining activities, Awuah-Offei and Adekpedjou (2011) highlight that
despite the growing application of LCA in the evaluation of systems and products in general, a
limitation in its use for the mining sector occurs. The authors recommend that studies for the
development of a mining-specific LCA methodology that allow for an analysis of sensitivities and
uncertainties associated with data collection covering spatial and temporal dimensions is carried
out in collaboration with companies-universities.
According to Durucan et al., (2006) the limited number of LCA where mining is concerned is due to
a lack of life-cycle mentality in this industrial sector. The authors believe that not much has been
done in aid of improving the quality of information in mining processes, showcasing the fact that a
number of factors of relevance where environmental impact is concerned are rarely taken into
consideration.
In this context, the objective of this article is to evaluate the environmental impact associated with
the production of iron ore pellets, by means of a case study of an iron ore pellet production
company using LCA technology based on standard ISO 14040. The methodology includes four
stages defined through goals and a scope definition, life cycle inventory analysis, life cycle impact
evaluation (LCIA) and interpretation. The study extended throughout the life cycle of the iron ore
pellet, including the mining, beneficiation, transport and pelletizing processes. Subsequently, for
comparison purposes, a comparative analysis of the results for the company being studied and
those of the global iron ore pellet inventory pertaining to the Ecoinvent database is carried out.

METHODOLOGY
The study's methodology is divided into three stages, as shown in Figure 1: (1) conceptual, which
entails bibliographic research; creating research and pre-testing protocols (questionnaires), followed
by the creation of a research model; (2) practical, where the technical visits were carried out and
primary data was collected in the different stages of the process used by Samarco Mineração in
Brazil; and (3) direct application, where a model of the system and the LCA stages for the company
being studied was carried out.

2
 Model
• Quantification
• Treatment Mini
• type of Goal and
• Life cycle Definiti

Preliminary

Inventory
Pre- Beneficia
Pr -test

Conceptual mod
• Processes and
• Mass Impact
• Inventory
Pelletiz
Research

Etapa: Etapa: Etapa: direct

collecti
Figure 1 Research Model

The scope of the study is to evaluate the impacts of the iron ore pellets' life cycle in connection with
iron ore pellet mining, beneficiation and production. The functional unit defined for the study is
that of 1 ton (one ton) of iron ore pellets delivered to a ship for export purposes. Figure 2 shows a
schematic representation of the system's limits and the modelling of the iron ore pellets' production,
their intermediate fluxes (iron ore, ore concentrate, iron ore pellets), auxiliary fluxes (starch, soda
and quicklime, among others), and the outputs of atmospheric emissions, liquid effluents and solid
waste.
- Occupi Are - Transform Are
- Transform Are - Transform
ed Are
a
ed a ed - Quicklia
- Buildin
ed
Mining
a • Electrici
me
gs ty • Wate
equipment - Starc - Bentoni
- Sod r - te
Calcareo Transpo
h Transpo
- Quickli
a - us
Coa rt
of
Use of - Blastin Transpo - Diesel
me of
rt - Petroleum
l
- gDies - Lubricant Mineral - Glyceri Supplies
of
rt oil Supplies coke
Min
the - elMobil - Greas
oil 1 and
pipeline ne
Belte Supplies e • Natural
• Electrici 2 • Fue
e s
• Electrici
gas oi
• Wate
ty • Electrici
l l
• Wate
ty r ty
r
Minin Beneficiati Concentrate Pelletizin Iron Pellet
- Disassemb Or - Crushin - Preparati ore s
Slury - Embarkati
g
- Loadin
ly e on - Deslimi
-gMillin
g
- Pelletizi
on on
g- Freig g - ng
Hardeni
ht ng- Floatati - Stowa
ng
- Thickene
on ge
rs
Sandy and
Liquid
Slur
effluents

Decommissioni
Da Da
ng m m
- Transform Are
ed - Dies a Steril Wast
el e e

Emissio Effluen
ns ts
Emissio Effluen Emissio
ns ts ns

Figure 2 Iron ore pellet production system model

3
The Life cycle Assessment for iron ore pellets was carried out using SimaPro version 8.02. The
inventory comprehends all the environmental interventions of the processes modelled for the
production of the pellets, as shown in Figure 2. To carry out the, life cycle impact assessment
(LCIA), it is necessary to apply a methodology that correlates the result of the inventory with the
different environmental impacts. In this way, the ReCiPev1.08 environmental impact evaluation
methodology was used, it was developed by RIVM, Radboud University, CML and Pré
Consultants, and it is present in the SimaPro software. The methodology seeks harmonizing the
impacts oriented at the problems (mid point) and the damage categories (end point) in the
environmental models (GOEDKOOP et al., 2009). The following environmental impact categories
associated to the three damage categories are used in the ReCiPe methodology:
 Human Safety damage category (in DALY - disability-adjusted life year): Climate Changes;
Ozone Layer Depletion; Human Toxicity; Photochemical formation; Particulate Matter;
Ionizing Radiation;
 Damage to Ecosystem category (in species.year): Climate Changes to Ecosystems;
Terrestrial Acidification; Freshwater Eutrophication; Terrestrial Ecotoxicity, Freshwater
Ecotoxicity and Marine Ecotoxocity; Natural Land Transformation; Agricultural and Urban
Land Occupation;
 Category of Resource Consumption damage (expressed in monetary unit $): Depletion of
Mineral Resources; Depletion of Fossil Fuels.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Impact evaluation result

Table 1 below shows the results of the life cycle impacts evaluation (LCIA) using the ReCiPe End
Point methodology for the impact categories of the pellets pertaining to the company being studied.

Table 1 LCIA results for Samarco iron ore pellets using the ReCiPe End Point World
methodology

Impact category Unit Total

Climate Changes DALY 5.3E-05
Human Health

Ozone Layer Depletion DALY 2.1E-08

Human Toxicity DALY 1.4E-06
Photochemical formation DALY 2.2E-08
Particulate Matter DALY 7.0E-04
Ionizing Radiation DALY 6.0E-08
Ecosystem Climate Changes species.year 3.0E-07
Terrestrial Acidification species.year 3.4E-09
Freshwater Eutrophication species.year 7.4E-10
Ecosystem

Terrestrial Ecotoxicity species.year 3.5E-09

Freshwater Ecotoxicity species.year 6.4E-12
Marine Ecotoxicity species.year 8.2E-12
Agricultural Land Occupation species.year 9.7E-08
Urban Land Occupation species.year 3.8E-08

4
 Natural Land Transformation species.year 5.2E-08

Resources
Natural
Mineral Depletion $ 5.8E+01

Fossil Fuel Depletion $ 4.0E+00

As may be observed, the most relevant impact categories for the damage category impacts Human
Health, Ecosystems and Resource Consumption are: Particulate Matter (92.8%), Climate Changes to
the Ecosystem (60.8%) and Depletion of Metals (93.5%). Impact factors Climate Changes (7.0%),
Agricultural Land Occupation (19.9%), Urban Land Occupation (7.9%), Natural Land
Transformation (10.5%) and Fossil Depletion (6.4%) are also relevant and were taken into account
for ensuing LCA analyses accordingly.
In table 2, the percentages corresponding to the mining, beneficiating and pelletizing by impact
categories are represented. As well as the main impact factors of supplies to do with pelletizing.

Table 2 Iron ore pellet LCIA results for processes using the ReCiPeEndpoint World methodology

Benefici Pelleti Bentonit Natural

Impact category Unit Fuel Coal Electricity Others
Mining atingb zinga e gas

Climate Changes DALY 11% 30% 0% 4% 2% 12% 18% 6% 17%

Ozone Layer
Depletion DALY 1% 5% 0% 5% 70% 1% 2% 4% 13%
Human Toxicity DALY 4% 50% 0% 18% 2% 3% 10% 2% 11%
Photochemical
formation DALY 13% 6% 62% 1% 2% 2% 2% 3% 8%
Particulate Matter DALY 93% 1% 4% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 1%
Ionizing
Radiation DALY 3% 32% 0% 7% 3% 6% 22% 7% 19%
Climate Changes
to Ecosystems species.yr 11% 30% 0% 4% 2% 12% 18% 6% 18%
Terrestrial
Acidification species.yr 8% 9% 58% 2% 1% 4% 3% 8% 8%
Freshwater
Eutrophication
Eutrophication species.yr 1% 17% 0% 5% 0% 62% 8% 1% 5%
Terrestrial
Ecotoxicity species.yr 1% 54% 0% 2% 0% 0% 33% 0% 9%
Freshwater
Ecotoxicity species.yr 4% 54% 0% 5% 0% 1% 13% 4% 17%
Marine
Ecotoxicity species.yr 4% 32% 0% 10% 1% 2% 7% 23% 20%
Agricultural Land species.yr 0% 81% 0% 1% 0% 3% 11% 0% 3%

5
Occupation
Urban Land
Occupation species.yr 19% 17% 42% 2% 0% 13% 1% 0% 7%
Natural Land
Transformation species.yr 1% 25% 14% 23% 0% 4% 18% 6% 8%
Depletion of
Mineral
Resources $ 100% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0%
Fossil Depletion $ 5% 9% 0% 3% 5% 24% 4% 39% 11%
aEnvironmental interventions in the process of Pelletizing itself that do not derive from other processes, e.g.:
emissions from the pelletizing furnace and others, excluding beneficiating and mining
b Environmental interventions excluding mining

The beneficiated ore pelletizing process is relevant in the photochemical formation environmental
impact, terrestrial acidification and urban Land Occupation categories. As for the consumption of
fuel oil, it is relevant for ozone layer depletion. The other power sources are relevant for the
following categories: climate change, ionizing radiation, terrestrial ecotoxicity for electricity used in
pelleting and fossil depletion and marine ecotoxicity for natural gas. Where the coal used in the
process is concerned, it generates impacts in fossil depletion and the eutrophication of Freshwater.
The beneficiating process is relevant in Agricultural Land Occupation, Terrestrial Ecotoxicity and
Freshwater Ecotoxicity. As for the mining process, the most relevant impact factors point at
Particulate Matter, at 93% and Fossil Depletion, at 100%.
The weighed environmental impact corresponding to iron ore pellets in line with the
ReCiPeEndpoint World H methodology may be observed in Table 3 below.

Table 3 Weighed environmental impact results for iron ore pellets in keeping with the
ReCiPeEndpoint World H category

Damage category Impact (Pt)

Human Health 22.50 30.9%
Ecosystems 0.22 0.3%
Resources 50.20 68.8%
Total (Pt) 72.92 100.0%

The fact that resources is the predominant damage category may be observed, this is followed by
human health, and finally, damage to the ecosystem. Of the 50.2 Pts of the resource category, 49.92
refer to the beneficiating stage.

Contribution analysis

The contribution analysis seeks identifying the processes that exert the most influence in relation to
the total impacts that take place during a product's life cycle. This allows for taking decisions to
reduce the impacts. Figure 3 presents a bar chart displaying the environmental impact categories of
the iron ore pellet pelletizing stage, using the ReCiPeEndpoint methodology.

6
Figure 3 shows that the predominant color is brown, representing the environmental impacts of the
pre-pelletizing beneficiating process in percentage terms. The red color is also highlighted; it refers
to the pelletizing process that generates important impact factors for the photochemicals, land
occupation and terrestrial acidification categories.

In Figure 4, we may observe that light green is the predominating color, identifying the Electricity
process in the Beneficiating stage, where supply to the ball mill is identified as the one exerting the
most impact in the majority of environmental impact categories. This is followed by the mining
process, which is the previous stage.

Figure 3 Environmental impact factors for 1 ton of iron ore pellets in keeping with the ReCiPeEndpoint
methodology

7
Figure 4 Environmental impacts of the Beneficiating stage for the production of 1 ton of concentrate by means
of the ReCiPeEndpoint methodology

Figure 5 shows that the predominant color is red, referring to the Mining process, it is further
relevant to four environmental impact categories: particulate matter, urban land occupation,
natural land transformation and depletion of natural resources. As for the second predominant
color, it refers to the process of Decommissioning, which generates a positive impact on
recuperating the mining area for other ends. In the meantime, the fact that this process also
generates negative environmental impacts to climate change, fuel depletion, ozone layer depletion
and others must be noted; this is on account of the efforts to recuperate the soil, in particular, where
the consumption of diesel oil by the machinery is concerned.

8
Figure 5 Environmental impacts of the production of 1 ton of crude ore from the Mining stage by means of the
ReCiPeEndpoint methodology

Comparative study
The process used as a reference was Iron pellet/production/Alloc Def, U/GLO, which represents the
production of iron ore pellets corresponding to the Ecoinvent global database model. This database
is international and has more than 4 thousand modelled processes available.
The most relevant impact categories of the pelletizing model for the company being studied may be
seen in Figure 6, as shown in Table 1, compared with Iron Pellet (GLO), present percentage
differences of 21.6% for Particulate Matter, 82.2% for Climate Change and 1% for Mineral
Depletion. Furthermore, Ecoinvent's iron ore pellet exerts more impact than that of the company
being studied in a number of impact categories, with the exception of Terrestrial Ecotoxicity and
Agricultural Land Occupation.
As for the Metal Depletion category, the columns are practically the same, as the percentage of iron
in the mining input and the pelletizing output is the same in both models. The small difference that
exists lies in the sub-processes that compute other mineral resources that are not included in the
case study modelling. A greater degree of impact is observed in relation to Agricultural Land
Occupation, on account of the areas needed for the production of starch, which are specified in the
pellet modelling for the company being studied, but not in Ecoinvent's.
It is well known that the main contributor towards the Ecosystem Climate Changes category for
both models is the burning of diesel. Nevertheless, the fact that the power grid in Brazil for the
most part is hydroelectric reduces the impact in that respect, as well as in the Depletion of Fossil
Fuels.

Figure 6 LCIA results for the case study pellets in comparison with Ecoinvent's pellets using the ReCiPeEnd
Point methodology

9
The transport model by means of mineral pipelines and the use of conveyor belts also contributed
towards a reduction of this impact, as the Ecoinvent model uses truck transportation and diesel.
Land Occupation (be it urban or agricultural) is substantially lower in the company model being
studied on account of the recuperation of 80% of the mine's area, whereas this is 50% for the
Ecoinvent model.

CONCLUSION
The use of LCA tools is becoming more widespread in corporate decision-making. LCA has further
proved to be important in the quantifying of environmental impact as well as evaluating life-cycle
improvements in processes, products and activities.
The results found during the course of the case study highlighted that respectively, the most
relevant impacts in the Human Health, Ecosystems and Resource Consumption damage categories
are: Particulate Matter (92.8%), Climate Changes to the Ecosystem (60.8%) and Depletion of Metals
(93.5%).
The comparison with Ecoinvent's iron ore pellet production study shows that the iron ore pellets
being studied exert lower environmental impact than the Ecoinvent ones. Among other reasons, the
fact that Brazilian grid electricity is being used, reducing the environmental impact by further using
conveyor belts in the mine, as well as an ore pipeline instead of diesel-propelled trucks may be
highlighted. However, there are no impact categories presenting dissimilar results.
Applying the LCA for the evaluation of environmental impact factors linked to mining is framed
within a trend that is not only taking place in Brazil. Gradually, companies have started to
understand that this tool allows access to more sophisticated markets that certify the productive
process of commodities, and improve access to a database for the carrying out of mining
inventories.

REFERENCES
ABNT - Associação Brasileira de NormasTécnicas (2009) NBR ISO 14040: Gestão Ambiental – Avaliação do
ciclo de vida – Princípios e estrutura. ABNT, Rio de Janeiro.

Awuah-Offei K, & Adekpedjou A. (2001) Application of life cycle assessment in the mining industry, Int J Life
Cycle Assess, vol. 16, pp. 82–89.

Burchart-Korol D. (2013) Life cycle assessment of steel production in Poland: a case study, Journal of Cleaner
Production, 2013, vol. 54, pp. 235-243.

Chen B,YangJX, Ouyang ZY. (2001) Life Cycle Assessment of Internal Recycling Options of Steel Slag in
Chinese Iron and Steel Industry, Journalof Iron and Steel Research, International, vol., pp.187 33-40.

Goedkoop M, Heijungs R, De Schryver A, Struijs J, Van Zelm R (2009) ReCiPe 2008: A life cycle impact
assessment method which comprises harmonized category indicators at the midpoint and the
endpoint level / Report I: Characterization, Holanda. Ministerie van VROM, Den Haag.

Lima F, Canchumani G, Araujo M, Veiga L, Tardelli E, Pedro Oliveira, P .(2015) Avaliação do ciclo de vida -
ACV da produção de minério de ferro, considerando os aspectos energéticos e ambientais, Relatório
Técnico, Rio de Janeiro, Centro de Tecnologia Mineral CETEM.

10
Markus Engineering Services (2002) Cradle-to-gate life cycle inventory: Canadian and US steel production by
Mill Type, The Athena Sustainable Materials Institute.

Yilmaz O, Anctil A, &Karanfil T. (2014) LCA as a decision support tool for evaluation of best available
techniques (BATs) for cleaner production of iron casting, Journal of Cleaner Production, vol. 2, pp. 1-
11.

11
Towards Net Positive Impact in Mining
Marcelo Zepeda1, Rodrigo Sfeir 2, Andrés Vallone2 and Marcelo Olivares 2
1. Compañía Minera Teck Carmen de Andacollo, Chile
2. Universidad Católica del Norte, Chile

ABSTRACT
The biodiversity vision adopted by Teck is based on the principle to achieve, as a company, a net
positive impact on biodiversity by maintaining or re-establishing self-sustaining landscapes and
ecosystems. To achieve this, it is necessary a quantitative and objective measurement to
demonstrate compliance.
The quality hectares approach, currently used by some companies to assess biodiversity for
compensation, has an important degree of subjectivity since based mainly on qualitative
descriptions obtained through direct observation. This makes it necessary to advance in the
development of an indicator that considers more objective measures of the composition and quality
of the biodiversity in the potential areas for compensation.
This paper develops and applies a biodiversity index which, based on Hill numbers, establishes
equivalence relations between two sites in consideration of their specific richness, equity and
distribution of species. Hence the proposed index is a quantitative measure of biodiversity to be
used as an objective measure together with the quality hectares approach, allowing to determine
the equivalence of the areas to be acquired and/or protected as compensation for the loss of
biodiversity.
The methodology is applied to four potential sites for compensation in relation to the pre mine
situation of the exploitation area of Teck-CDA. The results, based on the index proposed, show that
one hectare of Site 3 is equivalent in biodiversity to 1.24 hectares of the mine site, one of Site 2
represents 1.15 and one of Site 1 or Site 4 is equivalent to 1.08 hectares.

1
INTRODUCTION
The development of mining activities can have negative impacts on the environment throughout
the entire life cycle of a project. These impacts can be direct or indirect and affect significantly on
biodiversity and ecosystem services. Teck Carmen de Andacollo (Teck CDA) seeks to implement a
policy of Net Positive Impact (NPI) as part of its corporate sustainability strategy adopted in 2011.
Despite the lack of a universal definition of this kind of policies, the aim is to generate a positive
impact on biodiversity, through compensation or conservation areas, for the losses caused by
mining (Aima et al, 2015).
A NPI strategy requires having a methodology to account for the loss and gain in biodiversity and
to generate an equivalence measure to quantify the number of hectares to retain or compensate
(Quétier and Lavorel, 2011). One way of calculating this measure of equivalence is the concept
developed by Parkes et al (2003) of ‘habitat hectares’. This methodology assigns a quality index for
each hectare based on the comparison of the state of the vegetation of the potential area for
compensation, relative to the benchmark or baseline (the pre mine area). Under this approach, the
degree of similarity or difference between two sites is evaluated and rated by direct observation of
experts; then the results are weighted at a rate of equivalence, being able to assess the conditions of
equivalence from one area to another.
An alternative method, also based on indices is that proposed by Benward et al (2009), which
considers geospatial simulations from data of GIS polygons. For the evaluation, they consider 10-
year estimates founded on two measurements: a first simple index based on the area of each
polygon, and a second measure that considers the degree of conservation based on a variant of the
habitat hectares approach.
A third method is the proposed by Temple et al (2012) which, also based on Parkes et al (2003),
developed the concept of "quality hectares". This method assesses the quality of native vegetation
or habitat of a given area in relation to a benchmark, and then weights the results in a quality index
that allows obtaining and equivalence measure of one area over another.
It is important to consider that for each of the methods mentioned above, equivalence is obtained
by means of direct observation, which is strongly subjected to the criteria of the observer. Therefore,
the challenge is to determine an index that measures the quality of the areas to be evaluated in
terms of biodiversity and make them comparable.
In order to move towards an indicator that will consider more objective measures, this paper
considers the development and application of a quality index that will quantitatively recognize
vegetation diversity and cover in the areas evaluated, to subsequently determine the equivalency of
areas slated for compensation using the “quality hectares” approach.
The work is divided as follows: in section two the methodology is explained, section three presents
the data and discusses the results and section four concludes.

2
METHODOLOGY
1.1. Quality Hectares
The concept of quality hectares is closely related to the “habitat hectares” approach developed by
Parkes (2003), which enables the evaluation of native vegetation or habitat quality in a certain area
with regard to a baseline or benchmark, in order to subsequently assign result weighting in a
quality index. This idea can be explained as follows: if we consider 10 hectares in the area where
intervention has not taken place or the area in natural condition (baseline or benchmark), these will
then correspond to 10 “quality hectares”, whereas 10 hectares in an area where intervention has
taken place with a score of 50% will constitute 5 “quality hectares”.
In the case of the work executed by Parkes (2003b), the measurement corresponds to the weighting
of categories evaluated by means of direct observation, which is strongly subjected to the criteria of
the observer.
1.2. Biodiversity Indices
The use of biodiversity indices is one way of solving the high degree of subjectivity associated to
determining quality hectares. These indices are objective measures for biodiversity composition, as
are calculated based on species counts. However, communities are not isolated in space and
therefore the separation of indices into alpha, beta and gamma components (Halffter, 1998) is useful
when it comes to measuring and monitoring changes in biodiversity.
Whittaker (1972) determines each of the biodiversity components. Alpha diversity is the wealth of
species in a specific community considered to be homogeneous. Beta diversity is the degree of
change or replacement in the composition of species between different communities in a landscape,
whereas gamma diversity is the wealth of species in the group of communities that make up a
landscape, the result of both alpha diversities and beta diversities (Moreno, 2001).
1.3. The Hill index series
The series of Hill numbers enables evaluation of the diversity of species found in communities.
Since these are alpha diversity indices, the importance of each specie is based on proportionate
value distribution for the purpose of calculation (Moreno, 2001).
This index is used because it is easy to read and comparisons can easily be made between for two
different places. The Hill Series is calculated as follows1:
( )

(∑ )

In which:
S = number of species
pi = proportionate abundance of species i calculated as the number of individuals from species i
divided by the total number of individuals.
The exponent q determines the sensitivity of the relative abundance index for species; which is to
say, the influence common or rare species may have on the measurement of diversity. In a

1 This index is specifically used in the notation of Jost (2006) used in Moreno et. al. (2011).

3
figurative sense, this is an indicator that determines how many species are considered in the sample
analysed, depending on their level of scarcity (Moreno et. al., 2011). Q levels under 1 overestimate
rare species; when q = 1, all species are included with a weighting exactly proportionate to their
abundance in the community; q values higher than 1 provide additional consideration for common
species (Hill, 1973)
This index is estimated in a series that enables calculation of the actual number of species in a
sample, which is to say, a measure of the number of species when each species is weighted
according to its relative abundance (Hill, 1973; Magurran, 1988). The most important numbers in
the entire series are listed as follows:
(q = 0) = the total number of species (S)
(q = 1) = the number of abundant species = exp (H')
(q = 2) = the number of very abundant species =1/λ
1.4. Use of the indices
Once the potential area has´ been selected, its biodiversity indices are calculated and then compared
to the baseline. The main idea for this process is to ensure that the proposal appropriately
compensates for the loss of biodiversity. In keeping with Moreno et. al. (2011), if a
community A has diversity that is higher than community B's diversity, then community A
would have ⁄ times more diversity than community B.
In order to prevent the biasing of positions with regard to what value of the series is the most
important, we propose the use of an equivalency index between areas.

Where if = 1, one hectare at site A is equivalent to one hectare at site B. If this is not the case,
more or less hectares would be required in order to achieve equivalency, depending on whether
is lower or higher than the unit. This index is analagous to quality hectares but is calculated
based on objective information. In addition, it enables the assignment of weightings to the indices
in order to provide additional weight for specific wealth ( ), equality between species ( ) and/or
structure ( ).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

1.5. Data
1.5.1. General information
In the case of Compañía Minera TECK Carmen de Andacollo, the area where intervention took
place in December 2013 and where compensation is to be made amounts to 961.4 hectares. It is
located in the “Inland Mediterranean desert brushland featuring Flourensia thurifera and Colliguaja
odorífera” vegetation belt (Luebert and Pliscoff, 2006). According to the Vegetation and Soil Survey
(CONAF, 2004) taken at a scale of 1:50.000, the use of Meadow Scrubland (47.4 %) and Scrubland
(11.9%) was most prevalent in the study area; while 40.4% of the area was used for
mining/industrial applications.

4
 Information provided by the Survey determined the degree of anthropization of each plant
formation at a national level. One of the four communities described in the Compañía Minera
TECK Carmen de Andacollo area is considered to have moderate anthropization (Erodium
cicutarium - Haplopappus ischnos; 430.6 hectares), while the other three are considered to be
natural (139.7 hectares). In conclusion, 40.7% of the study area was devoid of natural vegetation in
the 2000s (mainly used for mining and industrial applications), 44.8 % featured vegetation with
moderate anthropization and only 14.5% had slightly anthropized vegetation.
1.5.2. Sites selection
Considering the foregoing analysis, there are three selection criteria for the potential compensation
sites, featuring surface area amounting to approximately 961.4 hectares:
1. Being located at a priority site for conservation (or a site with recognized conservation
interest),
2. Being located in the inland Mediterranean desert scrubland featuring Flourensia thurifera
and Colliguaja odorifera vegetation belt where the Compañía Minera TECK CDA is located,
and
3. Being integrally located in an agricultural community 2
The proposed indices are calculated based on coverage data for the dominant species. We wish to
highlight that as a census of species was not available, proportionate abundance (pi) was used,
calculated as:

Considering the above, 4 sites are chosen for evaluation. A description of them is found in Table 1
in relation to vegetation cover.
Table 1 Coverage area for the dominant species

Baseline
Species Site 1 Site 2 Site 3 Site 4
(Teck CDA)
Adesmia tenella 22,6 2,4
Baccharis marginalis 0,6
Bromus berterianus 34,33 14,8 34,7 19,8 11,9
Porlieria chilensis 54,2 90,2 229,1 139,2
Colliguaja odorifera 41,65 44,7
Erodium cicutarium 10,2 84,2 77,9 88,8
Encelia canescens 136,54 50,1
Eulychnia acida 4,07 72,2 41,5 6,4
Fourensia thurifera 13,24 67,7 290,0 359,9
Chaetanthera glabrata 54,34
Gutierrezia resinosa 30,6 84,1

2Agricultural communities in Chile are an ancestral-collective system of land tenure, which exists concurrently
with the predominant system of individual fee simple ownership.

5
Gymnophyton robustum 28,0
Haplopappus ischnos 207,06 111,3
Heliotropium chenopodiaceum 2,08
Lastarriaea chilensis 28,0
Helenium aromaticum 9,2 12,5
Ophryosporus paradoxus 306,2 111,5 18,1
Heliotropium stenophyllum 297,6 5,3 19,0
Proustia ilicifolia baccharioides 31,00 277,6 116,3
Proustia cuneifolia 18,3 174,4 28,9 37,9
Pleocarphus revolutus 0,3 26,9
Pectocarya dimorpha 28,5
Senecio adenotrichius 15,89 45,6 61,5 16,6
Salix humboldtiana 1,2
Schinus molle 0,9
Baccharis paniculata 59,2
Haplopappus hirtellus 11,3
Unvegetated 391,00 34,0 11,8 29,8
Total area 961,4 961.3 961,3 961,3 961,3
Number of dominant species 11 12 13 14 12

Results
A Hill Series must be calculated in order to compute the equivalence index. The results of equation
(1) considering the three most relevant numbers in the series are presented in Table 2. We wish to
highlight the following elements from the Hill Series results: 1) all compensation areas have greater
specific wealth than the area where Teck CDA intervention took place, and 2) the baseline area
evidences greater equality between species and the relevance of more abundant species is greater,
since this evidences the highest and indices out of all the areas.
Table 2 Hill series results

Site

Baseline (Teck CDA) 11,00 0,17 0,48

Site 1 12,00 0,15 0,46

Site 2 13,00 0,14 0,40

Site 3 14,00 0,13 0,42

Site 4 12,00 0,15 0,44

In relation to the weighs, they could be determined through experts/community’s consultation, or

calculation by means of simulations. The second approach is considered to avoid the potential bias
of the first alternative. The simulation experiment conducted was run and indicators were based on
the following criteria: 1) the sum of the three weighting factors for all of the cases analysed is equal

6
to 1, and 2) each delta is uniformly distributed, so each value has the same likelihood of occurrence.
The experiment run is based on 150.000 repetitions for different values of the weights.
The configuration of the experiment creates an inconvenience. When calculating the index, since the
weights are sequentially chosen, can take any value from a uniform distribution in the range
[0,1], while will result from the difference [1 - ] and from [1 - - ]. Therefore the relative
weight will always be higher than the others, given its expected value is 0.5, against 0.25. For this
reason and as agreed to with Teck CDA, higher specific wealth is assumed to be indicative of a
higher degree of biodiversity and the parameter is consequently used for .
As means of robustness, three different configuration of the experiment are carried out: a theoretic
index which eliminates the repeated cases of the weighting factors, considering a total number of
15.453 cases, and two additional set ups considering different sequences in the calculation of the
weights. The results of the proposed index for the different configurations and sites are presented
in table 3.
Table 3 Averages for the equivalence index

Site 1 Site 2 Site 3 Site 4

Index 1,08 1,15 1,24 1,08

Theoretic Conf. 1,07 1,13 1,21 1,06

Conf. 2 1,06 1,12 1,19 1,05

Conf. 3 1,06 1,10 1,18 1,05

According to the index calculation, one hectare at Site 2 is equivalent to 1.24 hectares in the
intervention area (baseline). One hectare at Site 2 corresponds to 1.15 hectares and one hectare at
Site 1 or Site 4 is equivalent to 1.08 hectares in the intervention area.
It is important to notice that although the results slightly vary for the different configurations, the
order of the sites’ biodiversity equivalence in relation to the baseline remains.

CONCLUSION
As part of its sustainability strategy, Compañía Minera Teck Carmen de Andacollo seeks to achieve
Net Positive Impact (NPI) on biodiversity. This study makes an important effort to objectivize
measurement of this impact to determine compensation, developing a first-of-its-kind methodology
to establish a measure of biodiversity equivalence of different sites in terms of vegetation structure
and abundance.
The results show the equivalence between the potential sites for compensation and the baseline,
where Site 2 has the greater value. However, in practice, the acquisition or protection of the sites for
compensation will be determined by their feasibility to become a protected area and the particular
interests of the company and communities. Anyway, the proposed index will be an important tool
for evaluation.

7
REFERENCES
Aiama, D. Bennun, L., Bos, G., Edwards, S., Ekstrom, J., Krueger, L., Quétier, F., Savy, C. Semroc, B. Y Sneary,
C (2015) No Net Loss and Net Positive Impact Approaches for Biodiversity. Exploring the potential
application of these approaches in the commercial agriculture and forestry sectors. IUCN, Gland,
Switzerland.

Bedward, M., Ellis, M. V., and Simpson, C. C. (2009). Simple modelling to assess if offsets schemes can prevent
biodiversity loss, using examples from australian woodlands. Biological conservation, 142(11):
2732{2742.

Corporación Nacional Forestal (CONAF). (2004). Catastro de uso del suelo y vegetación: Región de Coquimbo.
Technical report, Gobierno Regional de Coquimbo.

Halffter, G. (1998). A strategy for measuring landscape biodiversity. Biology International.

Hill, M. O. (1973). Diversity and evenness: a unifying notation and its consequences. Ecology, pages 427-432.

Jost, L. (2006). Entropy and diversity. Oikos, 113(2):363{375.

Luebert, F. and Pliscoff, P. (2006). Sinopsis bioclimática y vegetacional de Chile. Editorial Universitaria.

Magurran, A. (1988). Ecological Diversity and Its Measurement. Croom Helm.

Moreno, C. (2001). Métodos para medir la biodiversidad. m&t manuales y tesis. sociedad entomolóogica
aragonesa (sea). Zaragoza, España.

Moreno, C. E., Barragan, F., Pineda, E., and Pavon, N. P. (2011). Reanálisis de la diversidad alfa: alternativas
para interpretar y comparar informacióon sobre comunidades ecolóogicas. Revista mexicana de
biodiversidad, 82(4):1249-1261.

Parkes, D., Newell, G., y Cheal, D. (2003). Assessing the quality of native vegetation: the `hábitat hectares'
approach. Ecological Management & Restoration, 4(s1):S29-S38.

Quétier, F. y Lavorel, S. (2011). Assessing ecological equivalence in biodiversity offset schemes: Key issues and
solutions. Biological Conservation, 144(12): 2991-2999.

Temple, H. J., Anstee, S., Ekstrom, J., Pilgrim, J. D., Rabenantoandro, J., Ramanamanjato, J. B., y Vincelette, M.
(2012). Forecasting the path towards a Net Positive Impact on biodiversity for Rio Tinto QMM. IUCN,
Gland, Switzerland.

Whittaker, R. H. (1972). Evolution and measurement of species diversity. Taxon, 21(2/3):213-251.

8
Risk Based Environmental Management: Focusing on
what Matters
Paul Maidstone
CODELCO, Chile

ABSTRACT
Traditionally, environmental management systems have become a burdensome collection of
procedures and records, straying away from the identification and solution of environmental
impacts and risks to companies. Codelco has not been the exception to that.
In 2010 the Corporation decided to refocus environmental management systems in order to address
environmental and social risks to the business. A risk register was created comprising material
risks, which is reviewed by on-site multi-functional teams and under the responsibility of the
division’s general managers. This program is also being driven as a strong corporate initiative with
senior management sanction, monthly updates to the board and has been integrated into
performance appraisal schemes.
The path has not been an easy one and a key issue was to break down of silos through a multi-
functional approach at both the plant and the corporate levels to achieve a common risk assessment
and risk register process, including a common lexicon of risk.
Today Codelco’s Environmental Risk Management System is a simple presentation of risk that
everyone understands in the context of business risk, focused on material risks and defining critical
controls for key risks with leading metrics. It has been a transition in Corporate culture with the
consequent effective and efficient allocation of resources to solve an control critical issues that pose
a risk to the continuous operation of the company.

There is no full article associated with this abstract.

1
Monitoring and Follow-Up of High-Andean
Wetlands and their Relation to the Mining Industry
Sebastian Rosa and Sergio Payacan
Natural Resources Department, GHD, Chile

ABSTRACT
The purpose of the present article is to provide an integrated procedure for the analysis of physical
and biological parameters, aimed at understanding ecosystem relationships in High-Andean
wetlands, establishing analytical relationships to gain systemic understanding of the variables
involved and contribute to define critical parameters that need to be considered in baseline studies,
follow-up plans, early detection of degradation processes and their relation to mining activities. The
study area corresponds to High-Andean wetlands, located in Atacama Region, Chile. For this
purpose, classification of the wetlands features, soil samples and satellite imaging were used. Data
from these measurements were analyzed using variance analysis and Tukey test to compare the
mean of the studied parameters, as per vegetation features, bivariate correlation analysis to identify
linear associations and, an exploratory analysis of the principal components and discriminant
analysis to establish the parameters accounting for the variability between the physical features of
the studied wetlands. Results show that soil, vegetation and spectral response have significant
correlations. This suggests that the sequence of establishment of these species is more complex than
the one described in the literature, and that this information needs to be considered in the study of
High-Andean wetlands and their relation to mining activities.

1
INTRODUCTION
High-Andean ecosystems of the Atacama Region form a unique biological system in the country
that also faces high risks of damage due to local factors such as the increasing demand for water
required for anthropic activities, in addition to global factors as a consequence of climate change.
This critical condition requires better knowledge on how these ecosystems work, in order to
improve monitoring and follow-up, for the purpose of establishing accurate management and
preservation measures, aimed at reducing the degradation level observed in the past years. The
contribution of the present article is the application of a multivariate analysis that helps to deepen
knowledge and understanding of an ecosystemic approach, unveiling system dynamics between
soil components and vegetation, until now, scarcely known in these ecosystems; thus, collaborating
with current multisectorial efforts aimed at the preservation of sensitive azonal ecosystems.
According to Contreras (2007), the main threat for grassland and peatbog areas in the present is the
use of water for the mining industry. The large demand for this resource significantly reduces the
availability of water for rural & urban use, an issue that is aggravated by the risk of contamination
due to mining activities, also affecting the quality of the habitat of associated flora and fauna. SAG1
(2013) reported desiccation of 70 hectares of wetlands, due to the extraction of groundwater for
mining purposes, affecting a part of the largest Ramsar site in Chile.
Earle et al (2003) report that these ecosystems, as they are impacted by water extraction from
underground flows in the high-andean areas for mining purposes, significantly contributes to the
degradation of the azonal vegetation, because this type of vegetation depends on the water table. In
addition, Molina et al (2001) mentions the high sensitivity of these ecosystems to environmental
changes, evidenced by a fast alteration of the ecological balance triggered by small variations in
hydric conditions.
In the Atacama Region, wetlands cover a surface of 1,811 ha (CONAF, 2003), corresponding to
0.11% of the high-andean areas of the region. These comprise slat flats, lagoons, peatbogs and some
grassland areas located over 3,277 masl, habitat of a several terrestrial fauna species with
conservation issues, for example, flamingoes or parinas, guanacos (Lama guanicoe), vicuñas (Vicugna
vicugna), among others. For the local communities, some of these wetlands are a source of forage for
livestock and, therefore, a critical element in their economy. (Molina et al., 2001; CONAF, 2003;
Faúndez, 2004).

METHODOLOGY

Definition of the study area

The study area (Figure 1) corresponds to hydric azonal vegetational formations of the high-andean
eco-region of Copiapó District in the Atacama Region, specifically in the Terrestrial Hydric Azonal
Vegetational Systems (THAVS) at Barros Negros, Ciénaga Redonda and Pantanillo, of Valle Ancho
endorheic basin, tributary of Maricunga salt flat. This area is a relevant part of the RAMSAR site
‘Complejo Lacustre Laguna del Negro Francisco and Laguna Santa Rosa’.

1 SAG: Servicio Agrícola y Ganadero = Chilean Agriculture and Livestock Service

2
Characterization of the high-andean hydric azonal vegetational formations
According to the classification system of high-andean terrestrial hydric azonal vegetational
formations proposed by Ahumada & Faúndez (2009), five vegetational formations were identified
in the study area: hydric peatbog, saline peatbog, hydric bunchgrass area, saline bunchgrass area,
and saline grassland area. (Figure 2).

Remote sensing of vegetation and moisture indexes

The Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) has been widely used for remote sensing of
vegetation (Huete et al., 1988). NDV is calculated based on the following formula:

 nir   r
NDVI 
 nir   r ,

Where ρnir2 and ρr3 are reflectance values, corresponding to wavelengths of near infrared (IR) and
red (Bands 4 & 3 of Landsat4), respectively.
Another index used in vegetational studies associated to underground water bodies is the
Normalized Difference Water Index (NDWI), that can be used for remote sensing of wetland
elements associated to vegetation, from space. NDWI is defined as:

 nir   swir
NDWI 
 nir   swir ,

Where ρnir and ρswir are reflectance values corresponding to wavelength of the near IR and mid IR
(Bands 4 and 5 of Landsat), respectively.
NDWI and NDVI were determined by the analysis of a satellite image of the Thematic Mapper
(TM) sensor, with a Landsat-5 recorded during March 2011.

Soil samples
On March 2011 soil samples were obtained; date coincides with the satellite image used as baseline
in the study. The Schoeneberger et al (2002) methodology was used for the soil sampling process,
particularly for those classified as reference samples, used for specific soil analysis of the stratum
with the highest concentration of active roots, that in this study was up to 20 cm deep. Edelman
augers were used for the soil sampling process; this type of augers is recommended for organic
soils. The samples were sent to laboratories for further tests. The variables analyzed were pH,

2 ir= infrared
3 r=red
4 Band 3 Red (0,63 – 0,67 µm) and Band 4 Near Infrared (0,76 – 0,90 µm)

3
organic matter, electrical conductivity, nutrients, sodium adsorption ratio and exchangeable
sodium percentage (ESP). Other variables were soil moisture and infiltration rate (speed).
The purpose of the location of sample sites (Figure 1) was to determine sectors that represented the
type of terrestrial hydric azonal vegetational formations existing in the area, according to the score
system proposed by Ahumada & Faundez (2009), i.e., hydric peatbogs, saline peatbogs, hydric
bunchgrass area, saline bunchgrass area and saline grassland area, as well as some combined
formations. Figure 2 includes photos of the abovementioned vegetational formations.
Data was analyzed using analysis of variance (ANOVA), multivariate statistics and correlation
analysis.

Figure 1 Study area and location of samples

4
A B C

D E

Figure 2 Vegetational formations. A: Hydric peatbog; B: Saline peatbog; C: Hydric bunchgrass area; D: Saline
bunchgrass area; E: Saline grassland area

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The findings of the ANOVA results for the average values calculated for the variables measured in
the different vegetational formations are shown in Figure 3, where we can see that nitrogen,
phosphorus, organic matter, and NDVI present significant differences between their average
values. This helps to distinguish the extreme scenarios of ecological succession as suggested by
Ahumada & Faundez (2009), i.e. measurements in hydric peatbog areas are always higher than in
saline grassland areas, while sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) presented higher values in saline
grassland areas and lower values in hydric peatbog areas. This distinction in the results is
consistent, with respect to the first group of parameters mentioned, and accounts for typical
qualities of soils that are rich in organic matter, while the difference in soil salinity (SAR) shows a
degraded status of the soil, associated to saline formations.

5
Figure 3 ANOVA results
Figure 4-A shows the correlation between organic matter and SAR reaches R= 0.76, establishing that
both parameters are relevant for explaining these azonal vegetational systems. Figure 4-B shows
that canonical discriminant analysis helps to distinguish the different feature groups of the
vegetational formations, using the variables obtained from soil, vegetation and remote sensing.

A B

Figure 4 Results of the correlation analysis (A) and canonical discriminant functions (B)

CONCLUSION
Regarding the hypothesis of the present research study, we can confirm that in case of the high-
andean wetlands of the biological corridor al RAMSAR site Complejo Lacustre Laguna del Negro
Francisco and Laguna Santa Rosa, parameters of the components: soil, vegetation and photosynthetic
activity indexes, are significantly related, which helps to establish specific systemic dynamics
between the soil and vegetation components, allowing for an effective distinction of the different
types of vegetational formations.
The results of this research show that with only a few variables of soil characteristics and vegetation
photosynthesis, is possible to establish light plans for environmental monitoring. Consistently, we
can state that the soil characteristics can be statistically related to the specific characteristics of the
type of vegetation, this allows for the development of predictive models with high level of
consistency (Rosa, 2014), which will help to undertake early actions against degradation processes,
and also to design ecological restoration measures in already impacted systems. This methodology
helps to distinguish fundamental variables explaining these systems, allowing for the design of

6
effective follow-up and monitoring plans and also early detection plans, for anticipating potential
impacts to the high-andean vegetational systems.
Finally, the most critical variables that explain changes in the physiognomy of vegetation
(identified in this research), such as salinity or sodification control, open up new opportunities for
the development of new techniques for the management of Andean wetlands.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Special thanks to Hochschild Mining for its contributions to the baseline information and to Mr.
Alejandro Labbé for his generous assistance with and commitment to the research.

NOMENCLATURE
F Disp available phosphorus
N Disp available nitrogen
MO organic matter
RAS sodium adsorption ratio (SAR)
SVAHT Terrestrial Hydric Azonal Vegetational Systems (THAVS)
Vel. Inf. Infiltration rate

REFERENCES
Ahumada, M. y Faundez, L. (2009) Guía descriptiva de los sistemas vegetacionales azonales hídricos terrestres
de la ecorregión altiplánica. Ministerio de Agricultura, Servicio Agrícola y Ganadero. Santiago, Chile.
60pp.

Corporación Nacional Forestal (CONAF), (2003) “Propuesta de Ordenamiento Territorial Ambientalmente

Sustentable. Área de Ocupación de Cinco Comunidades Indígenas Colla en la Región de Atacama”.
Preparado por Peña G., Carla. Corporación Nacional Forestal III Región de Atacama. Copiapó, Chile.
131 pp.

Contreras, R. (2007) Uso de vegas y bofedales de la zona cordillerana y precordillerana de la región de

Atacama, Memoria para optar al Título Profesional de Ingeniero Forestal, Facultad de Ciencias
Forestales de la Universidad de Chile.

Earle L, B Warner & R Aravena (2003) Rapid development of an unusual peat accumulating ecosystem in the
Chilean Altiplano. Quaternary Research 59: 2-11.

Faundez, L. (2004) “Praderas Altiplánicas: Una Visión desde la Vegetación y Flora”. Documento digital PPT, 42
diapositivas. “Ubicación, Delimitación y Caracterización de Humedales Altiplánicos de Chile”.
Documento digital PPT 16 diapositivas. Seminario – Taller proyecto “Manejo y Conservación de
Bofedales en la Región de Tarapacá”, CONAF I Región de Tarapacá. Arica, Chile.

Huete, A. R. 1988. A Soil-Adjusted Vegetation Index (SAVI). Remote Sensing of the Environment, 25. Pp. 295-
309.

Molina, R.; Yañez, N.; Peña, D.; Encalada, M. (2001). “Programa de Apoyo Predial Kolla”, Diagnóstico de
Comunidades Collas, Informe de Avance Nº 2. Grupo de Investigación “TEPU” Territorios y Pueblos
Indígenas. Copiapó, Chile. 179 pp.

7
Rosa, S. 2014. Propuesta metodológica para perfeccionar el seguimiento y manejo sustentable de humedales
altoandinos de la Región de Atacama.

Servicio Agrícola y Ganadero 2013, Análisis de la Tendencia Histórica de Vegetación Azonal Hídrica sector
Ciénaga Redonda, Barros Negros y Pantanillo. Altiplano Región de Atacama. Agrosig.

Schoeneberger, P., Wysocki, D., Benham, E. and Broderson, w. (editors), (2002) Field book for describing and
sampling soils, Version 2.0. Natural Resources Conservation Service, National Soil Survey Center,
Lincoln, NE.

8
Quantification of Arsenic Species in Human Urine as
Biological Indicators for Occupational Exposure
Susana Stegen1, Fabrizio Queirolo2, Luis Muñoz2, Macarena Meneses2, Paola Pismante2
and Oscar Andonie2
1. Chemistry Department, Universidad Católica del Norte, Chile
2. Nuclear Aplication Department, Comisión Chilena de Energía Nuclear, Chile

ABSTRACT
Arsenic associated with the mining industry and with volcanism presents an enormous
environmental and occupational problem in Chile. Current health regulations use the levels of total
arsenic in urine but arsenic toxicity is strongly dependent on the species present in a sample. The
chemical species of arsenic are a very important indicator of the degree of non-dietary arsenic
exposure, i.e. the inorganic arsenic together with its methylated metabolites (MMA and DMA). The
inorganic arsenic species arsenite and arsenate have been related to an increased risk of cancer as
well as to cardiovascular diseases, whereas methylated forms of arsenic such as methylarsonic acid
(MMA) and dimethylarsinic acid (DMA) are significantly less toxic. Therefore, analytical
methodologies and techniques that are fast and robust, that involve highly efficient separation and
are powerful tools of detection are necessary for the correct quantification of individual arsenic
species. This study aimed to develop and apply HPLC with ICP-MS to human urine samples in
order to reduce the treatment needed for speciation, maintain maximum recovery and avoid
interconversion and / or degradation between species. The optimal pH value and the linearity of the
method were determined and the methodology was validated using a Certified Reference Material.
Student`s t-test and Fisher F-test for determination of accuracy and precision were applied.
A simple, rapid and reliable method for the separation and quantification of several species of
arsenic, As III (Arsenite), As V (Arsenate), MMA (Monomethyl Arsonic Acid), DMA (Dimethyl
Arsinic Acid), AB (Arsenobetaine) was developed in human urine samples with minimal prior
sample preparation. The time required for sample processing and isocratic chromatographic
analysis is about 15 minutes. Detection limits of 0.020 µgL-1 of AsB, 0.020 µgL-1 of As III, 0.040
µgL-1 of DMA, 0.060 µgL-1 of MMA and 0.060 µgL-1 of As V were achieved under the analytical
conditions mentioned above.

1
INTRODUCTION
According to estimates from the studies office of the Copper Chilean Commission -COCHILCO-
mining investments in Chile are the highest in Latin America, at US$ 16 billions (Report, 2013).
However, byproducts, such as arsenic associated with mining and volcanism constitutes an
enormous environmental and occupational problem in the country. The mortality statistics for lung,
bladder and female reproductive tract cancer, in mining towns in the northern Chile, significantly
exceed the national average (P. Richter et al., 2004). The cancer records in Antofagasta show one
thousand and hundred ten annual cases of cancer with five hundred to six hundred cancer deaths
per year. People, who were exposed to high intakes of arsenic in drinking water (about three
hundred thousand habitants), remain at high risk of developing bladder cancer. In 2009, there were
six cases of cancer recorded country-wide per one hundred thousand men, while in the city of
Antofagasta, there were sixteen cases per one hundred thousand men. The same is true for women
(Coz & Frazen Report, 2012). Approximately 97% of the Antofagasta Region population was
exposed for twenty years (1950 to 1978) to high levels of As in drinking water (90 µgL-1 to 860 µgL-
1). Between 1979 and 2003, the level dropped to As 50 µgL-1 and from 2003, drinking water has had

a concentration of As 10 µgL-1 (Ferreccio, 2005). This problem is even more serious in the water that
supplies Chilean highland villages (Queirolo et al., 2000a) where arsenic levels of up to 2 mgL-1 have
been found.
Current health regulations use the levels of total As in urine but As toxicity is strongly dependent
on the species present in a sample. Chemical As species are an important indicator for revealing the
degree of exposure to “non-dietary” As, that is, inorganic As with methylated metabolite. The
inorganic arsenic species arsenite and arsenate have been related to an increased risk of cancer as
well as to cardiovascular diseases, whereas methylated forms of As such as methylarsonic acid
(MMA) and dimethylarsinic acid (DMA) are significantly less toxic. Other species such as
arsenobetaine (AB) and arsenocholine (ACH) are essentially non-toxic (Sanz, Muñoz-Olivas &
Cámara, 2005). The major route for the excretion of As is via urine and for human biomonitoring
urine is mostly recommended for the speciation of As. The concentration of urinary species mainly
reflects recent exposure (a few hours to two days). In healthy and occupationally non-exposed
subjects the concentration of urinary As species varies, mainly depending on the As concentration
in drinking water and the amount of seafood in the diet. Seafood often contains high concentrations
of organoarsenicals of negligible toxicity. Typically this is AB, which is rapidly excreted in urine as
unchanged molecule. Unlike AB inorganic As is toxic and carcinogenic. The inorganic form arsenite
and arsenate are absorbed orally and by inhalation. In the body inorganic As undergoes enzymatic
methylation to MMA and DMA, which is mainly excreted in urine together with As III and As V.
The residence time of the inorganic As in the body is about four to five days, and only after a long
period of ingesting As in water do the first effects appear, usually on the skin. These effects are
estimated to appear after a long exposure of five to fifteen years for doses of inorganic As of 0.01
mg kg-1 per day and point five to three years for doses superior to 0.04 mg kg -1 per day. The effects
in the population vary, but between 5% and 10% of people are thinking to be affected after ten to
fifteen years of exposure (Queirolo et al., 2000b). The development, validation and application of
this methodology will help public health monitoring in Chile, by allowing the determination of
arsenic species in urine to be used as a biological indicator of occupational and environmental
exposure.

2
METHODOLOGY

Instrumentation
For the determination of As, an Agilent ICP-MS, model 7500, equipped with a Babington nebulizer
system, Fasel torch, Scott double pass spray chamber cooled by a Peltier thermoelectric module and
quadrupole analyzer was used as an online chromatographic detector. The chromatographic system
consisted of a Waters 600E HPLC isocratic pump and a PRP-X100 anion exchange column
(Hamilton, Reno, NV, USA). The effluent from the column was introduced directly into the
nebulizer through a Teflon capillary tube. Data were collected using the time resolved analysis
mode of Agilent software. A single ion of m/z 75 was used for data collection. The signal at m/z 77
and 82 were monitored concurrently in order to evaluate possible polyatomic interferences of
ArCl+. Table 1 shows the operating conditions of the ICP-MS and chromatographic parameters.

Table 1 Instrumental parameters for the determination of arsenic species

Reagents and standards

For the preparation of samples and standards, high purity deionized water was used. Arsenic
solutions were prepared using the following compounds: As 2O3 (As III) from J.T. Baker (Deventer,
Holland), Na2HAsO4 (As V) from Merck (Darmstadt, Germany). MMA and DMA were prepared in
4 % HNO3 by dissolving adequate amounts of CH3AsO3Na2 (MMA) and (CH3)2AsO2Na•3H2O
(DMA), both 98% purity from Merck (Darmstadt, Germany). Arsenobetaine from Sigma Aldrich
(Seelze, Germany). The mobile phase used was a buffer solution prepared of salts HPO 4-2/H2PO4-1
(Merck, Darmstadt) + 3% ethanol (EtOH), for a 10 mM solution, which was adjusted with KOH to
different pH values. EtOH increases the signal to background ratio. Scandium, purchased from
Merck (Darmstadt, Germany), was used as an internal standard. Working solutions were prepared
daily.

Samples
The first morning urine was considered. 10 ml of the middle stream urine in a sterile container were
collected. The samples were kept at 4º C in darkness until use. If the sample has to be stored for
several days, it should remain frozen at -4°C to -20°C without any additives. In order to validate
the analytical methodology, reference material NIST 2669, Arsenic Species in Frozen Human Urine,
was selected. The material was thawed just two hours before being analyzed. Prior to analysis, all
the samples were filtered through an Acrodisc 0.45 µm syringe filter Sigma-Aldrich (Seelze,

3
Germany), followed by a 1-5 dilution with deionized water (Thomas & Sniatecki, 1995). Dilution
can prevent the salts in urine samples from affecting the separation of arsenic species, and minimize
the possible interference from ArCl+.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Enhancing sensitivity
The influence of the introduction of organic modifier (ethanol or methanol) on the arsenic response
in ICP-MS for different flow rates was studied. For each flow rate, the ICP-MS parameters were
optimized, detection was achieves in “scanning mode”. The results are shown in Figure1. When
adding small amounts of 3% ethanol as a modifier, there signal increased, but when the ethanol
concentration was increased, the signal decreases drastically. The best signal intensities are
observed in low-flow rates with an ethanol concentration of 3%. These observations are consistent
with those made by Demesmay et al. (Demesmay, Olle & Porthault, 1994) who confirmed that at
high concentrations of ethanol the plasma instability no longer allows a reproducible measurement
and the carbon built-up on the sampler cone leads to progressive clogging of the interface and
subsequently to a decrease of the signal over time. For moderately ionizabled elements such as
arsenic, the signal intensity greatly depends on the organic composition of the solution and on the
introduction flow rates. The decrease of the signal in the presence of high concentrations of organic
solvent is related to a decrease in the efficiency of ionization.

Figure 1 Influence of the organic solvent concentration on the ICP-MS response at different introduction flow
rates; As = 50 µgL-1; 1 = 0.5 ml min-1; 2 = 1.0 ml min-1; 3 = 1.5 ml min-1; 4 = 2.0 ml min-1

Chromatographic separation
Anionic arsenic species have very different acidity constants and this is an advantage in the
separation of these solutes by ion exchange. As III has an elevated pKa value (9.2), so that it remains
un-ionized in the pH range generally allowed (pH 2-8) for the common chromatographic stationary
bonded phases. In this pH range, the anionic species AsV, DMA and MMA are retained in the
column and are well separated, whereas the As III un-ionized species elutes in the dead volume. In
the anion exchange mode and in the same pH range of 2-8, As III is eluted with the same retention
time as AB (either a cationic or a zwitterion, depending on the pH value). When we tried to
separate these five arsenic species using an anion exchange column (PRP X-100) with a neutral
phosphate buffer HPO4-2 and H2PO4-1 as a mobile phase (pKa 6.8) at pH 7.5, AsIII and AB were not
separated. AsV, MMA and DMA were successfully separated, as shown in Figure 2a. In order to
optimize and improve the separation of all the arsenic species, different elutions were performed,

4
by preparing the phosphate mobile phase at different pH values with KOH. When elution was
performed at pH 8.4 all the retention times decreased and separation is successful for all arsenic
species and a quantifiable separation between AB and As III is obtained (Figure 2b).

Figure 2 a) Chromatogram of the mixture of 5 arsenic species b) Elution chromatogram with phosphate
mobile phase at pH 8.4

Validation
The following validation parameters were determined: precision, accuracy, linearity, limits of
detection and uncertainty. In order to validate this HPLC-ICP-MS method, under these optimized
conditions Certified Reference Material NIST 2669, Arsenic Species in Frozen Human Urine was
analyzed. Table 2 summarizes the species content for this Certified Reference Material. These
results were used to determine the method’s accuracy and precision.

Table 2 Comparison between CRM NIST 2669 values and those obtained by applying the methodology
studied

Precision
An analytical method has good precision when analyzing a reference material, producing results
that are statistically as accurate as those given in the certification document. This determination can
be made if the reference material gives the standard deviation of the certified value. To determine
the precision, the homogeneity of variances test known as Fisher’s F-test was applied to the
analytical results and determined that in all cases where it was applied the calculated F value is less
than the tabulated value. For this reason, it can be argued that the method is precise. A summary of
this application is shown in Table 3.

5
Table 3 Statistical F-test applied to the results of the analysis of reference materials. Weighted values for F
(quotient of variances) corresponding to 95% confidence level for n-1 degrees of freedom.

Accuracy
An analytical method has good accuracy when after analysis with a reference material; it yields
results that are no different from the certified values beyond the statistical fluctuations defined by
the method. Student's t-test was applied to the results, which determined that most of the
measurements show no statistically significant difference between the values obtained and the
certified values. A summary of this application is shown in Table 4.

Table 4 Student’s t-test applied to the results of the analysis of the reference material. Weighted t value for 3
degrees of freedom and 95% confidence level = 3.18

Linearity
Linearity is defined as the ability of an analytical method to respond with the same accuracy in the
determination of different concentrations of the same analyte. Using the best separation conditions,
the linearity of the relationship between the concentrations of the species was evaluated. The
corresponding correlation coefficients obtained after a linear regression range from 0.9994 to 0.9999.
The results show that the ICP-MS is characterized by its wide dynamic linear range.

Limit of detection
The detection limit is defined as the smallest concentration or amount of a component of interest
that can be measured with a certain confidence level. The limits of detection (LOD) were estimated
as three times the standard deviation of six replicate measurement of a standard solution with the
lowest concentration of species whose peaks can be distinguished from the baseline noise (Table 5).
In these experiments, a 0.2 µgL-1 solution was used to evaluate the detection limits.

6
Table 5 Detection limits (LOD) of the arsenic species studied

Uncertainty
All the uncertainty sources and their influence on the measurands were identified, analyzed and
later quantified (volume, repeatability, mass, calibration/linearity, purity). With these data, the
combined standard uncertainty was determined and finally the expanded uncertainty was obtained
by applying a coverage factor of 2. According to the above, uncertainty values for the developed
method vary from 0.1 to 1 µgL-1 for arsenic species concentrations between 1 and 25 µgL-1.

Urine samples analysis

Urine samples were obtained from occupationally unexposed laboratory staff. Individuals selected
for sampling has no history of seafood ingestion or other supplementary source of arsenic. Samples
were analyzed for baseline levels arsenic species and the behavior of the method when is applied to
real urine samples. The results are consistent with those published by other authors for this type of
sample (Xie et al, (2006), Raml et al, (2007), Heitland & Koster, (2009)). The principal characteristics
are the almost complete absence of As V and that DMA is the predominant arsenic species present
in urine. The sample was only diluted 5 times and filtered before being injected into the column.
The chromatogram of a sample is shown in Figure 8 and some results are shown in Table 6.

Table 6 Arsenic species in urine samples

n.d.= not detected

7
 Figure 3 Human urine sample Chromatogram

CONCLUSION
A simple, rapid and reliable method for the separation and quantification of several species of
arsenic in human urine samples with minimal sample preparation was developed. This method
does not require digestion and is not prone to losses and contamination. The time required for
sample processing and isocratic chromatographic analysis is about 15 minutes. Good quantification
limits were achieved under the analytical conditions developed. The main reasons for the low
detection limit of this method are the good resolution of peak separation and the greater sensitivity
of the detector. Uncertainty (< 10%), precision (< 3%) and accuracy (> 90%) are good enough for the
purposes that this methodology was developed. Experimentally, it was demonstrated that the
interference from NaCl is insignificant (< 0.1 ng for 100 µL injection) for urine samples. This
methodology can be used to safely evaluate the real levels of arsenic toxicity in the exposed
population. Filtration of the urine samples is the only sample preparation required and up to four
samples per hour can be analyzed. The methodology can be applied in the population
occupationally and environmentally exposed to arsenic and is a contribution to public health in a
part of the world where natural arsenic levels are above average.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study was supported financially by the International Atomic Energy Agency, (Project Nº CHI-
7012), which are gratefully acknowledged.

8
REFERENCES
Comisión Chilena del Cobre, Dirección de estudios y políticas públicas, (2013), Report Chile, país atractivo
para las inversiones mineras.

Richter, P., Seguel, R., Ahumada, I., Verdugo, R., Narváez, J. & Shibatac. Y. (2004) Arsenic Speciation in
Environmental Samples of a Mining Impacted Sector of Central Chile, Chil. Chem. Soc., vol. 49, Nr 4,
pp. 333-339.

Coz, F., Frazen, B (2012) Reports. Cancer Cluster in Chile Linked to Arsenic Contamination. World Report. vol.
379.

Ferreccio, C. (2005) Investigación de los efectos del arsénico en la salud de la II Región: Resultados y
Conclusiones, Seminario Internacional El Arsénico en la II Región. Faculty of Medicine, University of
Antofagasta, Antofagasta, Chile.

Queirolo, F., Stegen, S., Mondaca, J., Cortés, R., Rojas, R., Contreras, C., Munoz, L., Schwuger, M.J. &
Ostapczuk, P. (2000a) Total Arsenic, Lead, Cadmium, Copper, and Zinc in some Salt Rivers in the
Northern Andes of Antofagasta, Chile, Sci. Total Environ., vol. 255, pp. 85–95.

Sanz, E., Muñoz-Olivas, R. & Cámara, C. (2005) Evaluation of a Focused Sonication Probe for Arsenic
Speciation in Environmental and Biological Samples, Journal of Chromatography A, vol. 1097, pp.1-8.

Queirolo, F., Stegen, S., Schwuger, M.J. & Ostapczuk, P. (2000b) Research on Anthropogenic and Natural
Contamination in Northern Chile, International Cooperation, Scientific Series of The International
Büro FZ-Jülich, Germany, vol. 44.

Thomas, P. & Sniatecki, K. (1995) Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry: Application to the
Determination of Arsenic Species, Fresenius J Anal Chem vol. 351, pp. 410-414.

Demesmay, C., Olle, M. & Porthault, M. (1994) Arsenic Speciation by Coupling High-Performance Liquid
Chromatography with Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry, Fresenius J Anal Chem vol.
348, pp. 2015-210.

Xie, R., Johnson, W., Spayd, S., Hall, G. & Buckley B. (2006) Arsenic Speciation Analysis of Human Urine using
Ion Exchange Chromatography Coupled to Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry,
Analytica Chimica Acta, vol. 578, pp. 186-194.

Raml, R., Rumpler, A., Goessler, W., Vahter, M., Li, L., Ochi, T. & Francesconi, K. (2007) Thio-Dimethylarsinate
is a Common Metabolite in Urine Samples from Arsenic-Exposed Women in Bangladesh, Toxicology
And Applied Pharmacology vol. 222, pp. 374-380.

9
Evaluation of the Effects of a Submarine Tailings
Disposal System on the Benthic Macroinvertebrate
Assemblages in Chapaco Bay, Huasco, Chile
Marcelo Valdebenito1, Jon Mendieta1, Luis Caillaux1 and Domingo Lancellotti1-2
1. Centro de Estudios Avanzados en Ambientes Marinos - CEAMAR, Chile
2. Universidad Católica del Norte, Chile

ABSTRACT
Since 1994, an iron ore mining company has operated a Submarine Tailings Disposal System (STD)
that discharges the tailings of a milling and magnetic concentration plant in the bottom of Chapaco
bay at 35m depth. The tailings, composed mainly of calcium, potassium and magnesium
aluminosilicates, such as Clinocchlore ((Mg,Fe++)5Al(Si3Al)O10(OH)8), which composes the 36% of
them, have a mean grain size of less than 62.5 microns. The aim of this study is to evaluate the
environmental impact of STD on marine communities living close to the discharge area of the
tailings. The fauna was separated and identified to the lowest possible taxonomic level and the
number of species present, abundance, biomass and diversity was determined. The main results of
the study show that under the operating conditions of the STD, macroinvertebrates are able to
colonize and exist in the tailings of processing iron at Chapaco bay. Although the communities that
live on the tailings are scarcest in richness and abundance, compared to control stations, the species
identified in the study area are the same described for the macrofauna communities of Northern
Chile. It was also observed the emergence of some opportunistic species like capitellid, spionid and
cirratulid. The alteration pattern could be caused by the presence of a tailings discharge, which,
under certain conditions, originates suspended particulate matter near the bottom that can affect, at
some extent, the normal development of the communities living there.

1
INTRODUCTION

Mining is the most important economic activity in the North of Chile and it is essential for the
development of modern society (Dold 2014). Iron is among the main mining products in the North
of Chile; and it is primarily marketed as Magnetite (Fe3O4) and Hematite (Fe2O3); two very
abundant Iron oxides on the Earth crust. Companía Minera del Pacífico has operated the largest Iron
mines in Chile and, since 1978, an iron ore pelletizing plant located in the south of the Port of
Huasco. This plant is supplied with pre-concentrated iron ore from the deposit Los Colorados,
located in the Chilean ferriferous cretaceous belt. The mineral extracted at the mine undergo several
magnetic dry concentration stages that raise the concentration of magnetite up to 58%. Thus at this
stage there is a reduction of the content of the ore impurities and subsequently a reduction of waste,
which remain at the mine. When raw materials arrive to the pellet plant, they are sent to the
grinding and magnetic concentration wet processes. The purpose of the grinding process is to
reduce the particles to a proper size for removing impurities and to obtain a specific surface
suitable for gravimetric and magnetic concentration of the iron. The mean grain size is less than
62.5 microns. Tailings are a byproduct of the processing of pre-concentrated iron ore, which
consists of very fine sediments with very homogeneous physical and chemical characteristics over
time (RESCAN, 2013).
Between 1978 and 1993, the pellets plant discharged their tailings directly in the rocky intertidal
zone of Chapaco bay; and afterwards a Submarine Tailings Disposal System (STD) was
implemented. The change of the discharge system occurred due to a ruling made by the Supreme
Court, which required that the mining company to implement a definite discharge system, that
eliminates the suspended sediment in Chapaco bay and this decrease the turbidity caused by the
discharge of ~3000 tons of tailings per day and reducing, significantly, their effect on the photic
zone. During 1994, a STD, which discharged the tailings at 25 m depth, was designed and built and
began operations in late 1994. Due to the need of technical adjustments in the discharge process, the
STD was changed from a gravitational to a pumped discharge and the outfall point was changed
from 25m to 35m depth in the same footprint. This discharge at 35 m depth runs until today.
Most often, coastal areas provide the most convenient location for STD (Ellis, Polin & Baer, 1995,
Ellis et al., 1995). Even though STD does not present problems of acid mine drainage produced by
other types of tailings disposal such us land occupation; contamination of soil, water and air; etc.
(Burd et al., 2000), it is a fact that STD does have an effect on abundance and biodiversity of marine
communities by smothering them, but in some cases they do not prevent their existence (Burd et al.,
2000, Stotz Lancellotti and 2004, González et al., 2014).
Even though, practices of Submarine Tailing Disposal Systems have generally had adverse impacts
on the environment, few studies on iron ore tailings discharge have been published. However the
cases of Compañia Minera del Pacífico at Huasco, Chile and Cooper Island, in Vancouver, Canada
(even though the latter was a discharge of copper tailings), have been the projects with the longest
history of continuous monitoring for environmental effects, before and during operation; and after
operations in the case of Canada (Ellis et al., 1995; Ellis, 2000; Lancellotti and Stotz 2004, González,
et al., 2014).
Most of published studies evaluating the tailings discharge on benthic macrofauna communities
have been based on experimental designs (Kline & Stekoll, 2001 Gwyther et al., 2009), evaluation of
benthic macrofauna after a long period of discharge or decommissioning of mining operations

2
(Burd et al., 2000, Burd 2002, Lancellotti and Stotz 2004, Josefson et al., 2008). However, the annual
seasonal variation of benthic macrofauna communities in places operated by STD has been slightly
studied. In this sense, the aim of this study is to assess the impact that tailings discharge has on the
benthic macrofauna biodiversity and its seasonal variation in Chapaco bay.

MATERIAL Y METHODS
Study area

Tailings from the Pellets Plant of Huasco have been discharged since 1978 in Chapaco bay, which is
located south of the port of Huasco, Chile. Figure 1 shows locations of study sites, where C
corresponds to the samples collected on the tailings deposited at the bottom of Chapaco bay; and N
and S correspond to samples taken from north (Cabo Norte and Huasco) and south (Playa Brava
and Punta Lachos) control sites, respectively. Station C1 was located near the discharge point in the
intertidal zone until 1994; station C2 on the STD 25 m depth; and stations C3 to C12 were located on
or near the current outfall and the tailings meander that has formed at the bottom, to the west of the
bay (Figure 1).

N2 N1
Huasco Cabo Norte

Chapaco bay
C1
C2
STD C3
C4 C10 N4
C9 Underwater canyon N3
C7 C8
Huasco
C5
C6
S2 Playa Brava
S1
Bathymetry
S4
C11 S3 Punta Lachos
C12

Figure 1 Diagram of the study area showing sampling stations, where C corresponds to samples on the
tailings; and N and S correspond to north and south control samples, respectively. STD indicates the location
of the current discharge Submarine Tailings Disposal of the Pellets Plant of Huasco. Note the formation of an
underwater canyon

Sampling

Samples were collected in summer and winter of 2011 using a 0.1 m2 Van Veen grab. Three
replicates were obtained in each station. These were packed in polyethylene bags, labeled and fixed
with 10% formalin to allow macrofauna conservation. In the laboratory, they were later washed
with tap water and filtered using a 1mm-mesh sieve. Fauna was separated and identified to the
lowest possible taxonomic level and quantified.

3
Characterization of sediments

Ten subsamples of the first ten centimeters of sediment were obtained from each grab. They were
packed in properly labeled plastic jars and sent to the laboratory for their granulometric analysis,
following the methodology described by Buchanan and Kain (1971). As for the classification
analysis, Wentworth scale (1922) was used. The results of each sampling station are represented as
averages of two sampling campaigns (winter and summer).

Data analysis

Parameters used to characterize macrofauna community were: total abundance, taxa number,
Shannon-Wiener biodiversity index, mean dominance index (Picard 1965) and Glemarec index
(1964), for the frequency of species emergence in sampling stations. Shannon-Wiener biodiversity
index results between study site and control sites were compared using a t-test at p ≤0.05
significance level.

In order to determine the existence of different infauna communities, a Principal Component

Analysis (PCA) was carried out on the composition and abundance data of each species per
sampling station. Results were presented in a two-component graph for each of the campaigns.
Data standardization was done according to that suggested by Elliot (1977) and Zar (1996).

Aimed to find seasonal differences among biological communities, sediment type and depth
intervals, one-way ANOVA with a p≤0.05 significance level were carried out. When discrepancies
were significant, Tukey test was applied. A comparison of means was also conducted using the
Student t-test with a p≤0.05 significance level. For the analysis, sampling stations were clustered in
depth intervals: 0-30m (C1, S1, S3, N1 and N3), 30-75m (C2, C3 and C4), 75-100m (C9, C10, C7, and
C8), and deeper than 100m (C5, N2, N4, C6, S2, S4, C11 y C12).

RESULTS
Sediments granulometry

Prevailing substrates at the sampling sites were composed of fractions of silt and very fine sand,
with very fine gravel being almost absent. The only station that differed from this pattern was N1,
which corresponds to North control station located at 25 m depth. There slime was not observed
and the percentage of very fine sand did not exceed 4% (Figure 2). Within Chapaco bay, finer
fractions of substrate dominated. Therefore in stations C3 and C5, 60% of the substrate
corresponded to silt and clay; and in stations C4, C6, C11 and C12, more than 45% corresponded to
the same fraction. Stations located closer to the coast (C1 and C2) presented a larger particle size,
being the substrate in this area dominated by fine and very fine sand fractions, completing between
the two fractions over 60% of the substrate (Figure 2). In Chapaco bay stations, silt and clay
exceeded 55% of the total sample; whereas, this type of substrate only represented 37% in control
stations, in both the North and South.

4
 Figure 2 Granulometric composition of sediments per sampling station

Macrofauna Assemblages

A total of 83 taxa were identified in the study area; 64 in summer and 51 in winter (Table 1). Specific
total richness was 41 taxa in Chapaco bay; 32 in summer and 24 in winter, and control sites
provided a total of 73 taxa; 53 in summer and 46 in winter (Table 1).

Prevailing species in the tailings discharge area as well as control sites were poliquets Paraprionospio
pinnata, crustacea Ampellisca sp. and Diastylis tongoyensis, and nematode Adenophorea, for both
winter and summer. Although they were less abundant in the discharge zone compared to control
sites. That pattern also prevailed for the emergence frequency according to Glemarec index.

Abundance and Specific Richness indexes were significantly higher in benthic macrofauna
assemblages of control sites regarding the tailings discharge point, in summer as well as in winter
(one way p≤0.05 ANOVA). Attributes of macrofauna assemblages sediments in control sites
showed significant differences between summer and winter (ANOVA p≤0.05). On the contrary,
these differences were not statistically relevant in macrofauna assemblages of sediment of the
tailings discharge point. (p≥0.05).

It is worth mentioning that assemblages do not show significant differences among the analyzed
depth range (one way p≥0.05 ANOVA), in any season of the year.

The PCA carried out on samples collected in summer showed macrofauna assemblages with three
very defined clusters (Figure 3a). The first cluster was composed of control stations N3, N4, S1 and
S2; another one consisting of stations located on the tailings disposal site (C); and a third cluster
formed by deeper stations located on the tailings disposal site (C6, C11 and C12) and control
stations N1, S3 and S4 (Figure 3a). On the contrary, winter provided a more diffuse cluster pattern,

5
where it was possible to observe a group consisting of control stations located close to the coast
(N1, N3, S1 and S4); whereas the rest of the stations had a tendency to form two clusters; the first
one formed by stations located in the tailings disposal site (C) and another cluster composed of
deeper stations located in the tailings discharge site (C) and control site stations (N2, S2 and S3)
(Figure 3b).

Biodiversity

Shannon-Wiener index values were higher in control sites than in tailings discharge sites, differing
significantly (t-test, p≤0.05), both in summer and winter. Stations C9, S3, N1, S1, N2, N3, N4 and S2
showed the highest diversity index for samples collected in summer; while control stations N1, N2,
N3, N4 and S3 showed the highest biodiversity index in samples collected in winter (See Figures 4a
and 4b). Shannon-Wiener diversity index showed significant variations between summer and
winter (t-test, p≤0.05). These variations are mainly explained by control stations, which showed
significant differences (t-test, p≤0.05). The same analysis at the tailings discharge site stations (C)
did not show significant variations (t-test, p≤0.05). It was also observed that in stations farther from
the discharge site (C1, C9, C11 and C12), the composition of macrofauna assemblages and Shannon-
Wiener diversity index were higher than in the rest of the stations located in the tailings discharge
site (C2, C3, C4, C5, C6, C7, C8 and C10).

1.0
a C11
C6
S3
N1
C12
0.5 S4
Component 2

S1
S2
N3 N4 N2 C5
0.0
C9 C7
C1C8
C3
C2C10C4
-0.5

-1.0
-1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0
Component 1

1.0 C2
b C3 C4 C8
C1 C9
N4
0.5 C10
Component 2

N1
S1 N3 C7
0.0
S4 C5
N2 C6 S2
-0.5
C11 C12
S3

-1.0
-1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0
Component 1

6
 Figure 3 Graphic representation of PCA for stations located in the tailings discharge sites (C) and control
stations (N and S) in summer a) and winter b)

a Cabo Norte b Cabo Norte

Huasco Huasco

Ensenada Chapaco Ensenada Chapaco

Playa Brava Playa Brava

Punta Lachos Punta Lachos

Figure 4 Shannon-Wiener index for benthic macrofauna assemblages: stations located in the tailings discharge
site and control stations in summer a) and winter b) of 2011

DISCUSSION

The results show that even in the sites that are directly influenced by the tailings discharge the
benthic macrofauna is able to colonize them. Even though species richness, abundance and
Shannon-Wiener diversity indexes were lower in communities that inhabit the tailings bed at the
sea bottom compared to control sites, there is evidence showing that tailings are colonized by
surrounding macrofauna (See Table 1). These results are consistent with the experiment carried out
by Kline and Stekoll (2011), who observed that trays of tailings installed on the seabed were
colonized, and with other cases of benthic macrofaunal colonization in tailings described
worldwide (Osgard and Hasle 1993; Ellis et al. 1995b; Burd et al. 2000; Gwither et al. 2009). The
results of this study suggest that tailings colonization could coincide with that established by Ellis
(2005), who argues that once tailings are stabilized on the seabed, they can be colonized by
secondary opportunistic organisms and thus starting an ecological succession (Ellis 2003).
According to this author, after 25 years of Cooper Island operations in Canada, the seabed
biodiversity could not be distinguished from benthos of natural seabed unaffected by tailings
deposition, on a fiord bottom at 160 m depth (Ellis 2000). This could also be occurring in Chapaco
bay, as sampling stations nearer to the tailing discharge point present an assemblage with lower

7
species richness and diversity compared to the ones farther from it, which could be explained only
by the existence of an active discharge. This is also observed by Lancellotti and Slotz (2004) in
Chapaco bay using 1994 data, before STD started operating; as well as in other places in Chile,
when comparing the assemblages of benthic macrofauna in intervened versus non intervened
places (Carrasco et al 1988, Gallardo et al 1995, Carrasco and Gallardo 2001).

Table 1 List of species of the main taxonomic clusters in the tailing discharge point as well as in control sites.
Summer and winter of 2011. Sum.= Summer; Win.=Winter

8
 Tailings Control Tailings Control
Taxa Taxa
Sum. Win. Sum. Win. Sum. Win. Sum. Win.
Polichaeta Glycymeris ovata +
Aglaophamus peruana + + Nassarius gayi + +
Arabella sp. + Nucula cuneata + +
Aricidea sp. + + Nucula pisum + +
Capitellidae 1 + + + Oliva peruviana + + +
Capitellidae 2 + + Rissoina inca +
Cirratulidae + + + Salitra radwini +
Cossura chilensis + Tegula atra +
Dasybranchus sp. + Tegula luctuosa +
Dispio uncinata + Thyasira tomeana +
Gomeza serrata + Turritella cingulata + + +
Goniada uncinigera + + + + Xanthochorus + +
Harmothoe brevipalpata + cassidiformis
Xanthochorus +
Harmothoe exanthema + cassidiformis
Crustacea
Hemipodus sp. + + Ampelisca sp. + + + +
Hesionidae + Brachiura + +
Leitoscoloplos chilensis + Callianassidae +
Lumbrineris sp. + + + + Cirolanidae +
Magelona sp. + + + + Crucibulum quiriquinae +
Nephtys ferriginea + + Cumacea +
Nephtys impressa + + + + Diastylis tongoyensis + + +
Nereidae + + + Elasmopus sp. +
Ninoe chilensis + + + + Eurypanopeus crenatus +
Ophelina sp. + Gammaroida +
Paraonidae + + + Liljeborgia sp. +
Paraprionospio pinnata + + + + Lysianassidae +
Pareurythoe chilensis + Macrochiridothea sp. +
Prionospio peruana + + + + Ogyrides sp. +
Sabellidae + + + + Ostracoda + +
Saccocirrus sp. + Pagurus sp. +
Sigalionidae + Phoxocephalidae + + +
Spionidae + Phoxocephalopsis sp. +
Spiophanes bombyx + + Pinnixa transversalis +
Spiophanes soederstroemi + Pseudocorystes sicarius +
Syllidae + + Stomatopoda +
Taryx sp. + + Actinaria
Trichobranchidae + Edwarsia sp. + + + +
Nemertea Amphipholis squamata +
Hoplonemertini + + + Cephalochordata
Heteronemertini + + + + Branchiostoma sp. +
Oligochaeta + Ophiuridae
Adenophorea + + + + Diastylis tongoyensis + +
Mollusca Platyhelminthes
Chaetodermatidae + + + Branchiostoma sp. +

9
 Tailings Control Tailings Control
Taxa Taxa
Sum. Win. Sum. Win. Sum. Win. Sum. Win.
Astyris permodesta + + Platyhelminthes +
Chiton cummingi + Total Taxa 32 24 56 46

Unlike that described by Lancellotti and Stotz (2004) for this study site, the present work did not
find significant differences for the attributes of macrofauna assemblages analyzed per depth range.
It is important to mention that, even though these authors did not find significant differences
among the analyzed points above 110 m depth, they did detect a decrease of species at around 100
m depth range. At this depth, between 14 and 22 species were registered per station in the summer
of 1994; whereas, in this study, between 1 and 46 species were observed per station at that same
depth range. Lancellotti and Stotz (2004) explained that richness and abundance decrease at this
depth due to a common characteristic of the coast of Chile that has to do with low concentration of
dissolved oxygen (<0.5 ml l-1) caused by the cross-current of Peru-Chile, which touches the Chilean
coast between 60 and 500 m depth (Silva and Konow 1975, Gutierrez et al. 2000, Strub et al. 1998). In
the case of this study, the low diversity and abundance found could be due to this natural
phenomenon or the dispersion of tailings at this depth, which could be putting benthic macrofauna
assemblages through constant disturbance.

CONCLUSION

The results of this study show that iron tailings deposited on the seabed, as in the case of Huasco
pellet plant in Chapaco bay, can be colonized by benthic macrofauna in the short term, even when
tailings are discharged continuously. In addition, this study shows the importance of considering
seasonality on the assessment studies for environmental impact on the submarine tailing deposition
on benthic communities, as seasonal variation in benthic macrofauna abundance and biodiversity
was observed in the study site. Although variation was not significant among seasons of the year
for the community attributes of the samples collected from the tailing, this variation was
statistically significant in the control samples. This is relevant in assessing the environmental
impact, as seasonal variation could be disguising the results of evaluations depending on the time
of the year in which the sampling is carried out.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We would like to thank C. Masson, J. Alarcón, V. Córdova, A. Vega and N. Piaget for their critical
comments on the manuscript. This work was based on data obtained from the baseline study,
Update of the deposition system of tailing of the Pellets Plant, Compañía Minera del Pacífico S. A.

10
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sediments affected by submarine tailings disposal and artisanal
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study of marine benthos, 16.
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Marine environmental research, 53(5), 481-519.
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study of tailings deposition in a British Columbia fjord. Marine Environmental Research, 49, 145-175.
Carrasco FD, VA Gallardo and S Medrano (1988) Sublittoral macrobenthic infaunal assemblages of two nearby
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Dold B (2014) Submarine tailings disposal (STD)-A review. Minerals, 4(3), 642-666.
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Ellis DV, GW Poling and RL Baer (1995) Submarine tailings disposal (STD) for mines: an introduction. Marine
Georesources and Geotechnology, 13: 3-18.
Ellis DV, TF Pedersen, GW Poling, C Pelletier and I Home (1995) Review of 23 years of STD: Island copper
mine, Canada. Marine Georesources & Geotechnology, 1995 Special Issue: Submarine Tailings Disposal.
Gallardo VA, FD Carrasco, R Roa, JI Cañete (1995) Ecological patterns in the benthic macrobiota across the
continental shelf of central Chile. Ophelia 40:167–188.
Glemarec M (1964) Bionomie benthique de la partie orientale du Golfe de Morbihan. Cah. Biof. Mar.5: 33-96.
González SA, W Stotz and D Lancellotti (2014) Effects of the Discharge of Iron Ore Tailings on Subtidal Rocky-
Bottom Communities in Northern Chile. Journal of Coastal Research.
Gutiérrez D, VA Gallardo, S Mayor, C Neira, C Vásquez, J Sellanes, M Rivas, A Soto, F Carrasco and M
Baltazar, (2000) Effects of dissolved oxygen and fresh organic matter on the bioturbation potential of
macrofauna in sublittoral sediments of central Chile during the 1997/1998 El Niño. Marine Ecology
Progress Series 202, 81–99.
Gwyther D, GJ Batterham, J Waworuntu, TH Gultom, and W Prayogo (2009) Recolonisation of mine tailing by
meiofauna in mesocosm and microcosm experiments. Marine pollution bulletin, 58(6), 841-850.
Josefson AB, JL Hansen, G Asmund, and Johansen (2008) Threshold response of benthic macrofauna integrity
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Kline ER and MS Stekoll (2001) Colonization of mine tailings by marine invertebrates. Marine environmental
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Lancellotti DA.and WB Stotz (2004) Effects of shoreline discharge of iron mine tailings on a marine soft-bottom
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Zar JH (1996) Biostatistical analysis (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River: Prentice-Hall.

12
Glacier Protection and Mining
Cedomir Marangunic
Geoestudios, Chile

ABSTRACT
There is a tendency, the world over, towards laws intending to protect glaciers, or towards changes
in existing laws to achieve the same objective. Such laws exist in Argentina, Kyrgyzstan and New
Zealand (where glaciers belongs to the Crown), and are about to be promulgated by parliament in
Chile, effectively closing large mountain areas to mining. In other countries where mines or mining
projects affect or may affect glaciers, the issue is being discussed; among such countries are Peru,
Bolivia, Canada, Indonesia, Norway (Spitsbergen), Denmark (Greenland) and USA. The glacier
protection laws have been motivated mainly by mining interventions ranging from excavation of
ice masses, to waste deposits on glacier surfaces, and to wind-blown mine-generated dust that is
deposited on glacier surfaces increasing natural ice/snow ablation.

Mining has affected glaciers, but the reduction of ice masses is occurring naturally since the peak of
the last glaciation, about 18.000 years ago, while recent climatic changes have just accelerated the
process. This, not commonly perceived, facilitates pointing to mining as the culprit for reduction of
nearby glaciers even if there is no evidence of direct mining effects. In such a scenario, mining
projects in areas where glaciers, or the less known rock glaciers, exist must, from the initial stages of
a project identify glaciers within a radius no less than 15 km from all project structures, and begin
glacier base-line studies, including measures to eventually mitigate or compensate impacts, which
may require even to repair affected glaciers. These studies of glaciers take no less than one to two
years of intensive field work.

1
INTRODUCTION
Supported by technological improvements and associated cost reduction, mining, as well as other
development projects, has been climbing mountains, more and more into the realm of snow and
glaciers, or entering higher latitudes where glaciers flow down to sea level. This required abilities
ranging from simply recognizing the flow of glaciers in order to construct road on their surface, to
even removing glaciers to reach resources deep into the earth, for which knowing basics of ice
deformation and ice crystal sintering were helpful tools. Initially the development of this capacity,
to overcome difficulties posed by the presence of glaciers, was even hailed and publicised as great
engineering achievements (El Mercurio, Santiago, Chile, newspaper, April 3, 1983 and El Mercurio,
Valparaiso, Chile, August 17, 1983, also Clarke and Holdsworth, 2002), while disregarding the fact
that glaciers exert significant public attraction as distant pristine ice masses of considerable
aesthetic value and as water producer, in this often confusing glaciers with snow cover, so much so
that many glaciated area were converted to national parks or to terrains with various types of
protection.

But even today there are, in many countries, a large number of glaciers located in places where
there are no prohibitions to execute projects, including such as mining, roads, hydropower captures
and stations, recreation, and so on. As mining occupied some of this land, and affected glaciers, a
tendency is rising, the world over, towards the promulgation of laws to protect glaciers, or to
change existing laws to achieve the same result. Curiously, this attitude is not accompanied by
similar concerns about actions that may affect glaciers in a much larger scale, like the uncontrolled
growth of cities (and the associated usual pollution) upwind from glaciated areas, forest fires at
similar dispositions, or using glaciers as large ski runs.

For the sole purpose of the present paper, glaciers can be classified as shown in Table 1.

Table 1 Types of glaciers

Type of glacier Surface

Uncovered All snow and ice

White
glacier All or part of the ablation area covered
Debris covered
by rock debris

Glaciogenic (derived from white glacier, and composed

mostly of ice with interspersed rock debris) All of the ablation area, and part or
Rock
most of accumulation area, covered by
glacier Cryogenic (mostly rocks and soil with interstitial ice, rock debris (Fig. 1)
derived from permafrost)

2
 Figure 1 A rock glacier in the Andes of central Chile

Glaciers matter for various reasons, like social, cultural, economic, scientific, or other, and
depending on the reasons they may be valued differently. The basic reasons are listed in Table 2.

Table 2 Importance of glaciers, as valued by various people, with author comments

ELEMENT REASON COMMENT
Fresh water reservoir Temporary, as glacier is reducing
WATER River-flow regulator Yes, during warm season
Support wetlands and enhance biodiversity Locally, in mountain areas
Scenic value of debris-free glaciers Very much so
SCENERY
Scenic value of rock glaciers For very few people, mostly unknown
Climate-change and past-climate indicators Very good indicators
CLIMATE
Influence climate Mainly locally
RISKS Originate dangers and risks Risks can be very high
CULTURE Of some ancient people Mainly undistinguished from sow cover

Glaciers are finely tuned to their environment and climate in particular (see, for example, Cuffey
and Paterson, 2010), so that even small changes in some of the many factors which control their
characteristics will affect them. Among these factors are: amount of snow precipitation and
avalanching snow, air temperature and wind, solar radiation and cloudiness, snow or ice surface
condition and dust or debris on it, supra and intra-glacial water and water at glacier bed, terrain
slope and terrain vibrations, and so on. Finally, and because ice readily deforms under its own
weight and flows slowly downhill at velocities which relate to ice depth, the shape of the glacier is
adjusted to its mass balance. Because of this, there are many ways for natural or anthropic events to
affect glaciers. A short list:

3
 a) By a direct contact that changes the glacier mass, such as removals of part or most of the ice
mass, emplacing loads on the glacier surface (like waste dumps, or landslides), sinking in
under-glacier cavities, road cuts on the surface of a glaciers, and others.
b) Changes in the characteristics of the glacier surface, most commonly as result of dust
deposition from sources that may be, even, hundreds of kilometers distant (volcanoes, sand
storms, construction works, roads, dumps, etc.).
c) Changes in the glacier flow, such as damming glacier perimeter, or diverting flow direction.
d) Changes in the local topography, thus modifying wind and snow-deposit patterns, glacier
surface insolation, nourishment from avalanching snow, etc.
e) Changes in the drainage pattern, entering the glaciers, intra-glacier, sub-glacial, or issuing
from the glaciers, as this modifies the water regime of the glacier, its mass balance, sliding
velocity at the base of temperate glaciers, glacier phreatic levels, and overall glacier
stability.
f) Ground accelerations (seismic events, or induced by large near-by blastings) may originate
a general instability and cause a glacier to slide violently.
g) Changes in the local micro-climate, for example induced by city growth, mining, or
formation of a dam.
h) Changes induced by forming pro-glacial or marginal lakes.

Considering the above, the events that may impact glaciers may be described as:
1. Natural events, slow or violent: climatic variations, volcanism, seismicity, landslide, dust
storm, others.
2. Distant anthropic activity: global Climatic Change, thermal umbrella of large urban centers,
deforestation, dust, others. Most of them commonly associated to population growth.
3. Near-by anthropic events: the “development” projects, public and private.

It is presently a common condition that glaciers are subject to a permanent impact from at least one
natural event (such as natural climatic variations) and the effect of at least one anthropic activity
such as Climatic Change (Oerlemans, 2001, Hock, 2014), or dust and a thermal umbrella from a
not-so-distant city. Some additional impacts, caused by near-by anthropic events can be easily
assessed, such as excavation of an ice mass, but identifying others can become a quite difficult task,
like to evaluate the effect of additional dust, or of a local thermal umbrella. Furthermore, different
glaciers will react differently to the same event; for example, dust deposition on the surface of a
white glacier can produce dramatic effects on the glacier, while a similar amount of dust deposited
at the same elevation and on a slope of same inclination and aspect, but on the surface of near-by
rock glacier, will hardly be noticed.

4
GLACIER PROTECTION
Because of climatic variations, most glaciers, the world over, are losing mass, getting thinner and
their surfaces are reducing (Kargel et al 2014, WGS 2008, WGS 2012, WGS 2013). Some glaciers have
extinguished (see, for example, Ramirez et al. 2001), and others will be so in near future. This
process continues with ups and down, driven mainly by small changes in the way the Earth orbits
the sun (see summary explanation in NOOA, 2009), since the peak of the last glaciation,
approximately 18.000 years ago, and there is no definite end to it in the distant future (Berger and
Loutre, 2002) except for short term variations. So, extinction because of natural causes is the future
for most if not all glaciers (some may subsist at extremely high elevations or in a polar region) and
regardless of how anthropic causes are managed; the anthropic events of global scale have just
accelerated the extinction process. In such a situation, in many countries there is a tendency
towards laws intending to protect glaciers, or towards changes in existing laws to achieve the same
objective, as well as increasing the surface of national parks where glaciers cannot be affected.

Protection means preservation from injury or harm. And glaciers are injured by natural causes in
addition to eventual anthropic causes. Then protection of glaciers should mean doing something
that will change their present condition, and this means intervening glaciers. Existing technologies
permit the protection of small glaciers, mainly mountain glaciers. But its application to large
glaciers is still economically prohibitive; more research is needed but, no doubt, it will be possible
in the not too distant future. Nevertheless, the laws to protect glaciers, existing or being discussed,
do not allow for intervention of glaciers in order to preserve them.

So far only Argentina has a law dedicated to glacier protection (law 26.639, see also República
Argentina, 2011) and, in short, it prohibits any intervention of all glaciers, and of some poorly
defined glacier surroundings. As the law effectively closes large mountain sectors for all activities,
it is being contested by provincial authorities. Other countries have incorporated glacier protection
in existing laws. The Water Code of Kyrgyzstan prohibits any activity that could affect the natural
state of glaciers or the quality of water contained therein. In New Zealand the Resources
Management Act of 1991 protects water in all its forms, which is considered to include ice and,
therefore, glaciers.

In Chile, a country where several mines affect glaciers (Azocar and Brenning, 2008, Brenning and
Azocar 2009), a law to protect glaciers is being discussed in Parliament (see República de Chile,
2015) where some representative argue for absolute prohibition to affect glaciers, including
prohibition to modify the entire basin at the head of the glacier, and up to two kilometres from the
margins of the glaciers. But mines and mining projects affecting glaciers or just surrounding areas
occur in several other countries, and concern for glaciers have been expressed. The list of such
countries includes Peru, Bolivia, U.S.A, Canada, Indonesia, Norway (mines in Spitsbergen), and
Denmark (project in Greenland), and international organizations like the International Atomic
Energy Agency (project on climate change impacts on polar and mountain regions).

Since most glaciers are receding, and will continue to do so probably in an accelerating process
because of distant anthropic events, it is simple and easy to point at any nearby activity as the

5
culprit for glacier deterioration, arguing some sort of intervention, of the many possible, that
produces even very small change in some of the factors controlling the characteristic of a glacier.
On the opposite side and because of the same reason, for a mine, or a mine project, it is usually
quite difficult to show it is not affecting, or will not affect, in any measurable manner, a glacier. And
to prove its argument, mine or mining project need to go into detailed, costly, and long studies of
glaciers and the environment in which glaciers subsist, including climate, surface and underground
waters, and air quality, all studies that must persist for the life-time of a mine or project, including
the mine closure period. Moreover, studies of glaciers should be performed even if presently
authorities do not require them, as it is likely that in a not too distant future mines will be
demanded to demonstrate they have not affected glaciers.

WHAT MUST A MINE PROJECT, OR A MINE, DO?

As the presence of glaciers is a condition that may prevent the development of a project, or further
development of existing mines, an essential action to undertake from the initial project phase is to
identify all glaciers present in an area no less than 15 km distant from all possible infrastructure.
This is a safe distance into which most of settleable particulate matters, of size range greater than
10µ, deposits in a dry environment and high winds (see, for example, Chen and Liew, 2002), and
the inventory must be performed even if previous exists, since old inventories may not be complete,
or because modern techniques make evident glaciers not previously observed (this occurs most
commonly with rock glaciers). If the inventory shows the existence of anthropic interventions on
glaciers (e.g. a vehicle trail road over not well known rock glaciers), such intervention should be
informed to authorities. Obviously, the inventory should serve as an effective preliminary limit to
the project extension and design of underground excavations, and it should also serve to identify all
glaciers likely to be affected by mining and which will require detailed studies. In projects near
international borders, it is convenient for the inventory to extend into neighbouring countries, as
project may affect glaciers beyond the border.

Glaciers are fed by snow in one season, usually summer season, and loose mass in another. Then, to
observe the result in one annual cycle, at least two summers of field controls are required. This sets
the bare minimum of the length of time required for the study of a glacier. Adding the time
required to prepare a proposal, and to write reports, the necessary minimum length of time for the
study of a glacier is slightly short of two years. And the studies require expensive equipment and
procedures, such as sophisticated automatic weather stations, eventual drillings to the bed of the
glacier, geophysical explorations, aerial surveys, laboratory tests, air and water sampling, detailed
safety procedures and dedicated equipment for personnel working on an difficult terrain, and so
on, all of it usually supported by helicopter. In addition to the above, for several of the measured
glacier characteristics to have hard substance, and statistical meaning, more than one, rather
several, annual cycles of observations are required. This is why studies in a mining project should
begin as early as possible, or they may not be complete by the time a final decision about a mining
project must be taken.

To prevent being unjustly blamed for a particular deviation of normal glacier behaviour occurring
during mine construction and operation, which may lead even to authorities restricting mine

6
activities, mines need to keep a permanent annual monitoring of glaciers in order to understand the
causes of such deviations. It need not to be of intensity similar to the basic studies, but should
include monitoring of all basic parameters of glacier characteristics, such as glacier extent, surface
elevation, combined mass, energy, and water balance, surface velocities and stresses, and of the
eventual biodiversity present within the glacier confines. This in addition to monitoring eventual
dust deposits on the glacier and its effects on ablation rate, as well as water quality within the
glacier.

As it may be unavoidable for a mine operation to cause some effect on glaciers, it is convenient to
have glacier remediation measures studied and tested ahead of the need for their implementation,
and before they are included in an environmental impact study Such measures may include
artificial increase of snow accumulation, reduction of ablation (Marangunic, 2010, Morales, 2010,
and the use of blankets in several European countries), and generation of new self-sustaining
glacier (Arnoldy, 2009, Marangunic, 2010, and Fig. 2). Natural regeneration of a glacier affected by a
catastrophic event like a violent sliding of all or most of the glacier mass does occur (Ugalde et al.,
2015), indicating that also project-affected glacier may regenerate and even more so if assisted, but
glaciological studies should be performed to give credibility to such a proposal, and it will be
convenient to count with artificial measures to help, or replace, nature.

Figure 2 A mini-glacier formed down-wind from a snow-fence constructed to test the possibility of artificially
generate a glacier

Finally, former glacier interventions with results of reduction of ice mases should be regarded as
likely company liabilities (see, for example, Centerra Gold Inc., 2014), and it is convenient for the

7
owner to properly asses how much of the ice loses was natural, and how much can be attributed to
the company activity.

CONCLUSION
It seems unavoidable that the legal protection of glaciers is to increase the world over, thus forcing
mining or mine projects in the vicinity and to distances of several kilometres from glaciers, which
may even extend to glaciers in neighbouring countries, to prove they are not harming glaciers in
any way or to prove, changing mine design, they have ceased to cause harm and will proceed to
repair damages to glaciers. Either way, to do so requires lengthy glaciological, and other
disciplines, studies and works extending for no less than two years and with a considerable
financial cost; it also requires monitoring glaciers for the entire life time of a mine, including mine
closure. Not doing so may lead to restrictions of mine activity and, eventually, to mine closure,
while unrepaired glacier damages my represent mine liabilities.

REFERENCES
Arnoldy, B. (2009) Global warming: Indians decide to make their own glaciers. The Christian Science Monitor.
Oct 21. Retrieved from http://www.csmonitor.com/World/2009/1021/p11s01-wogn.html. 11/7/11 3:56
PM.

Azocar, G.F. and Brenning, A. (2008) Interventions in rock glaciers in the Los Pelambres mine, Región de
Coquimbo, Chile, Univ. of Waterloo, Ontario, Canada, Technical Report, Dept. of Geography and
Environmental Management, 14 pp.

Berger, A. and Loutre, M.F. (2002) An exceptionally long interglacial ahead?, Science, Vol 297, N° 5585, pp.
1287-1288.

Brenning, A. and Azocar, G.F. (2009) Impactos de la minería en glaciares rocosos chilenos. XII Congreso
Geológico Chileno, Santiago, S1_028, p.4.

Centerra Gold Inc. (2014) Annual report. 156 pp.

Chen, W.F. and Liew, J.Y.R. (2002) Civil engineering handbook (second edition), CRC Press,

Clarke, G.K.C. and Holdsworth, G (2002) Glaciers of Canada – glaciers of the Coast Mountains. In: Satellite
image atlas of glaciers of the world, Glaciers of North America, U.S. Geological Suvey Prof. Paper
1386-J-1, pp 291-300.

Cuffey, K.M. and Paterson, W.S.B. (2010) The physics of glaciers, Elsevier, 693 pp.

Hock, R. (2014) Glaciers and climate change, In: Global Environmental Change, Handbook of Global
Environmental Pollution, Vol. 1, pp. 205-2010

Kargel, J.S., Leonard, G.J., Bishop, M.P., Kääb, A., Raup, B.H., editors (2014) Global land ice measurements
from space, Springer, 876 pp.

Marangunic, C. (2010) Glaciers in high mountain mine explorations and project planning, Minin 2010,
Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Mining Innovation, pp. 17-28.

Morales, B. (2010) Pruebas para la reducciónde la fusion de los glaciares. Patronato del Museo de las Montañas
Andinas. 18 pp.

NOAA (2009) http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/milankovitch.html

8
Oerlemans, J. (2001) Glaciers and climate change. A.A. Balkema, 148 pp.

Ramirez, E. et al. (2001): Small glaciers disappearing in the tropical Andes: a case-study in Bolivia: Glaciar
Chacantaya, Jour. of Glaciology, Vol. 47, N° 157, pp. 187-194.

República Argentina (2011) Apruebase la reglamentación del regimen de presupuestos mínimos para la
perservación de glaciares y del ambiente periglacial, Boletin Oficial, Año CXIX, N° 32.102

República de Chile (2015) Boletin N° 9364-12. Cámara de Diputados, Sesión 6a, 31 Marzo 2015, Redacción de
Sesiones, http://www.camara.cl/pdf.aspx?prmID=11044 &prmTIPO=TEXTOSESION

Temática 9 : Morfoestratigrafía, Geomorfología, Hidrogeología y Glaciología. XIV Congreso

Geológico Chileno, La Serena, Chile, 4 al 8 de octubre de 2015 .

World Glacier Monitoring Service (2008) Global Glacier Changes: facts and figures. Zemp, M., Roer, I., Kääb,
A., Hoelzle, M., Paul, F. and W. Haeberli (eds.), UNEP, World Glacier Monitoring Service, Zurich,
Switzerland: 88 pp.

World Glacier Monitoring Service (2012) Fluctuations of Glaciers 2005-2010 (Vol. X): Zemp, M., Frey, H.,
Gärtner-Roer, I., Nussbaumer, S.U., Hoelzle, M., Paul, F. & W. Haeberli (eds.), ICSU (WDS)/ IUGG
(IACS)/ UNEP/ UNESCO/ WMO, World Glacier Monitorings Service, Zurich, Switzerland. Based on
database version doi: 10.5904/wgms-fog-2012-11.

World Glacier Monitoring Service (2013) Glacier Mass Balance Bulletin No. 12 (2010-2011). Zemp, M.,
Nussbaumer, S.U., Naegeli, K., Gärtner-Roer, I., Paul, F., Hoelzle, M., and Haeberli, W. (eds.), ICSU
(WDS) / IUGG (IACS) / UNEP / UNESCO / WMO, World Glacier Monitoring Service, Zurich,
Switzerland: 106 pp., publication based on database version: doi: 10.5904/wgms-fog-2013-11.

9
Risk Evaluation of Mining Waste Accidental Release
into Bacanuchi and Sonora Rivers, Mexico
Heriberto Robles and Charles Wechsler
Enviro-Tox Services, USA

ABSTRACT
On August of 2014 a spill of approximately 40,000 cubic meters of sludge and mining waste
occurred from Minera Buenavista del Cobre in Sonora, Mexico. The spill flowed into the Bacanuchi
and Sonora rivers, which empty into El Molinito dam. The rivers and dam potentially affected serve
the water needs of about 1.2 million people.
The chemical composition of the spilled material was not known. However, a government agency
reported that chemicals in the mining effluent included arsenic, cadmium, copper, chromium and
mercury. In order to investigate the potential threat posed by the spill, we analysed sediment,
surface water and groundwater samples from strategic points along the mentioned rivers and dam.
Results of the study indicate that:
 Most chemicals were detected in sediment but not in water samples, indicating that the
spilled chemicals might be of low solubility.
 As of October 2014, spilled chemicals had not affected the water quality at El Molinito dam.
 A chemical concentration gradient was evident in sediment along the Bacanuchi and
Sonora rivers.
 Mercury was not detected in background soil or water samples.
 Mercury should be used as a chemical marker for Buenavista mine contamination.
 There is evidence that particulate matter discharged by Buenavista has migrated with river
flow into the El Molinito dam.

Heavy metals, such as those released from the Buenavista mine, are more toxic in their soluble
forms than in their insoluble forms. In addition, insoluble forms of the spilled items tend to
infiltrate the riverbeds and thus their mobility is lower than the soluble forms of the same elements.
Since the discharged elements appear to be of low solubility, the environmental impact caused by
the spill might be relatively low because the low solubility of contaminants may result in low
mobility and low toxicity.

1
INTRODUCTION
On August 6, 2014 a spill of approximately 40,000 cubic meters of sludge, waste acid and minerals
reportedly occurred from the Minera Buenavista del Cobre in Cananea, Sonora, Mexico
(Proceso.com.mx 10/08/2014). The spill flowed into the Bacanuchi River and then into the Sonora
River. The Sonora River empties into the Rodolfo Felix Valdes dam (better known as El Molinito
dam). El Molinito dam is located upstream from the City of Hermosillo, Sonora, Mexico. The
rivers and dam potentially affected serve the water needs of about 1.2 million people.
A few days after the spill, at least one news agency disseminated the information from the
Comisión Nacional del Agua (CONAGUA) in which the government agency claimed "there are
concentrations of arsenic, cadmium, copper, chromium and mercury in the middle part and low
basin" of the Bacanuchi River (Aristegui News 08.25.2014).

Study Objectives
The primary objectives of this study were:
1. To do a preliminary characterization of the pollutants that may have been discharged by
the Buenavista del Cobre Mine into the Bacanuchi River.
2. Determine the ambient, background concentrations of metals in soil and water in the
geological zone of the El Molinito dam.
3. Assess whether contaminants that may have originated at the Buenavista del Cobre Mine
may have reached the El Molinito dam.
4. Evaluate whether pollutants that may have originated at the Buenavista del Cobre Mine
could be dissolved in waters of the El Molinito dam.
The study was conducted using methodology established by the Norma Oficial Mexicana (NOM-
147-SEMARNAT/SSA1-2004) and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). This
methodology is widely used in the United States of America and in Latin America.

METHODOLOGY
The study included the collection and analysis of river sediment, surface water and groundwater
samples. Water samples were taken at El Molinito dam and at the Bacanuchi and Sonora Rivers.
Groundwater samples were collected from groundwater production wells located in the villages of
Topahue and Buena Vista in the municipality of Hermosillo. The river sediment samples were
taken at strategic points within the riverbeds of the Bacanuchi and Sonora Rivers.
In addition to the test samples, river sediment and surface water samples were also obtained from a
river and a dam known not to have been affected by the Buenavista spill. Background sediment
and water samples were collected in an effort to determine the background metal concentrations in
soils and surface water within the geological zone of the El Molinito dam. The characterization of
ambient, background metal concentrations was especially important because many of the metals
spilled by the Buenavista del Cobre Mine, are also present in native soils in the area. A key
component of this study was the ability to differentiate natural, background metal concentrations
from metal concentrations attributable to metal contamination caused by the mining company spill.

2
Surface water background samples were collected from the Abelardo L. Rodriguez dam. Sediment
background samples were collected from the San Miguel River near the town of San Pedro, Sonora,
Mexico. Both the Abelardo L. Rodriguez dam and the San Miguel River are in the same geological
formation as that of the El Molinito dam but their influents are not connected to the Bacanuchi or
Sonora rivers.

Surface Water Sampling

On October of 2014 eight water samples were collected at random locations within the El Molinito
dam. Samples PEM-1, PEM-2, PEM-3 and EMP-4 were taken at a depth of two meters. Samples
PEM-5, PEM-6, PEM-7 and PEM-8 were obtained on the dam’s waster surface.
Also on October of 2014 the following surface water samples were obtained:
 One sample was obtained from the banks of Abelardo L. Rodriguez dam.
 One sample of the water seepage was obtained from the El Molinito dam curtain.
 One sample was obtained from the Sonora River at the town of San Felipe de Jesus.
 Two water samples were obtained from the Bacanuchi River upstream of the town of
Arizpe, Sonora.

Groundwater Sampling
Groundwater samples were obtained from the water production wells located at the villages of
Buena Vista and Topahue within the municipality of Hermosillo, Sonora, Mexico. The Buena Vista
and Topahue wells are located at less than 500 meters from the Sonora River and the El Molinito
dam. The depth to groundwater at both wells was observed to be approximately 8 meters below
ground surface.

Sediment Sampling
On October of 2014, five sediment samples were collected at the Sonora River upstream of the El
Molinito dam; five samples were collected at the Bacanuchi River upstream from the town of
Arizpe, Sonora; and two samples were collected at the San Miguel River in the town of San Pedro,
Sonora.
It is estimated that the sampling point at the Bacanuchi River is located 89 Km downstream from
Buenavista del Cobre Mine. The sampling point at the Sonora River is estimated to be located at a
distance of 293 Km downstream from the Buenavista del Cobre Mine. The distances between the
Buenavista Del Cobre Mine and the sampling points were estimated using Google Earth aerial
photographs and by following the paths of the Bacanuchi and Sonora Rivers.

Chemical Analysis
The sediment and water samples were delivered to TestAmerica in Irvine, California, USA.
Samples were analysed to determine the total content of heavy metals including antimony, arsenic,
barium, beryllium, cadmium, copper, cobalt, chromium, mercury, molybdenum, nickel, silver, lead,
selenium, thallium, vanadium and zinc. Soil samples were analysed using the USEPA Method
6010B. Water samples were analysed using USEPA Method 200.7 Rev 4.4.

3
RESULTS

The following sections present the results of laboratory tests and study findings. Water and
groundwater analytical results are summarized in Table 1. Sediment sample analytical results are
summarized in Table 2.

Surface Water Sampling Results

The only metals detected in all surface water samples were barium and chromium. However,
barium and chromium were also detected in the control samples obtained from the Abelardo L.
Rodriguez dam. All metals detected in the surface water samples are within Mexico’s allowable
concentrations (Table 1).
Table 1 Water and Groundwater Analytical Results*

Chromium

Vanadium
Arsenic

Copper
Barium

Lead

Zinc
Sample
ID Source
mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L
Blank-1 Blank ND ND ND ND ND ND ND
Blank-2 Blank ND ND ND ND ND ND ND
Abelardo L. Rodríguez
0.01 0.11 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.03
ALR-1 dam
PEM-1 El Molinito Dam 0.01 0.07 0.01 ND ND ND ND
PEM-2 El Molinito Dam ND 0.07 0.01 ND ND ND ND
PEM-3 El Molinito Dam ND 0.07 0.01 ND ND ND ND
PEM-4 El Molinito Dam ND 0.07 0.01 ND ND ND ND
PEM-5 El Molinito Dam ND 0.07 0.01 ND ND ND ND
PEM-6 El Molinito Dam ND 0.07 0.01 0.01 ND ND ND
PEM-7 El Molinito Dam ND 0.07 0.01 ND ND ND ND
PEM-8 El Molinito Dam ND 0.07 0.01 ND ND ND ND
PEM-9 El Molinito Dam Seepage 0.01 0.17 0.02 ND ND ND ND
Sonora River at San
ND 0.13 0.02 ND ND ND ND
SF-1 Felipe
RB-1 Bacanuchi River ND 0.13 0.02 ND ND ND ND
RB-2 Bacanuchi River ND 0.13 0.02 ND ND ND ND
PT-1 Topahue Well ND 0.07 ND ND ND ND 0.05
BV-1 Buena Vista Well ND 0.06 ND ND ND 0.02 ND
Standards (NOM-127-SSA1-1994) 0.025 0.7 0.05 2 0.01 NE 5

Notes:
* Only metals detected in at least one sample are reported in this table.
mg/L = Milligrams per liter
ND = Not detected
NE = None established

4
The metals cadmium, cobalt, mercury, nickel and selenium were not detected in any of the surface
water or groundwater samples collected in this study. These results indicate that these metals are
not present in their soluble forms within the Hermosillo basin or the watersheds of the Bacanuchi
and Sonora Rivers.
The metals barium and chromium, on the other hand, were detected in essentially all water samples
collected (Table 1). These results indicate that barium and chromium, in their soluble forms, are
prevalent throughout the region. It should be noted that detected concentrations of both barium
and chromium are within levels considered acceptable under current Mexican regulatory standards
(Table 1).
The metals arsenic, copper, lead, vanadium and zinc were detected only in a few samples and at
low concentrations (Table 1). It is important to note that low concentrations of arsenic, chromium,
copper and lead were also detected in the background sample collected at the Abelardo L.
Rodriguez dam. These results indicate that metals detected in surface water samples come mainly
from regional natural sources. In all cases, detected metal concentrations are within levels
considered acceptable under current Mexican regulatory standards (Table 1).
The metal concentrations in surface water reported in this study are very similar to those reported
by CONAGUA (2014) in samples taken by the government agency at the El Molinito dam.
Arsenic and copper were detected in only one of the samples taken at the El Molinito dam, however
arsenic and copper were also detected in the control sample taken at the Abelardo L. Rodríguez
dam (Table 1). Since the Abelardo L. Rodriguez dam has not received water potentially
contaminated by the spill of Buenavista del Cobre Mine, it can be concluded that the metals
detected in the sample taken at the El Molinito dam are of natural origin and not indicative of
contamination from the Buenavista del Cobre Mine. In addition, concentrations of arsenic and
copper detected in the waters of the El Molinito dam are essentially the same concentrations that
were detected at the Abelardo L. Rodriguez dam. Based on the results obtained in this study, it can
be concluded that arsenic and copper detected at the El Molinito dam are natural occurring and not
indicators of possible pollution that might have originated at the Buenavista del Cobre Mine.

Groundwater Sampling Results

Table 1 contains a summary of the concentrations obtained from groundwater samples analysed.
The only metals detected in groundwater samples were barium, vanadium and zinc. Metal
concentrations detected in the wells are within levels considered acceptable under current Mexican
drinking water standards (Table 1).
Metal concentrations in groundwater reported in this study are very similar to those reported by
COFEPRIS (2014) for wells located within the Bacanuchi and Sonora River basins.

Sediment Sampling Results

Sediment analytical results are summarized in Table 2. The metals arsenic, barium, chromium,
cobalt, copper, lead, nickel, vanadium and zinc were detected in low concentrations in all samples
including the two background samples. These results indicate that the above-mentioned metals are
naturally occurring in the basins of the Bacanuchi, Sonora and San Miguel Rivers.
The average metal concentrations detected in samples taken at the Bacanuchi River are all higher
than the average concentrations obtained from samples collected at the Sonora River (Table 2).

5
These results indicate the possible existence of source(s) of contamination at the Bacanuchi River.
One of the potential pollution sources may be the spill form the Buenavista del Cobre Mine
(CONAGUA 2014).
Mercury was detected in the sediment samples collected at the Bacanuchi and Sonora Rivers but
not at the background sampling location (Table 2). These results indicate that the mercury detected
at the Bacanuchi and Sonora Rivers likely originated from anthropogenic sources. While there
could be more than one source of mercury contamination in the Bacanuchi and Sonora Rivers,
CONAGUA reported that the spill from the Buenavista del Cobre Mine was known to contain
mercury (Aristegui News 08.25.2014). Therefore, the possibility that mercury detected in this study
at the Bacanuchi and Sonora Rivers originated at the Buenavista del Cobre Mine cannot be
eliminated at this time.
Table 2 Soil Sampling Analytical Results*

Chromium
Arsenic

Copper
Barium

Cobalt
Sample ID Source

mg/Kg mg/Kg mg/Kg mg/Kg mg/Kg

San Miguel River
RSM-1 4.40 110.00 5.80 2.60 6.70
(Background)
San Miguel River
RSM-2 3.50 58.00 4.90 2.10 5.00
(Background)
RS-1 Sonora River 6.00 88.00 7.80 4.10 11.00
RS-2 Sonora River 9.60 84.00 8.20 5.40 17.00
RS-3 Sonora River 6.50 74.00 7.40 4.10 13.00
RS-6 Sonora River 4.40 51.00 4.00 2.60 5.60
Sonora River Average Concentration 6.63 74.25 6.85 4.05 11.65
RB-1 Bacanuchi River 10.00 160.00 11.00 6.20 41.00
RB-2 Bacanuchi River 14.00 150.00 8.20 7.00 31.00
RB-3 Bacanuchi River 10.00 140.00 12.00 6.60 36.00
RB-4 Bacanuchi River 13.00 180.00 12.00 6.90 28.00
RB-5 Bacanuchi River 9.90 78.00 8.50 5.80 21.00
Bacanuchi River Average Concentration 11.38 141.60 10.34 6.50 31.40
Standards (NOM-147-SEMARNAT/SSA1-
22 5400 NE NE NE
2004)

6
 Table 2 (Continued). Soil Sampling Analytical Results*

Vanadium
Mercury

Nickel
Lead

Zinc
Sample ID Source

mg/Kg mg/Kg mg/Kg mg/Kg mg/Kg

San Miguel River
RSM-1 6.10 ND 4.00 14.00 21.00
(Background)
San Miguel River
RSM-2 5.60 ND 3.20 11.00 16.00
(Background)
RS-1 Sonora River 10.00 0.04 5.80 22.00 27.00
RS-2 Sonora River 7.30 0.02 8.40 27.00 29.00
RS-3 Sonora River 11.00 0.03 5.60 22.00 28.00
RS-6 Sonora River 7.20 ND 3.10 12.00 18.00
Sonora River Average Concentration 8.88 0.03 5.73 20.75 25.50
RB-1 Bacanuchi River 16.00 0.03 11.00 32.00 37.00
RB-2 Bacanuchi River 23.00 0.04 9.00 25.00 51.00
RB-3 Bacanuchi River 17.00 0.03 11.00 36.00 40.00
RB-4 Bacanuchi River 14.00 0.04 12.00 34.00 38.00
RB-5 Bacanuchi River 9.70 0.02 10.00 28.00 32.00
Bacanuchi River Average Concentration 15.94 0.03 10.60 31.00 39.60
Standards (NOM-147-SEMARNAT/SSA1-
400 23 1600 78 NE
2004)

Notes:
* Only metals detected in at least one sample are reported in
this table.
mg/Kg = Milligrams per kilogram
ND = Not detected
NE = Not established

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Analysis of surface water and groundwater samples collected for this study show that most metals
were either not detected or detected at very low concentrations. The detected concentrations are
within the permissible limits for domestic water use and within background levels of these
elements in the geological zone of the El Molinito dam. These results indicate that, at the time of
this study, the pollutants discharged by Buenavista del Cobre Mine had not affected the water
quality of the EL Molinito dam or the water wells at Topahue and Buena Vista.
Since the average soil metal concentrations detected at the Bacanuchi River are all higher than the
average concentrations detected at the Sonora River (Table 2), it can be concluded that there is (are)
source(s) of metal contamination at the Bacanuchi River. The (or one of the) pollution source(s)
may be the waste water spill that occurred at the Buenavista del Cobre Mine (CONAGUA 2014).
Note that CONAGUA reported the presence of mercury in the waste material released by the
Buenavista del Cobre Mine (Aristegui News 08.25.2014). However, no mercury was detected in
control samples reported in this study (Table 2). These results indicate that the study area is free of
naturally occurring mercury and that, therefore, the presence of mercury detected in sediment at

7
the Sonora and Bacanuchi Rivers most likely originated from materials discharged by the
Buenavista del Cobre Mine. If it is assumed the only mercury source within the Sonora and
Bacanuchi Rivers is the Buenavista del Cobre Mine, then it can be concluded that particulate matter
discharged by Buenavista del Cobre Mining has reached the Municipality of Hermosillo.
An important observation is that most of the potentially toxic elements spilled by the Buenavista
del Cobre Mine were detected in soil samples but not in the water samples. This indicates that
spilled elements may be of low solubility. This is important because it is known metal elements are
more toxic in their soluble forms. Furthermore, insoluble metals have low mobility in river
ecosystems and they tend to precipitate and infiltrate into the riverbeds. In the event that the
discharged elements were of low solubility, then it can be said that the environmental impact
caused by the spill could be relatively low because the low solubility of contaminants may result in
low toxicity and low mobility.

REFERENCES
Aristegui Noticias, August 25, 2014. Persiste Contaminación en Río Sonora, Tras Derrame de Químicos.
http://aristeguinoticias.com/2508/mexico/persiste-contaminacion-en-rio-sonora-tras-derrame-de-
quimicos/.

Comisión Nacional del Agua (CONAGUA). 2014. Informe: Emergencia Hidroecológica, Derrame y
Escurrimiento de Lixiviados Hacia el Rio Bacanuchi, Afluente del Rio Sonora, Provenientes de la
Mina Buenavista del Cobre, en Cananea, Sonora. September 26.

Comisión Nacional para la Protección contra Riesgos Sanitarios (COFEPRIS). 2014. Muestreo de Pozos, Caso
Sonora. Secretaria de Salud. Octubre.

El Imparcial. October 29, 2014. Rechazan Habitantes del Rio Sonora Uso de Pozos Liberados.
http://www.elimparcial.com/EdicionEnLinea/Notas/Sonora/27102014/902572-Rechazan-habitantes-
del-Rio-Sonora-uso-de-pozos-liberados.html

Proceso.com.mx. August 10, 2014. Mina Derrama 40 mil m3 de Acido Sulfúrico a Ríos en Sonora; Declaran
Emergencia. http://www.proceso.com.mx/?p=379293

8
Multidisciplinary Investigations to Identify a
Strategy of Mine Closure Environmentally and
Economically Sustainable: The Case Study of La
Zanja Mine
Marco Greco1, Magaly Tapia1, Miguel Mendoza1, David Arcos1, Eduardo Ruiz1,
Alexandra Muñoz2, Alfredo Angulo3, César Carrasco3 and Alfredo Gallardo3
1. Amphos 21 Consulting Peru SAC
2. Independent, Peru
3. Compañía de Minas Buenaventura, Peru

ABSTRACT
A reality in the mining sector is that operations may be unaware of the real and sustainable costs
associated with mine closure. The environmental aspects often do not form part of the initial
decision-making to design and launch an operation. The communication that is being presented,
describes the set of technical issues that the mine La Zanja -an operation of Compañia de Minas
Buenaventura - is evaluating and investigating to identify the best strategy to ensure a mine closure
environmentally and economically sustainable in its operation. Among the main topics that are
addressed, this multidisciplinary study aims to assess:
The possible generation and use of organic soil generation enhanced by the presence of bacteria and
organic amendments that facilitate the consumption of oxygen, generating anoxic environments
(reducer) to stop or reduce the phenomenon of acid rock drainage (ARD). The microbiological
characterization of effluents in waste rock facilities (WRFs) with the determination of the presence
or absence of iron and/or sulphur oxidizing bacteria, with the aim of evaluating the technical and
economic feasibility to inhibit the proliferation of these bacteria, decreasing the kinetics of the ARD.
The possible use of sludge generated by the existing operational treatment effluent systems in the
proposed multilayer coverage systems to encapsulate WRFs and leach pads. Closure alternatives to
disrupt hydro-dynamically the aquifer flow lines in the WRF San Pedro Sur zone to prevent the
formation of contact waters. Alternatives of multilayer coverage systems from the economical and
sustainable points of view. The quantity and quality of the waters in contact with the WRFs, the
Leach Pad, and the San Pedro Sur open pit, through the implementation of hydro-geochemical
predictive models, and in function of the main alternatives of coverage systems selected. The
design, implementation and monitoring of a pilot wetland to passively treat contact waters.

There is no full article associated with this abstract.

1
Programme of Adaptation to the Eco-efficiency in
Tantahuatay
César Carrasco and Alfredo Gallardo
Compañía de Minas Buenaventura, Peru

ABSTRACT
Cía. Minera Coimolache (Tantahuatay unit) as part of its strategic plan in response of an
increasingly social and environmental demand trend, adopted since 2011 a "Programme of
Adaptation" from a purely regulatory approach to eco-efficiency approach that has been
implementad over four years.
Thanks to the implementation of these eco-efficiency measures, has reduced in 1'077,237 m3 the
volume of consumption of fresh water from a natural source authorized; the volume in generating
industrial wastewater in 1'647,141 m3; has stopped pouring 1'674,972 m3 of treated wastewater into
the environment for reuse in metallurgical processes, diamond drilling, irrigation system and
revegetated areas; It has recovered 1,140 tonnes of solid waste for recycling and reuse, generating
income for recyclers formalized by the Cajamarca authorities. These results allowed us to save
US$2'478,447 in environmental management of these processes. If these eco-efficiency measures had
not been implemented, the increasing environmental and economic impacts would have been
significant, mainly due to increased production capacity from 12.000 to 27.000 TMD [1].
Based on these results it has been prepared a eco-efficiency plan that will be implemented from
2015 to 2034, with the purpose of consolidating the company's competitiveness and sustainable
development of our environment.
This paper aims to show the strategy, innovation and environmental practices benefits during the
development and implementation of the Programme of Adaptation to the Eco-efficiency in
Tantahuatay Unit developed from 2011 to 2014; and establish the challenges of eco-efficiency,
allowing us to deal with more success, a growing pressure from civil society, public administration,
markets and shareholders towards the company.

There is no full article associated with this abstract.

1
Analysis of the rainfall distribution in Peruvian
Andes
Betty Celis and John Fortuna
Klohn Crippen Berger, Peru

ABSTRACT
There are four types of commonly-used rainfall distribution curves used for hydrology, developed
by U.S. Depth of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service (SCS), but those curves are based on typical
precipitation for different regions of the United States. The rainfall type curve is used in the
projection of future storm events with large return periods, which makes proper curve selection
very important in the conceptualization and design of hydraulic control systems and structures.
In Peru, there are no published studies to contrast typical rainfall events to established SCS rainfall
distribution curves. Despite this limitation, a review of previous work indicates that hydrology
studies often use the SCS Storm Type I or II curves, without developing an assessment of the local
rainfall distribution that can support curve choice.
In this study we examined the application of rainfall distribution curves at three regional centers in
the Peruvian Andes, at elevations of 2000 to 5000 masl. In each of these regions there are multiple
mine operations and development projects, but there are no existing models of rainfall distribution
and storm types applicable to hydrology studies. In these regions rainfall occurs from October to
March, usually in strong, short duration events. The calculations were based on comparison of
historical precipitation records with the four typical rainfall distributions for four different sites
along Peruvian andes.
Analytical results show that, for the Peruvian Andes, the rainfall distribution is better adjusted to
the Type II rainfall distribution in several regions including north, center and south of Peru. Of all
the SCS curve types, it results in large differences compared to other rainfall distribution types.
These results suggest that improper application of rainfall distribution curves without previous
assessment can result in large errors in peak flows used in the development of studies or site
designs.

1
INTRODUCTION
This study is intended to evaluate the applicability of the established SCS dimensionless 24-hour
storm curves to highland areas of Peru, and the validity of the most commonly used curve types for
Peruvian hydrology studies (Type I and II).
SCS curves are used to estimate the temporal distribution of precipitation that occurs during a
design storm such as a 100-year rainfall event. Accurate estimation of peak precipitation, and hence
runoff, is a key factor in the design of surface water management structures. The potential
consequences of engineering design flaws emphasize the importance of using these type curves
correctly in predicting the intensity of storm events. The type curves were originally designed for
use in the United States, and as such are not offered as international standard distributions of
precipitations.
To determine the applicability of SCS curves to highland regions in Peru, rainfall data from four
representative locations in the north, central, and southern andes (Cajamarca, Huaraz, Ayacucho
and Arequipa) were gathered and analyzed. The focus of the study is a temporal extrapolation, to
predict the behavior of the precipitation in a rainfall event. Data from storm events at these three
locations were analyzed and compared to the curves produced by SCS to determine the best fit.

LOCATION
Figure 1 shows the locations of the representative regions where the study was developed. The
weather in these 3 regions is similar, and typical of weather patterns throughout the highlands of
Peru. The study sites are as follows:
Cajamarca lies at an elevation of 2700 meters above mean sea level (mamsl) in the northern
Cajamarca region of the Peruvian Andes mountain range. It is characterized by sunny weather and
intense rainfall events in the summer months, from October to May. Average mean annual
precipitation is about 700-1000 mm. For this study, the available precipitation data spanned a
period of approximately 22 years, which allows good accuracy for the estimation of mean and peak
precipitation.
Huaraz lies at an elevation of 3050 mamsl in the central Ancash region of the Peruvian Andes
mountain range. It is characterized by intense rainfall events in the summer months between
November and April, and has a mean annual precipitation of about 600-900 mm. The information
used for this study spanned about 20 years of precipitation.
Ayacucho lies at an elevation of 3500 mamsl in the southern Ayacucho Region of the Peruvian
Andes mountain range. It is characterized by intense rainfall events in the summer months,
between November and April, with heaviest rainfall during the months of January and February,
and has a mean annual precipitation of about 500-800 mm. The data record for this site spans
approximately 37 years, allowing for accurate rainfall estimation for the study.

2
 Figure 1 Location of the sites assessed

BACKGROUND
The SCS developed a method in 1973 for producing dimensionless hyetographs that give estimates
of percentage mass of storm events over a 24 hour period (Davis & McCuen, 2005). These
hyetographs, referred to as Type curves, are chosen based on the location of the study within the
United States (Figure 2).

3
 Figure 2 Regions for SCS Type curves (Chow Ven Te, 1994)
The type curves (as displayed in Figure 3) are used as a way of distributing the volume of
precipitation in a single event over a period of time (Haan, Barfield, & Hayes 1994)

Figure 3 SCS Type Curves (Soil Conservation Service, 1986)

More than a dozen hydrology studies, produced for a variety of sites in the highlands of Peru over
the last ten years, were reviewed prior to our evaluation. The curves typically selected for use on
hydrology project within Peru have been Type Ia and Type II, but this selection is rarely based on a
previous estimation of the precipitation behavior. The difference in the estimation of precipitation
during peak events between these two curve types can be more than 100%. This large difference is
potentially significant to hydrologic modeling and design development processes. .

4
METHODOLOGY
The calculation of rainfall amounts over different durations was obtained by developing intensity-
duration-frequency (IDF) curves from historical precipitation records at each site. Additionally, we
used two peak events to compare the precipitation behavior, for 2 and 100 years of return period, in
different return periods. Tables 1 and 2 below show the peak precipitation for 1 hour and 24 hours
for different return periods in each of the 3 assessed stations.

Table 1 2 yr Rainfall Events at each location

Cajamarca Huaraz Ayacucho

1 hr precipitation (mm) 17 14 13
24 hr precipitation (mm) 44 33 39

Table 2 100 yr Rainfall Events at each location

Cajamarca Huaraz Ayacucho

1 hr precipitation (mm) 48 25 26
24 hr precipitation (mm) 125 43 79

The sum depth of each event within a 24 hour period was applied to the type curves to yield total
predicted depths at each of the 24 hours. These predicted depths were then compared with the
observed depths over the 24 hour period. The method used for determining the most accurate fit
between real data and that predicted by the SCS was a statistical analysis of the distribution of
rainfall during a short storm event (24 hours), for a return period of 2 years and 100 years. We then
produced graphs for distribution comparisons and calculated the correlation coefficient of each
group of data. In addition to the correlation coefficient analysis, we analyze the peak precipitation
intensity during the event. This can give a better idea of the precipitation behavior and the
accuracty of the SCS curves relative to the site data.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Comparisons between historic data and predicted results

Results indicate that 2-yr and 100-yr events have very similar behavior. Graphs 1-3 show the
calculated precipitation curves and the SCS type curves for a storm with a return period of 100
years for each of the sites evaluated.

5
Graph 1 Storm Types comparison – Huaraz 100yr event

Huaraz Storm Comparison - 100 yr event

50,00
Huaraz
40,00
Tipo 1 (SCS)
30,00
I (mm)

Tipo 1A (SCS)
20,00
10,00 Tipo 2 (SCS)

0,00 Tipo 3 (SCS)

0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (hours)

Graph 2 Storm Types comparison – Ayacucho 100yr event

Ayacucho Storm Comparison - 100 yr event

100,00
Ayacucho
80,00
Type I (SCS)
60,00
I (mm)

Type IA (SCS)
40,00
20,00 Type II (SCS)

0,00 Type III (SCS)

0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (hours)

Graph 3 Storm Types Comparison – Cajamarca 100yr event

Cajamarca Storm Comparison - 100 yr event

140,00
120,00
Cajamarca
100,00
80,00
I (mm)

Type I (SCS)
60,00
Type IA (SCS)
40,00
20,00 Type II (SCS)
0,00
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (hours)

Graph 4 Storm Types Comparison – Arequipa 100yr event

Arequipa Storm Comparison - 100 yr event

20,00
15,00 Arequipa
Type I (SCS)
I (mm)

10,00
Type IA (SCS)
5,00
Type II (SCS)
0,00
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (hours)

6
A quantitative analysis was developed by calculationg the correlation coefficient of each
distribution type and comparating it to the actual values from site precipitation data. Table 3 shows
the correlation coefficients obtained for each of the 3 sites assessed.

Table 3 Correlation coefficient of each storm distribution to actual values

Correlation Coefficient
Storm Type
Cajamarca Huaraz Ayacucho Arequipa
Type I 0.94 0.90 0.93 0.91
Type IA 0.92 0.88 0.91 0.89
Type II 0.97 0.95 0.96 0.96
Type III 0.98 0.96 0.97 0.96

Results indicate that the Type II and III curves have the best correlation to the site data in every case
for curve fitting. To further test the applicability of the SCS curves, the hourly distribution of
precipitation and peak precipitation values predicted by the SCS curves were plotted and assessed
against site data.
Graphs 4 through 7 below show the results for Type I, II, and III SCS curves and actual values for
Huaraz station in a 100 year event. Storm Type Ia is not shown, refer to discussion below.

Graph 4 Hyetograph – Storm Type I

Hyetograph - Huaraz Storm Type I (100 yr - 24hr)

12,0
10,0
Precipitation(mm)

8,0
6,0
4,0
2,0
0,0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Time (hours)

7
 Graph 5 Hyetograph – Storm Type II

Hyetograph - Huaraz Storm Type II (100 yr - 24hr)

25,0
20,0
Precipitation(mm)
15,0
10,0
5,0
0,0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Time (hours)

Graph 6 Hyetograph – Storm Type 3

Hyetograph - Huaraz Storm Type III (100 yr - 24hr)

12,0
10,0
Precipitation(mm)

8,0
6,0
4,0
2,0
0,0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Time (hours)

Graph 7 Hyetograph – Actual Information – Huaraz Station

Hyetograph - Huaraz Station (100 yr - 24hr)

30,0
25,0
Precipitation(mm)

20,0
15,0
10,0
5,0
0,0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Time (hours)

The above hyetographs show that in the case of the Huaraz site, the actual peak precipitation is
nearly double that which was predicted by the Type I curve. A quantitative estimation of the
difference between the estimated peak value from SCS curves and actual peak precipitation is
shown in Table 4, below.

8
Table 4 Correlation coefficient of each storm distribution to actual values – Huaraz

Peak value – Huaraz Station

(mm/hr) Error
Storm Type
(%)
SCS Actual
Type I 11.2 25 55.2
Type IA 6.8 25 72.8
Type II 22.3 25 10.8
Type III 10.8 25 56.8

As shown in table 4, Type IA significantly underpredicts peak precipitation, and is not considered
applicable to these sites. The best correlation between estimated and actual peak values is with the
Type II curve. There is a diference of more than 100% between peak precipitation values for Storm
Type IA and Storm Type II curves. An interesting result is that, despite a high overall correlation
between the Type III curve and the actual site data (discussed above), the Type III curve
significantly underpredicts the peak precipitation. Results for for the other two sites assessed
(Cajamarca and Ayacucho), are shown in tables 5 and 6, below.

Table 5 Correlation coefficient of each storm distribution to actual values – Ayacucho

Peak value – Ayacucho Station

(mm/hr) Error
Storm Type
(%)
SCS Actual
Type I 17.0 25.9 34.4
Type IA 12.0 25.9 53.7
Type II 31.0 25.9 -19.7
Type III 16.0 25.9 38.2

Table 5 Correlation coefficient of each storm distribution to actual values – Cajamarca

Peak value – Cajamarca Station

(mm/hr) Error
Storm Type
(%)
SCS Actual
Type I 33 48 31.3
Type IA 20 48 58.3
Type II 54 48 -12.5
Type III 31 48 35.4

9
Table 6 Correlation coefficient of each storm distribution to actual values – Cajamarca

Peak value – Arequipa Station

(mm/hr) Error
Storm Type
(%)
SCS Actual
Type I 15 18.9 20.6
Type IA 11 18.9 41.8
Type II 21 18.9 -11.1
Type III 16 18.9 15.3

For this three last stations, we can notice that the SCS distribution predict values over higher than
the actual onessite data, but the error percentage of difference is very similar to the Huaraz station.
As with the Huaraz station, the Type III curve significantly underpredicts peak precipitation.

In summary, even though the Type II and Type III distribution curves are similar and have similar
overall correlation coefficients to site data, the predicted peak rainfall is significantly different
between these two distribution types. Based on our evaluation, the Type II curve is the best match
for both precipitation distribution and the actual peak precipitation values at each site assessed.

CONCLUSION
The results of this study show that the selection of SCS type curves in the assessment of storm
distribution can have a significant impact on the results of hydrologic studies in the Peruvian
highlands. The results of our study indicate that the Type II SCS curve was the closest match in all
cases in both volume and intensity over time, but was still inadequate in its predictions.
This study was performed on a limited data set and cannot predict the outcome of studies that
might be performed at other sites or in other areas of Peru. However, the similarity of results from
separate sites in different regions of the Peruvian highlands strongly indicate that the use of Type I
and Ia SCS curves in hydrologic studies within the Peruvian highlands may produce a large
underestimation of peak volumes and the timing of the intensity in rainfall events.
Furthermore, our study suggests that when selecting Type curves for the SCS method, it is wise to
perform a location specific analysis of historic events to aid in the selection of a curve or to show
that the SCS method may not be an ideal choice for the particular study area.
This analysis also demonstrates the need for the development of standard Type curves more
reliably applicable to locations outside of the United States, particularly in areas where rainfall
events are intense.

10
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was developed with information provided by Klohn Crippen Berger S.A. (KCB) and
would not have been possible without their support for which we are very grateful.

NOMENCLATURE
r(x,y) correlation coefficient for a group of data
n sample size
S standar deviation
x,y random variables
sample average

REFERENCES
Haan, C.T., Barfield, B.J., and Hayes, J.C. (1994) Design Hydrology and Sedimentology for Small Catchments,
Academic Press, INC., pp. 46–53.
Davis, A.P., McCuen, R.H. (2005) Stormwater Management for Smart Growth, Springer Science+Business
Media, Inc., pp. 71–78.
U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service (1986) Urban hydrology for small watersheds Technical
Release TR-55, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.
Chow Ven Te, Maidment David, and Mays Larry, (1994) Hidrología Aplicada, McGraw-Hill, pp. 455-487.

11
 C HAP T E R 1 0

REMEDIATION
OF LANDS AND
BIODIVERSITY
Propagation of Native Species for Closure
Elman Rondán and Branco Beltrán
Minera La Zanja, Perú

ABSTRACT
Given that reforestation and revegetation are important activities as viable alternatives, economic and
ecological nature, for the recovery of land affected by mining activity, and the continuity of environmental
services; the purpose of this project is to propose a technique of propagation of native forest species in
nurseries from saplings, before being used in the recovery of affected areas through reforestation and medium
scale.
It was held in the nursery "el bosque" minera la zanja. The experiment was conducted under a randomized
complete factorial design x 3s 3e, with 9 treatments and 3 repetitions, taking as experimental unit 3 species of
the genera podocarpus and weinmannia. They were considered as factors tree species native to 3: sort 1:
podocarpus oleifolius, kind 2: elliptica weinmannia and kind 3: weinmannia cymbifolia; and as a second factor
of 3 types of substrate: s1 - agricultural land, s2 - agricola earth + and s3 forest land - agricultural land + +
fertilizer forest land. Indicators of survival of seedlings and height thereof three months peal were evaluated.
The results indicated that the seedlings of podocarpus oleifolius had a 77.3% survival, higher than the
seedlings presented by elliptica weinmannia and weinmannia cymbifolia. While in height, the seedlings of the
three species behave like being suitable for final field.
The material spread will be applied in slope stabilization, soil stabilization, erosion control, conservation and
restoration of plant diversity anthropologically impacted, and consequently would contribute to the
maintenance and / or recovery of fragile ecosystems of the environment where it operates minera la zanja and
the communities involved in its area of influence.

1
INTRODUCTION

Since man has extracted minerals from the soil, processes for metals were low disturbance to terrestrial
ecosystems through tunnels or tunnels, following the direction of the grain. With the introduction of modern
mining, by removing large volumes of organic and inorganic soil made of natural landscapes that are modified
and thus the whole plant and animal life contained therein.
When conclude with the extraction of minerals, proceed with the closing of the same, covering the leach pads
previously treated with the organic material before this, to enable the development of plant and animal life by
successive processes of change, creating the necessary for the development of a range of interdependent
organisms together condition, recovering to some extent, the quality of the landscape and leaving before there
were similar, better or offset conditions.
You can restore areas disturbed by anthropogenic agents by the introduction of exotic or native species of
herbaceous, shrub or tree bearing. In forest ecosystems where coverage has been removed reinstallation of
native species to recover somewhat floristic composition and for this use of appropriate propagation
techniques it is required.
However, issues related to silviculture of native species propagation or management of natural regeneration or
adaptation techniques to greenhouse conditions and then plant them in final field are unknown. It is a
situation that occurs in the montane forest Los Cedros, where part of the forest area has been removed for
livestock use and Empresa Minera La Zanja aims to restore coverage considering as an initial part of the
process adaptation of seedlings in nursery conditions; so this research will contribute to the recovery of forest
cover.

RESEARCH PROBLEM

Problem Statement
Human activities have a strong permanent impact on natural ecosystems, especially when they tend to the
removal of vegetation cover, causing water and wind soil erosion; however, a number of plant species have
natural ability to spread and are slowly covering the ground, being exotic or invasive species the faster acting
and slower acting native.

Woody species, some of them have a capacity for growth and development in conditions of natural
regeneration in and out of the undergrowth and in many cases does not reach the fustal, saplings and mature
juveniles for various ecological, genetic and anthropogenic reasons. Induced propagation of native tree species
is unknown by the ringing of seedlings in substrate prepared in nursery conditions and this has led to exotic
species such as Pinus patula, P. radiata and Eucalyptus globulus used mostly. The introduction of these species
in the ecosystem generates changes in the flora and fauna of the natural forest.

Problem formulation
What is the effect on survival of three native tree species of the genera Podocarpus and Weinmannia under
application of three types of substrate in nursery conditions?

Justification research
Degenerative processes forests have rapid progress, so much so that forest species are felled indiscriminately.
The regeneration of natural forests remains a technical challenge for the forest area, due in part from
inadequate knowledge autecology of native species.

2
The area of intervention of Minera La Zanja, does not escape this reality. The logging of natural forests is
emphasized every day, they have been degraded by harnessing for various uses such as lumber sales, housing
construction, as fuel (energy) and also have used as medicinal plants, although the rules current prevents
logging of species and even more when they are for commercial purposes. This, in addition to reducing soil
fertility are causing erosion, which directly affects the amount of water recharge and reduces the ability of
surface infiltration, with the decrease due to the water, groundwater and aquifers.

Given that reforestation is a very important especially in recent years as a viable, economic and ecological
alternative for the recovery of soils, climate stabilization and improvement of environmental services business;
therefore, the purpose of this research is to propose a technique of propagation of native forest species in
nurseries from saplings, before being used in the recovery of degraded areas through reforestation with native
species to medium scale and results favorable, using the technique of cultivation in nursery seedlings from
native species for use in the recovery of degraded areas.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

3.1. Theoretical background of research

3.1.1. Overview of the genera Podocarpus and Weinmannia

a. General characteristics of Podocarpus oleifolius D. Don

Common names : " Chaquiro " and " Pine Hill " in Bolivia , "Saucecillo" in Peru , " rosemary ",
"azuceno romerillo" and "Sisin" in Ecuador , "Colombian pine", "chili", "hayuelo" "Creole pine" , "real
pine" and "yellow pine" in Colombia , "white cypress" in Costa Rica , "cypress mountain", "ragwort"
, "real chilca", "cypress" and "real cypress" in Honduras . (School of Engineering of Antioquia 1995).

a.1. Taxonomy:

According to the website: www.tropicos.org indicates that the taxonomy of this species is as
follows:

Class : Equisetopsida
Order : Podocarpales
Family : Podocarpaceae
Genre : Podocarpus
Species : Podocarpus oleifolius D Don.

3
 a.2. Botanical description

These trees can reach 40 m in height and 1 m in diameter, its trunk is asymmetrical, with
yellowish-brown bark, longitudinally cracked. Irregular large cup. Dense foliage. Simple sheets
spiraled distribution for consistency are leathery or subcoriaceous, its shape may be elliptical,
oblong lanceolate, up lanceolate acute , gradually to apex , attenuate and subsésiles to the base,
22-140 mm long and 6 to 16 mm wide, with a well-marked and narrow above the midrib , wide
but not very prominent on the underside , margin slightly revolute channel.
(School of Engineering of Antioquia. 1995)

a.3. Flowers and fruits

Dioecious trees with male cones solitary, axillary from 8.2 to 13 mm in length and 5-9 mm in
diameter, with subsessile peduncles 4-5 mm long, at the base with overlapping scales, rounded,
fleshy and thick; sporophylls of spiral, sharp distribution, cuneiform, each bag contains between
29 and 30 pollen grains.

Female cone solitary, axillary with stem 4 to 12 mm long by 1 to 2 mm diameter, receptacle 6 to 9

mm in length, with 2 or 3 unequal fleshy scales, but free in the welded distal region
monospermous; mature container turns a purple or reddish color.

The fruit is a drupe; seed is globose or slightly ovoid, 6 to 10 mm long by 4 to 6 mm wide, with
tiny smooth ridge. This species is often estróbilo not have male or female stem estróbilo be
sessile, a feature that is used to differentiate the variety.
(School of Engineering of Antioquia. 1995)

b. General characteristics of the Weinmannia elliptica Kunth

b.1. Taxonomy:

According to the website: www.tropicos.org indicates that the taxonomy of this species is as
follows:

Class : Equisetopsida
Order : Oxalidales
Family : Cunoniaceae
Genre : Weinmannia
Species : Weinmannia elliptica Kunth

b.2. Botanical description

Local Name "Chichir"

Tree 4-7 m. Leaves opposite, sessile, simple, elliptical, leathery, glabrous, serrated edge,
something acute basis, attenuated apex, 2.5-3.5 cm long, 1.8-2 cm wide. Inflorescences in
terminal racemes, 4-6 cm long. Flowers shortly pedicellate. Fruit, septicida capsule 0.2-0.4 cm
(Santa Cruz 2011).

4
 c. General characteristics of the Weinmannia cymbifolia Diels

c.1. Taxonomy:

Según el website: www.tropicos.org, indica que la clasificación taxonómica de esta especie es

como sigue:

Class : Equisetopsida
Order : Oxalidales
Family : Cunoniaceae
Genre : Weinmannia
Species : Weinmannia cymbifolia Diels

c.2. Botanical description

Local Name "Panrro"

Tree 6-10 m. Leaves opposite, shortly stalked, stalk winged; imparipinnate; petiolules side 6-8,
obovate, acute at base, obtuse, serrate, glabrous by the beam, tomentose on the underside,
leathery, 1-2 cm long, 0.5-0.7 cm wide. Inflorescences in terminal racemes 4-6 cm long. Flowers
shortly stalked, pedicels tomentose. Fruit, septicida capsule (Santa Cruz 2011).

3.1.2. Natural regeneration in forests

Natural regeneration in the forests of Mexico, has been subject to a number of factors, both external and
internal to the limit, which if not known may affect the establishment of new natural stands, especially
when you have areas of silviculture and it is required to have a sustained yield (Pritchett 1986). The
ability of a species to thrive and compete successfully on a given locality, is influenced by both internal
factors (physiological constitution of the tree) and by external factors (environmental). The integration of
these determines the forest productivity (Pritchett 1986).

External factors influencing forest productivity can be grouped into biotic and abiotic components
(Musalem et al. 1991).

Within the biotic components are: vegetation density, genetic variability of their communities, competing
vegetation, as well as disease or insect problems. Among the abiotic components they may include:
climatic, physiographic and soil variables.

Among the physiographic features of the site, the extent of exposure and the slope lies in the orientation
that comes from the sun and wind. In the Northern Hemisphere, the Southern exposures receive greater
light intensity, creating drier conditions, which are adverse to the establishment and development of
many species (Spurr and Barnes 1980).

3.1.3. Sustainable management of tropical forests

One of the fundamental foundations for sustainable management of tropical forests is the maintenance of
natural regeneration. This form of management requires timber species harvested, naturally regenerate to
maintain their populations and ensure the future productivity of the forest (Bawa and Seidler 1998).

The use of timber species, has several consequences for natural regeneration, some with opposite effects.
On the one hand, damage and mortality of individuals, with considerable reduction in fruit production,
and the increased availability of light in the residual forest (Chapman and Chapman 1997).

5
 On the other hand, it found that logging and other human activities could influence the spatial
distribution of forest species (Clark et al., 1995); even you can significantly alter the abundance and
modify the spatial distribution of natural regeneration of harvested species and remnants. However, at
the species level, although it is not known for sure, what is the degree of impact caused by the removal of
a high proportion of seed trees and how the spatial structure is set up, to a post stage use less seed trees
and further apart, and whose temperaments are different reproductive strategies. This type of
information is needed to improve the generic prescriptions existing forest management.

The integrated impact of these effects can be evaluated only a few years after logging. Often, studies of
the effects of logging on natural regeneration of some species have been made immediately after
harvesting (Fredericksen and Mostacedo 1999).

3.1.4. Effects of logging on regeneration

The effects of logging on the regeneration of Podocarpus glomeratus repercussions according to their
regeneration strategies. In the southern hemisphere many mature forests were observed with species of
conifers that have little natural regeneration under their canopies , inferring that are shade intolerant
because most improve feedback when receive better illumination by natural or anthropogenic
disturbances (Bergin 2000 Soto and Figueroa 2008).

Any impact on the regeneration impact on its future structure, composition and "forest health" (Cow 2003
and Figueroa Soto 2008).

3.2. Theoretical bases

3.2.1. Natural regeneration

Literally it defined as the renovation of a tree mass by natural means. In the whole forestry doctrine, you
can find two definitions for natural regeneration: one considers the natural regeneration, as opposed to
artificial, like that which occurs without human intervention regarding the distribution of seeds and
germination; other natural regeneration defined as one whose seeds come from the stand being treated.
The latter includes the assumption of collecting seed in a stand, producing plant in her remote location
and then enter, describing the action as assisted natural regeneration. Except this hypothesis the concepts
are similar. Natural regeneration also includes the case sprouting treatment in scrubland (Spanish Society
of Forestry 2005).

3.2.2. Importance of natural regeneration

Natural regeneration is key to maintaining the diversity of species and ecosystems as a whole and
according to the state or condition in which they are, more or less provides social and economic benefits
(Pieter 1988) process.

3.2.3. Advantages of natural regeneration

With natural regeneration it is certain that local species will be established, ensuring adaptation and risk
decreases. If the previous stand was a successful species is confident that this source works in these
environmental conditions (Bueso 1997). The last remaining trees stand regeneration protect against
severe environmental climatic conditions (Bueso 1997).

There are lot of products handled trees as firewood, poles for fence, house building material, animal feed,
seed and foliage fertilizer to improve soil, shade for animals in the pasture available and the family in the

6
solar, natural medicines (CONSEFORH 2001). Also, there are many options management of natural
regeneration, including the use of training and pruning toppings, selective thinning, and veneers
depending on the desired product (CONSEFORH 2001).

3.2.4. Disadvantages of natural regeneration

Species that produce heavy seeds, cause seedling overabundance areas and areas with shortages of
regeneration, this makes cleaning and short completions (Bueso 1997) needed.

Although there are no costs of planting at first causes the irregular expenditure renew short of clean and
completion , sometimes costs in handling regeneration are higher than in a plantation (Bueso 1997).

Sometimes there is a slow growth in natural regeneration area compared to artificial plantations. Often
regeneration is in poor sites, unprepared terrain, while the plantations are more carefully, with high
investments at the time of establishment and with good management (CONSEFORH 2001).

Due to the use of the best trees and leaving the worst (phenotypically), the risk of having a genetic
degradation of some species (CONSEFORH 2001).

3.2.5. Dynamic regeneration

Generally speaking, natural regeneration begins when the mature trees after having passed through a
productive stability, reached a period of senescence and growth slows to a halt altogether, gradually
weakens and starts doing susceptible to pests and diseases until finally death occurs. This new "space"
can be occupied by a new guy like its predecessor, began a long process until completely set (Spurr and
Barnes 1982).

The regeneration of forests depends greatly on the reproductive behavior of tree species and for this there
are two methods of natural reproduction: by seeds and by vegetative propagation (Harold and Hocker
1984).

On natural regeneration by seed, dissemination and plant establishment are performed without human
intervention. Man's role is limited in all cases to carry out activities aimed at changing the conditions that
facilitate the germination and growth of plants (Pieter 1988).

3.2.6. Factors involved in the establishment of natural regeneration

Topographical conditions, exposure to light and the height above sea level, makes the viability of
regeneration has serious restrictions (Daniel et al. 1982).

Climatic factors

The climate to be influenced by humidity, precipitation, winds and temperature (solar radiation)
generate territorial areas with specific humidity and light are essential for seed germination (Spurr
and Barnes 1982) environmental conditions.

Light

It is the energy required for growth forest. Thus, the quantity and quality of solar radiation received
on the surface of the soil affects the distribution, establishment and even the survival of trees to
influence decisively in temperature and soil moisture (Spurr and Barnes 1982).

7
 The amount of light penetrating the understory is highly correlated with stand density. Thus, in
conditions of low solar luminosity both photosynthesis and root development of seedlings
(MUSALEM 1984).

What conditions the establishment of species adapted to the prevailing conditions (Spurr and Barnes
1982).

Factors Edaphic

Soil moisture defined germination because it through the weakened cover is favored embryo
hydrolyze reserve substances active seed and biological mechanisms for germination. Conifer seeds
contain about 10% moisture for germination but require at least 45 % humidity (Daniel et al. 1982).

Unrest

Spurr and Barnes (1982) indicates that disturbances suffering a forest can be grouped into three
classes:

1) The disturbances that alter the structure of the forest: includes fire, the wind, logging and
deforestation.

2) Altering species composition of the forest: it involves the introduction of new plants or animals
within the forest ecosystem or removal of plants and animals in this system.

3) And those that alter the climate in which the forest grows, related to climate change over a period
and affect the relative vigor and competitiveness of the species in the forest: prolonged drought, long
periods of cold.

3.2.7. Propagation by seedlings

The seeds of the ripe fruits are dispersed by wind, gravity and / or animals that feed on the fruit, then
germinates and emerges naturally to the soil surface to become new plants (natural regeneration).
These plants can be collected and then transplanted either traded in platabandas for bare-root or take
them directly to the final field. This method allows to produce plants in small numbers. Farmers use
them to plantations in their gardens or fences on the edge of their property (Ordoñez et al. 2004).

3.2.8. Forestry nursery

The nursery is a place where seedlings are produced using high quality selected seeds. The seedlings
are produced with proper care and protection, so that the necessary quantities of sufficient quality and
in the expected time (ICRAF 1999) is a planned obtained.

The tree nursery is an area of land dedicated to the production of plants intended for reforestation. The
nurseries are classified according to the system of production nurseries producing bare root plants and
plant nurseries in container production (Ruano 2003).

The tree nursery is the place intended for breeding and production, Forestry, able to supply the needs
of reforestation programs with high quality plants to ensure good survival, growth arrest and to
establish homogeneous populations with high forest yields (UNEP 2000).

8
3.2.9. Substrate

The substrate in a mixture of black soil, sand and compost, components that enable good nutrition and
proper growth of plants (ICRAF 1999).

Disinfecting substrates

The substrates are disinfected to prevent damping-off fungus attack, evil or seedlings Damping-off
fungi, worms and eliminate insect eggs that may cause damage to the seeds (Padilla 1989).

3.2.10. Cultural practices

Risks

The goal is to maintain irrigation wet substrate and nutrients are dissolved and passed to the soil
solution from which the plant can absorb them, thereby ensuring their growth. Irrigation can be by:
spraying and flooding (Padilla 1989).

The first irrigation will be frequent, light watering and practiced with light rain. The wither is applied
to harden the tissues; the wither starts about four months before planting (FAO 1994).

Weeding

Weeds are removed in the nursery by hand, using small shovels made of corrugated iron or 5-inch
nails. The weeding is done because weeds compete with plants for moisture, light, nutrients and
living space (Padilla 1989).

In the first stage, weeds grow in abundance; then, because of the shadow produced by plants, growth
is lower. To remove small weeds shovels are used. They exploit the weeding to remove soil, fix
grooves for irrigation (FAO 1994).

3.2.11. Shadow and shed

Sheds play a very important role in nurseries, the sheds are used to prevent the death of seedlings just
repicadas, by the action of strong sunlight and / or evapotranspiration, when plants are larger strong
sunshine is less dangerous but subsists Plant risk of death by frost action. In nurseries, where the area is
not subject to the devastating effects of frost, sheds can be placed at 30 cm, remaining until 15 days after
the ringing in other places subject to frost will be installed at 80 cm. high, placing the shed whenever
there is danger. Finally, in nurseries where only the strong sunlight is a problem, shadows placed 1.50
m2 (Padilla 1989).

The shade is good for young seedlings, but too much can damage them. Plants growing in strong
shadow are high, weak and very sensitive to light and can burn when exposed to sunlight suddenly.
Some leaf diseases can be controlled with the sun (ICRAF 1999).

3.2.12. Removal of seedlings in bag

Ocaña (1996). States that the seedlings in beds ringing are unmatched growth, some are bigger than
others causing competition problems by light and small are oppressed by big, this is solved by removal,
which consists of relocate plants in order to select and sort them by size, plus pruning the roots coming
out through the holes in the bag are fixed on the bed, this will help make them stronger.

9
 According INFOAGRO (2003) the best medium depends on numerous factors such as the type of plant
material that (seeds, plants, cuttings, etc. ) are working; plant species, climatic conditions , systems and
irrigation and fertilization programs , economics, etc. Thus mimso say for good results during
germination, rooting and growth of plants, the following culture medium are required:

a. Fíphysical properties

• High water retention capacity readily available.

• Sufficient air supply.
• Distribution of particle size that maintains the above conditions.
• Low bulk density.
• High porosity .
• Stable structure, which prevents the concentration (or swelling of the medium) .

Chemical properties

 Low or significant cation exchange capacity, depending on the fertigation permanently or

intermittently, so apply respectively.
 Sufficient level of available nutrients.
 Low salinity.
 High buffer capacity and ability to maintain the pH.
 Low rate of decomposition.

b. Other properties

• Free weed seeds, and other pathogens and nematodes phytotoxic substances.
• Reproductive performance and availability.
• Low cost.
• Easy to mix.
• Easy to disinfect and resistance to disinfection.
• Resistance to physical, chemical and environmental external changes.

OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH

4.1. General purpose

 Propose a mechanism of propagation of native forest species in nurseries from seedlings to regenerate
degraded forest areas in the mountain forests of Cajamarca.

4.2. Specific objectives

 Evaluate capacity repicadas survival of seedlings in the nursery.

 Determine which species respond better to different types of substrate.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

5.1. Location of Experiment

The study was conducted in the nursery "El Bosque" owned by Minera La Zanja SRL, at an altitude of 3142
meters, located in the sector of Pampa Verde, village Trench, understanding District polish, Santa Cruz,
Region Cajamarca.

10
 5.2. Experimental Material

5.2.1. Seedlings:

 Podocarpus oleifolius - “Saucesillo”

 Weinmannia elliptica - “Chichir”
 Weinmannia cymbifolia - “Panrro”

5.2.2. Fertilizers: The ratio used was as follows.

 Super guano 1000 levels 2 Kg.

 Potassium chloride 1000 levels 1 Kg.

5.2.3. Ringing substrate:

S1 = Agricultural land
S2 = Agricultural land Forest Floor
S3 = Land Agricultural land Forest + subscription

Equipment and other materials:

 Barreta
 Polyyethylene bags
 Calculator
 Camera
 Forklift buggy
 Estakes
 Tags enmicadas
 Evaluation form
 Folders
 GPS
 Pencil
 Lap top
 Signboards
 Field notebook
 Machete
 Raschell malla
 Palanas
 Bond paper A4
 Pico
 Markers
 Dinger
 Repicador
 Rake
 Waterning of 5 liters
 Rule
 Board field
 Shears
 Retractable tape measure

11
  Pickaxe
 Zaranda

5.3. Methodology

5.3.1. Experimental design

Ringing for bed

This work was conducted under the factorial 3E x 3S under a Complete Randomized Design (DCA),
with 9 treatments and 3 replications, used as experimental unit 3 species of the genera Podocarpus and
Weinmannia.

Table 01 Treatments resulted from the combination study levels

TRAT. KEY DESCRIPTION N° de N° N° de N° total

Brin.
Repet. /Plot seedlings seedlings
evaluated
evaluated
/ plot
T1 e1s3 Podocarpus oleifolius + Land Agricultural land Forest + subscription 3 100 54 162

T2 e1s2 Podocarpus oleifolius + + Land Agricultural land Forest 3 100 54 162

T3 e1s1 Agricultural land Podocarpus oleifolius 3 100 54 162

T4 e2s3 Agricultural land Weinmannia elliptica + Feed forest floor 3 100 54 162

T5 e2s2 Agricultural land Weinmannia elliptica + forest floor 3 100 54 162

T6 e2s1 Agricultural land Weinmannia elliptica 3 100 54 162

T7 e3s3 Agricultural land Weinmannia cymbifolia + Feed forest floor 3 100 54 162

T8 e3s2 Agricultural land Weinmannia cymbifolia + forest floor 3 100 54 162

T9 e3s1 Agricultural land Weinmannia cymbifolia 3 100 54 162

TOTAL 27 900 486 1458

Figure 01 Experimental plots distributed to over someone’s bed
5.3.2. Job performance

Field phase

a. Turndown ringing Ringing bed was remodeled to

provide seedlings marketed subcultures. It was
marked with a raffia one end of the bed with Jimmy
then marked and leveled with palana right until the
desired area. The bed area Ringing obtained was 9.84
x 1.2 = 11.81 m2.

Photo 01: Preparation of bed ringing.

b. Removal of agricultural land and forest soil. This activity consisted in obtaining agricultural land
in the vicinity of nursery and forest soil in the interior.

c. Preparation of substrate. First it passed through a sieve both the forest floor as agricultural land
in order to get ready for the ringing substrate selected, then both substrates were mixed. Three
types of substrate used, all inputs in the area which were mixed in equal proportions or mixtures,
of agricultural land and forest soil.

Substrate 1. Ratio 1: 1 (+ Land Agricultural land Forest + fertilizer)

Substrate 2. Proportion 1: 1 (+ Land Agricultural land Forest)
Substrate 3. Agricultural land

d. Bag filling. The filling was done in parallel with the preparation of substrate for several days,
filled in polyethylene bags 9 x 18 cm.

e. Hoyado. Prior to hoyado it became a threaded bags ringing in bed, after watering is done during
two days, became a hole of 8-10 cm depth to the center of the bag with a snare.

f. Recognition collection area. The recognition was made with the help of a guide, thus placing the
areas where large numbers of seedlings of three native species was observed.

g. Collection of seedlings. Once recognized areas, with the help of a pick and shovel gardening all
necessary seedlings were extracted.

h. Selection. Once transferred the seedlings nursery seedling field that had the following defects
were selected:

 Weak, small, deformed and diseased bifurcated.

 poor or damaged root system
 Mechanical damage or sunburn or frost.
 And very succulent green plants with crisp terminal part.
 Photo 02: Weinmannia elliptica selected seedling.

i. Peal. After selecting seedlings took root pruning with pruning shears for those seedlings of
more than 5 cm in length, then they rang in the bags. This work took into account the proper
position in the pit of the taproot root to avoid further problems.

Photo 03: Podocarpus ringing oleifolius one seedling.

j. Maintenance.

j.1. Waterings. The frequency of irrigation depended on weather conditions (rain). During the first
30 days were continuous irrigation two to three times daily in order to maintain the wet substrate
and nutrients dissolve and pass into the soil solution where it can absorb seedlings thus ensuring
growth.

j.2. Weeding. This work was carried out for 75 days after the ringing, and consisted of removing
weeds naturally and with the help of a weeder, very useful tool that we facilitated the realization
of this cultural activity, and allow soil aeration.

OBSERVATIONS.

k.1. Qualitative observations.

 Growth of weeds. After 15 days of ringing the persistent appearance of weeds was
observed in all treatments and found four types of weeds then we list it..

1. Gamochaeta americana - “Lechugilla”

 2. Rumex acetosella - “Campanilla”
3. Paspalum sp. - “Nudillo”

k.2. Quantitative observations.

 Survival of seedlings. With 15 days intervals living seedlings in each treatment were
counted until the end of the experiment.

 Seedling height. This parameter was measured at

the start of ringing at intervals of 15 days,
measuring 54 seedlings of each parcel of 100 due to
the edge effect (Figure 01) of, performing seven
measurements during the study. This parameter
evaluation was made by measuring from ground
level to the former central branch using a ruler.

Photo 04: Measuring Weinmannia seedlings elliptica.

 Seedling mortality. After evaluation of the height, every 15 days the seedlings killed in
each "treatment" were counted.

3.2.2. Phase cabinet.

a. Developing formats for field evaluation

Repeat nine formats were prepared for evaluation of seedling height and mortality thereof, each
format set dates for each measurement for each species, mortality was assessed at study end.

b. Processing and analysis of data on beds ringing

Once the assessment data obtained were subjected to the processing and analysis, using the
Statistical Evaluation System (SAS), in order to determine significant variance among treatment.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

a. Seedling survival

Table 01 Analysis of variance (ANOVA) for the variable survival (%) subcultures seedling nursery. [Data
transformed Y = arc si (P)1/2]

Sources Degrees Sums Square F tabular

variability freedom square means F cal 0,05 0,01

Treatments
8 9447.764 1180.971 4.23 * * 2.51 3.71
Species (E)
2 6075.432 3037.716 10.89 * * 3.55 6.01
Substrate (S)
2 2439.659 1219.830 4.37 * 3.55 6.01
 ExS 4 932.673 233.168 0.84 NS 2.93 4.58

Error 18 5020.151 278.897

Total 26 14467.915 - - -

C.V. = 29,61%

The analysis of variance (ANOVA) for the survival variable (Table 01) shows a high statistical significance for
the treatments sources and species, since the F calculated outweigh the tabular F to 0.05 and 0.01 levels likely
respectively, indicating a clear difference between treatments and three species; Likewise, there is statistical
significance for substrate, indicating that the types of substrate used differ from one another in the survival of
seedlings in nurseries subcultures, on the other hand no statistical significance for the interaction E x S, it
means that the factors under study they are independent.

To determine which treatment (S), species and type of media are the best proof of multiple range Tukey was
applied, having a high coefficient of variation.

The coefficient of variation is a rating that allows assessing the statistical quality of estimates. In this case for
the survival of seedlings, the coefficient of variation turned high, thus indicating that the estimate is imprecise
and therefore recommend using it only for descriptive purposes.

Table 02 Tukey test of significance 5% chance for the effect of Species (E) on the survival of seedlings (%).
[Data transformed Y = arc sine (P)1/2]

Order of Species Seedlings average de

Signification
Merit (Key) survival (%)

I e1 77.31 A

II e2 49.09 B

III e3 42.82 B
 80
70
60 A

Seedling survival
50
(%) 40 B
B
30
20
10
0
e1 e2 e3
Species

Figure 01 Survival of seedlings (%) relative to the species

It made the test of significance of Tukey at 5% probability for the variable survival of seedlings of three species:
Source Species (E), (Table 2) shows that the Podocarpus oleifolius (e1) ranks first, with the 77.31% of live plants
and is statistically superior to elliptica Weinmannia and Weinmannia cymbifolia species; on the other hand, in
the second place elliptica Weinmannia (e2) which is statistically equal to the Weinmannia cymbifolia (e3) who
comes last with 42.82% of living plants is located.

This can be attributed to the Podocarpus oleifolius for being a rustic species it is more resistant to
transplantation and ringing, because so does Father sprucei where seedlings were harvested 5 - 10 cm, and
proved more resistant bare-root transport protected from sun and wind, being traded repicadas greenhouse
until a month before removing the planting site (Lojan 1992). On the other hand, it is clear that Weinmannia
species were collected at the edge of road and road, where they were protected by the vegetation of the area
and the slopes.

Podocarpus oleifolius collected in clear understory, because apparently, sun-loving species are tolerant in the
early stages of its growth; Norton (1991), indicates that the presence of trees and shrubs are very important to
the natural setting Podocarpus because its canopy is more open than its own canopy.

Table 03 Tukey test of significance of 5% probability for the effect of substrate (S) on the survival of seedlings
(%). [Data transformed Y = arc sine (P)1/2]

Order of Substratum survival

Signification
Merit (Key) average seedlings (%)

I s3 67.92 A

II s2 56.66 A B

III s1 44.64 B
 70,00
60,00

Seedling height (cm)

50,00
A
A
40,00
B A
30,00
20,00
10,00
0,00
s3 s2 s1
Substratum

Figure 02 Survival of seedlings (%) in relation to the type of substrate

In Table 03 and figure 02 we observe that the substrate S3 (agricultural soil + humus + fertilizer) and S2
(agricultural land + forest floor) substrate are equal statistically, ie, no significant differences in mean survival
of seedlings subcultures nursery, but they are statistically higher than the substrate S1 (agricultural land).
Comparing the substrate S2 with S1 substrate are statistically equal, which indicates that there are no
differences in outcome when using any of the substrates.

Also, a need to clarify that it is not about the type of substrate used in this research, much less for the
propagation of species of the genus Weinmannia.

Table 04 Tukey test of significance of 5% probability for interaction effects (E x S) on the survival of seedlings
(%). [Data transformed Y = arc sine (P)1/2]

Order of Treatment Average Survival of

Significance
merit (Key) seedlings (%)
 I T3 83.59 A

II T2 78.14 A

III T1 70.19 A

IV T6 63.95 A B

V T9 56.22 A B

VI T8 50.81 A B

VII T4 42.31 A B

VIII T5 41.01 A B

IX T7 21.42 B

90,00
80,00
70,00
Sobreviv. plántulas (%)

60,00
50,00
40,00 A A A A A A A A
30,00
20,00
B B B B B B
10,00
0,00
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9

Tratamientos

Figure 03 Survival of seedlings (%) according to the E x S

The above observations are verified when the effect of the interaction E x S in the survival of
seedlings (Table 04 and figure 03) is analyzed. This statistical procedure shows that treatment T3,
ranks first, (Podocarpus Agricultural land oleifolius +) is statistically equal to T2, T1, T6, T9, T8, T4,
and T5, T7 and superior to treatment; Likewise, comparing the T6 T9, T8, T4, T5 and T7 are equal
statistically, showing that it is indifferent to use any of the treatments for ringing in the nursery
seedlings for survival turns out to be the same in all.

It should be noted that the treatment T3 has greater influence on the survival of seedlings with 83.59%.

b. Species fastest growing in height

Table 05 Analysis of variance (ANOVA) for the variable plant height (cm) of seedlings in nurseries
subcultures

Sources Degrees Sums Square F tabular

variability freedom square means F cal 0,05 0,01

Treatments 8 9.953 1.244 0.84 NS 2.55 3.79

Species (E) 2 4.964 2.482 1.68 NS 3.59 6.11

Substrate (S) 2 0.427 0.214 0.14 NS 3.59 6.11

ExS 4 4.563 1.141 0.77 NS 2.96 4.67

Error 17 25.067 1.475

Total 25 35.020 - - -

C.V. = 14,02%

According to Table 05 of the analysis of variance for the variable height of seedling (cm), shows no statistical
significance (NS) for both sources of treatment, species, substrate and interaction E x S, since the F calculated
do not exceed the tabular levels odds 0.05 and 0.01, respectively F, which indicates that the treatment means
and factors in study did not differ from one another, and the coefficient of variability of 14.02% usIt shows that
the variability in height is homogeneous, so that there is indicating an acceptable accuracy, be in the range of 8-
14%.
Table 06 Duncan test of significance 5% probability for the effect of Species (E) in seedling height (cm)

Order of Species Average / plant height

Signification
merit (Key) (cm)

I e3 9.246 A

II e1 8.459 A

III e2 8.225 A

9,50

9,00 A
Altura plántula

8,50
(cm)

8,00 A A

7,50
e1 e2 e3

Especie

Figure 04 Average seedling (cm) relative to the species (E) Height

Table 06 and figure 04, shows that there are no significant differences in all three species, so we can say that the
behavior is statistically equal height. This result may be because the collected seedlings were selected of equal
size, subcultures and put up in the same environment, growth was slightly heterogeneous and slow. Lojan
(1992) and Marin (1998) indicate, in this regard, that the growth of Podocarpus is slow, with much lower rates
to those with secondary natural forest commercial forest species and pioneer.

W. W. elliptica cymbifolia and share the same habitat as the Podocarpus oleifolius in natural conditions, both
tolerant to a degree of direct radiation and therefore, when applied in the nursery the same environmental
conditions, tend to have similar responses.
Table 07 Duncan test of significance 5% probability for the effect of substrate (S) in seedling height (cm)

Order of substratum Average / plant height

Signification
merit (Key) (cm)

I s1 8.764 A

II s3 8.757 A

III s2 8.469 A

8,80
8,75
8,70 A
A
Altura planta

8,65
8,60
(cm)

8,55
8,50
8,45
A
8,40
8,35
8,30
S1 S2 S3
Sustrato

Figure 05 Average seedling (cm) in relation to the type of substrate (S) Height

Table 07 and figure 05, the testing of Duncan test at 5% probability for the effect of the substrate, we note that
the three types of substrates behave statistically equal, ie no differences in mean heights of seedlings, by so you
can use any of the three substrates studied for the propagation of seedlings and Weinmannia genus
Podocarpus.

The lack of statistical significance for the variable This is possibly due to the species of both genders develop
similar to those established in the bed of ringing environmental conditions. Reyes (1990) in this regard
mentions.

That the height of the plant may be affected by the joint action of the four fundamental factors: light, heat,
moisture and nutrients.

Meanwhile, Somarriba (1997) mentions that plant height is influenced by the genetic nature of the variety, soil
type and agronomic crop management.
Table 08 Duncan test of significance 5% probability for interaction effects (E x S) in seedling height (cm)

Order of substratum
Average / seedling height
Signification
merit (cm)
(Key)

I T9 9.900 A

II T8 9.267 A

III T4 8.935 A

IV T1 8.843 A

V T7 8.570 A

VI T2 8.363 A

VII T6 8.200 A

VIII T3 8.170 A

IX T5 7.777 A

10,00
9,00
8,00
Altura planta (cm)

7,00
6,00
A A A A A A A A A
5,00
4,00
3,00
2,00
1,00
0,00
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9

Tratamientos

Figure 06 Average seedling (cm) Height according to the E x S

In Table 08 and figure 06, the testing of Duncan at 5% probability, show that all the treatments are statistically
equal in terms of average seedling height, so we can say that the seedlings of the species under study and three
types of substrates have the same behavior for height growth in greenhouse conditions, where climatic factors
were controlled, demonstrating no significant interactions at the species level vs environment.
CONCLUSIONS

For the survival rate of the three native tree species, Podocarpus oleifolius showed increased survival, with 77
308% of seedlings regarding Weinmannia and Weinmannia cymbifolia elliptica species, 49.09% and 42.82%
survival, respectively.
The survival of seedlings associated with the substrate S3 (Agricultural land + humus + fertilizer), with 67.92%
survival, proved to be the best, but statistically is equal to S2 (agricultural land + forest floor) with 56.66%
survival and this, in turn, statistically equal to S1 (agricultural land) with 44.64% of survival.
Weinmannia cymbifolia showed better growth in height with respect to the other two, with 9.25 cm, and are
statistically equal in all three species. In the height-substrate interaction, there is no significant difference in the
three species.

RECOMMENDATIONS
We recommend further research related to the propagation of native forest species including phenology, seed
testing, germination tests and nursery crops besides resulting in final field planting.
Continue studies nursery propagation of three species under study, using a different kind of substrates, from
seed, vegetative to use in forest restoration programs spread.

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tropicales. Biología de la Conservación. S.l, s.e. 46 – 55 p.

Bergin, D.O. 2000. Los conocimientos actuales relevantes para la gestión de Podocarpus para la madera. Nueva
Zelanda. S.e. 343 – 359 p.

Bueso, R. 1997. Establecimiento y manejo de la regeneración natural. Yamaraguila, la esperanza. Honduras.

Chapman, C.; Chapman, L.J.1997. Regeneración forestal en los bosques explotados y no explotados del Parque
Nacional de Kibale. Uganda. S.e.396 – 412 p.

Clark, D.A.; Clark, D.B.; Sandoval, R.; Castro, M.V. 1995. Efectos edáficos y humanos sobre la distribución a
escala de paisaje de palmeras tropicales de la selva tropical. S.l, S.e. 2581 - 2594 p.

CONSEFORH. 2001. La regeneración natural en el bosque seco de Honduras. Conservación y manejo. Guía
técnica N° 01.

Daniel, T.W.; Helms, V.E. y F.S. Baker. 1982. Principios de silvicultura. Trad. Del inglés por Elizondo, M.R.
México. S.e. 492 p.

FAO (Organización de las Naciones Unidas para la Agricultura y la Alimentación, IT). 1991. Guía para la
Manipulación de Semillas Forestales (en línea). Roma. (Consultado el: 28 de marzo del 2007).

Fredericksen, T. S.; Mostacedo, B. 1999. La regeneración de las especies de madera tras el registro de la
selección boliviana en un bosque seco tropical. Forest Ecology and Management. Bolivia. S.e. 47-55 p.
Harold, W. y Hocker Jr. 1984. Introducción a la biología forestal. Trad. por Flor A. Bellomo L.A.G.T. México,
D.F. S.e. 446 p.

ICRAF (Centro Internacional para la Investigación en Agroforestería, PE). 1999. Manual Viveros Forestales
Familiares. Pucallpa, PE. S.e. 40 p.

Marín, V.A. 1998. Ecología y silvicultura de las podocarpáceas andinas de Colombia. Smurfit Cartón de
Colombia. (Disponible en: http://recursosbiologicos.eia.edu.co/ ecologia/estudiantes/chaquiro.htm).

Musalem, S.M.A.; Velázquez, M.A. y Gonzales, M.J.G. 1991. Algunas consideraciones ecológicas-silvícolas en
el establecimiento inicial de la regeneración natural en bosques de clima templado-frio. Agrociencia.
Serie Recursos Naturales renovables. S.l, S.e.45 p.

Norton, D. A. 1991. Plántulas y árboles jóvenes de distribución en un bosque de Podocarpus, Hokitika

Ecological District, Nueva Zelanda. Journal of Botany 29: 463-466.

Loján, L. 1992. El verdor de los Andes: Árboles y arbustos nativos para el desarrollo forestal altoandino. FAO,
Proyecto de desarrollo Forestal Participativo en los Andes. Quito, Ecuador.

Marín, A. 1998. Propagación vegetativa de dos Podocarpaceas del bosque andino colombiano con problemas
de propagación sexual, Smurfit. Carton, Colombia.

Ocaña, L. 1996. Cultivo de plantas forestales en contenedores, principios y fundamentos. Ministerio de

Agricultura, Pesca y Alimentación. Madrid, ES. S.e. 190 p.

Ordoñez, L.; Arbelaez, M. y Prado, L. (Com-Eds). 2004. Manejo de semillas forestales nativas de la Sierra
ecuatoriana y Norte del Perú. EcoPar – Fosefor - Samiri. Quito, Ecuador. S.e. S.p.

PENUMA (Programa de Naciones Unidas para el Medio Ambiente, PE). 2000. Manual Técnico de Plantaciones
Forestales (en línea) Disponible en: http://www.pnuma.org/manual tecnico. (Consultado el: 15 marzo
de 2007).

Pieter, G.I. 1988. Producción forestal. Trillas. México, D.F. S.e. 134 p.

Pritchett, W.L. 1986. Suelos Forestales México, D.F. Editorial Limusa. 535 - 556 p.

Reyes, C.P. 1990. El Maíz y su Cultivo. AGT. Editorial México. Tercera Edición. México D.F. pp 320 -350.

Ruano, J. 2003. Viveros Forestales - Manual de cultivo y proyectos. Madrid, ES. Ediciones Mundi-Prensa.282 p.

Saúl Padilla.1989. Manual del viverista. 2 ed. Cajamarca, PE. 120 p.

Sociedad Española De Ciencias Forestales - Diccionario Forestal. 2005. 95 E. ISBN: 84-8476-189-4. (Disponible
en: http://www.secforestales.org/pdf/publicac/dicfor.pdf. Forestal). 1336 p.

Soto, D.P. y H. Figueroa. 2008. Efectos de las alteraciones antrópicas sobre la estructura y composición de
rodales de Pilgero dendronuviferum en la Cordillera de la Costa de Chile. Ecología Austral. CH. S.e.
Vol. 18, 13-25 p.

Spurr, S.H. y Barnes, B.V. 1982. Ecología forestal. Trad. por Carlos L. Raigoroesky Z. A.G.T. Editorial México,
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Steel, R.; Torrie, J. 1985. Bioestadística, editorial MC GRAW-HILL LATINOAMERICANA S.A., Bogotá,
Colombia, 226 p.
Vaca, S. 2003. Impacto de la tala selectiva en los bosques de Podocarpus de San Ignacio Cajamarca - Perú. 143-
156 p.
Characterization of Biological Soil Crusts as a First
Step for the Rehabilitation of Mine Tailing Facilities
Claudia Ortiz, Marcela Wilkens, Alejandro Muñoz, Felipe Muñoz and Diego Fernández
Department of Biology, University of Santiago of Chile

ABSTRACT
Biological soil crusts (BSCs) are ubiquitous lichen–bryophyte microbial communities, which are
critical structural and functional components of many ecosystems. However, BSCs are rarely
addressed in the restoration literature. Here the importance of study the ecological roles BSCs
would play in the restoration of tailing facilities and in the rehabilitation of mine disturbed
ecosystems. BSCs facilitate and could speed up succession acting as ecosystem engineers in highly
abiotic stressed systems, such as tailing facilities. Rehabilitation can be kicked off by using BSCs
because of the strong influence that these microbial communities exert to return disturbed soil from
a degraded state to an improved state. BSCs are considered pioneers in biological successions,
facilitating colonization of other biological species.
The group of Plant Biochemistry and Phytoremediation at University of Santiago de Chile, through
a R&D project, studies the microbial compositions of biological crusts from different accessions. The
goal is to obtain a standardized culture of microorganism that form biological crusts with the ability
to stabilize particulate matter on tailings facilities and improves the quality of erodible and
degraded soils. The preliminary results show that the samples collected have a variable population
composition, determined by molecular methods; which correlates with the physicochemical
characteristics of the sites, and plant species identified on the sites. Natural microbiological systems
can be used to mitigate the emission of particulate material and to improve chemical and physical
properties of degraded soils. The proposal is directly in line with the needs of long-term solutions
for mine closure plans, that are feasible to implement, and which enable the rehabilitation of the
operated systems.

Keywords: Biological Soil Crusts, cyanobacteria, wind erosion control, soil stabilization.

1
INTRODUCTION
Biological Soil Crusts are a complex mosaic of soil, green algae, lichens, mosses, micro-fungi,
cyanobacteria and other bacteria (Belnap & Lange, 2003). BSCs are communities that include
primary producers and multiple levels of consumers in the dependent food web generally
consisting of hundreds of species (Bowker, Maestre & Soliveres, 2010). These communities can
support up to 40 different species, but usually fewer bryophyte and lichen species. Interactions
among species have been proposed as an important determinant of community structure,
constraining or enhancing the total number of species that can coexist, and the particular species
combinations that can exist (Brooker et al., 2008). BSCs exhibit multiple trofic levels and functional
complexity in small spatial extents. In arid and semiarid sites, BSCs have a potential of increasing
infiltration and decreasing surface flow, and have an impact in soil erosion and water storage. This
effect is particularly relevant when there are occasional rainfall events such as the ones that recently
happened in northern Chile. The influence of BSCs in water infiltration is depending on soil texture
and structure, the degree of cover, types of organisms in crusts, climate and disturbance history
(Belnap, 2006). BSCs can increase porosity, enhance aggregate stability and improve physical
structure of soils (Zhang, 2005). Furthermore, BSCs protect soils from wind and water erosion, and
they have been used in desertification control (Wei, 2005). Cyanobacteria are the principal live
component of BSCs and provide most of the cohesive characteristics of the BSCs in arid and
semiarid lands by the production and secretion of polysaccharides that allow the chelation and
bioavailability of nutrients for other organisms such as algae, fungi and other bacteria species
(García & López, 2001; Lin, Chou & Wu, 2013). Biocrusts are the best example of micro-landscapes,
which exhibit heterogeneity, aggregation, connectivity and fragmentation like macro-landscapes.
Because the microorganisms that are present in the BSCs are not easy to grow under traditional
methods, like liquid and solid media culture, studies at small-scale analysis using molecular
techniques can help to examine the wide range of microorganism present in communities (Bowker
& Maestre, 2014). The principal molecular markers for microorganism communities are 16S
ribosomal RNA gene for identification of cyanobacteria and nitrogen-fixing bacteria (Bérard &
Dorigo, 2004), 18S ribosomal RNA gene for identification of eukaryotes like algae (Rodicio &
Mendicia, 2004), and ITS sequence (Internal Transcribed Spacer) which is a non-coding and spacer
DNA situated between the small-subunit ribosomal RNA for fungi (Schoch et al., 2012).
Due to the environmental services of the BSCs, it has been suggested that they can be used to
bioremediate degraded soils, and for rehabilitation purposes (Eldridge, 1996; Bowker, 2007).
According to the Chilean National Service of Geology and Mining (SERNAGEOMIN) about 66% of
the existing mining installations (operative and abandoned) are located in the Northern Regions of
Chile, were the climatic conditions correspond to arid and semi-arid environments. We propose
that biocrusts isolated from these type of environments can contribute to mine rehabilitation as a
first step of biological colonization. In this study, we evaluated the composition of the population
and the biological heterogeneity of BSCs through molecular methods, on soil samples from semi-
arid environments from Northern Chile. We also correlate the physicochemical characteristics of the
soils and the apparent complexity of the BSCs associated. This is the first study carried out in Chile
in order to develop a methodology for the use of biocrusts as the primary step for the soil
rehabilitation in mine tailings facilities.

2
METHODOLOGY

Study site
The study area included six sampling sites named as sites A, B, C, D and E in an area that
corresponds to the Coquimbo region of Chile like a first approach of the characterization of biocrust
in a semi-arid environment. Three sites (A, B and D) were located to the north of the region
(coordinates -29°14’22.12´´-71°26’10.82’’) and three sites (C, E and F) were about 160 km south
(coordinates -31°0’26.36’’-70°52’32.03’’) (Figure 1). The locations A, B and D present a coastal
cloudy climate, which is characterized by clouds, moderate temperatures and humidity; and the
locations C,E and F have a climate described as temperate steppe.

Figure 1 Geographic localization of sampling sites

Soils samples
Thirty four soil samples were obtained from the 6 different sampling sites. Three soil samples for
each site B, D and E were taken. From site A, 11 soil samples were taken; from sites C and F, 7 soil
samples were taken. The differences in the number of samples was due to the accessibility to the
sites. Soil samples were collected in sterile Falcon tubes from the first centimetre of the surface of
the soil. Some samples were obtained from stones scraping. All the samples were stored in sterile
bags and were maintained at 4°C for further analysis

3
Molecular analysis of biological crust samples
Cell lysis and extraction of DNA were performed according to the manufacturer´s specifications
with the FavorPrep™ Soil DNA Isolation Minikit. DNA samples were maintained at -20°C.
Quantification was performed in a multi-detector microplate reader Synergy™ HT of Biotek
Instruments according to manufacturer´s specifications through absorbance of DNA at wavelengths
260 and 280 nm. Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) amplifications (Table 1) were performed using
a G-Storm GS482 thermocycler, using specific primers to identify cyanobacteria, nitrogen-fixing
bacteria, fungi and algae (Rodicio, 2004; Bérard, 2004; Schoch, 2012).
Two μmol of each primer, 10 μL of GoTaq® Green MasterMix (Promega), and 1 μL of template
DNA extracted from the soil crusts samples, were combined with H2O to a volume of 20 μL in a 0.5-
ml test tube. To minimize non-specific annealing of the primers to non target DNA, each
amplification protocol was standardized as indicated in Table 1. For each PCR amplification, a
specific positive control was used: IH9 culture (cyanobacteria), Klebsiella pneumoniae (fixing-nitrogen
bacteria), Diaporthe australafricana (fungi), and Durvillaea antarctica (algae).

Table 1 PCR amplification protocols

PCR product Number of

Organism Primer sequence PCR protocol
length cycles
Cyanobacteria CYA359F – 450 bp 2 min at 94°C
(16S rRNA GGGGAATYTTCCGCAA 1 min at 94°C
gene) TGG 1 min at 46°C
CYA781Rb – 1 min at 47°C 4
GACTACAGGGGTATCT 1 min at 48°C
AATCCCTTT 1 min at 49°C
1 min at 72°C

1 min at 94°C
31
1 min at 50°C
1 min at 72°C
15 min at 72°C

Nitrogen fixing PolF – 370 bp 5 min at 94°C

bacteria TGCGAYCCSAARGCBG 1 min at 94°C
30
(nif genes) ACTC 1 min at 55°C
PolR – 2 min at 72°C
ATSGCCATCATYTCRC 15 min at 72°C
CGGA
Fungi ITS1 – 500 – 800 bp 5 min at 94°C
(5.8S ITS gene) TCCGTAGGTGAACCTG 1 min at 94°C
35
CGG 1 min at 55°C
ITS2 – 1 min at 72°C
TCTCAGGCTCCCTCTC 10 min at 72°C
CGGA

4
 Algae P73 – 500 bp 5 min at 94°C
(18S rRNA AATCAGTTATAGTTTA 50 sec at 94°C
37
gene) TTTGRTGGTACC 50 sec at 57°C
P47 – 50 sec at 72°C
TCTCAGGCTCCCTCTC 10 min at 72°C
CGGA

Physicochemical characterization of soils

Between 0.5 to 1.0 g of soil samples were used for the physicochemical analysis. Water content was
measured weighing 1.0 g of sample before and after incubation for 72 h at 50°C. Conductivity and
pH were measured through electrochemical methods (Fernández, Rojas & Roldán, 2000). Each
mixed sample soil was blended with distilled water in a 1:5 ratio, and was maintained 1 h in an
orbital shaker at 20 rpm. The mixes were decanted for 10 min and parameters were measured in the
liquid phase. Organic matter and organic carbon contents were measured through the colorimetric
determination of reduced chromate mixing 0.5 g of the soil sample with sodium dichromate and
sulphuric acid. The samples were blended and maintained overnight at room temperature and the
absorbance at 600 nm was measured in a spectrophotometer UV-VIS (method modified from
Walkley and Black, 1934). For the quantification of elements in the soil samples, 100 mg of each
sector (in triplicate) were taken and dried at 45 °C for one week in an oven. Samples were sifted (2
mm) and then digested with HNO3: HF: HCl in 3: 1: 1 in microwave for 30 min, ending the
digestion with HBO3 .The samples were diluted with 25 mL of H2O milli Q and filtered. The
elements were determined by ICP-OES using a multi element standard solution (Merck) for the
determination of Ag, Al, B, Ba, Bi, Ca, Cd, Mn, Na, Ni, Pb, Sr, Tl, Zn and As.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Molecular analysis of soil crust samples
DNA was obtained from all the soil samples with yields ranging from 1 to 98 μg/mL. In the Table 2,
a resume of the intensity of amplicons obtained per location is shown. Only four samples did not
show amplification for DNA fragments associated to cyanobacteria (B2, C6, E2 and F1). All the
other samples showed different intensities of amplicons for cyanobacteria. For nitrogen-fixing
bacteria, fifteen DNA samples amplified a fragment associated to the nif gene, which encodes to a
nitrogenase enzyme. The amplicon size was expected to be 370 bp in length, but two samples
amplified for a bigger size fragment of about 800 bp. This result might be related with the fact that
some nitrogen-fixing bacteria species, present two operons related with dinitrogenase (nifDK) and
dinitrogenase reductase (nifH), like sample C2, but the majority of alphaproteobacteria and
gammaproteobacteria have only one operon called nifHDK, which give an amplification of a bigger
size than expected (Joerger, Wolfinger & Bishop, 2010). In addition, cyanobacteria can specialize in
heterocysts, which are a morpho-functional specialization to fix nitrogen and characterized by a
filamentous formation. The genes involved in the nitrogen fixation in heterocyst is the nifHDK
operon, and the amplification can rend two different size of fragments as in the case of sample A4
(Kumar, Mella & Golden, 2010; Hilton et al., 2013). The formation of heterocysts is associated to
formation of filamentous structures in cyanobacteria as has been observed for the sample A4

5
(Wilkens, personal observations 2015). The formation of heterocyst-type structures involves the
ability of the biocrusts to supply nitrogen to the soils.

Table 2 Resume of amplified fragments intensity in the soil crust samples

Sample Cyanobacteria Nitrogen-fixing Bacteria Algae Fungi

A 2 1 2 2
B 1 1 1 0
C 2 1 2 1
D 2 1 1 1
E 1 0 1 1
F 1 0 1 1
1: smooth band; 2: strong band; 0: no amplification

On the other hand, the algae amplified fragments size was according to the expected length (400
bp). Only two samples did not show presence of algae (F1 and E2). This result can be a consequence
of the heterogeneity of the soil samples. Finally, twenty-one samples showed amplified fragment
from ITS region of DNA of fungi. Several soil crust samples showed different size for the amplicons
(data not shown). This observation is consistent with literature that explains that the ITS region in
fungi is variable in length and composition for each specie (White et al., 1990). It can be interpreted
that soil samples in which different bands for fungi detection appeared, present a high diversity of
species. The observed biological heterogeneity in the soil samples, determined as the amplification
of specific DNA fragments for cyanobacteria, nitrogen-fixing bacteria, fungi and algae, is high. The
lack of amplicons for different organisms different from cyanobacteria can be an indicator of a
differential maturity of the soil crusts. Thus, locations A and C could be representative of more
mature crust as compared with locations B and E, which have a poor heterogeneity, characteristic of
young crusts (Lin, Chou & Wu, 2013). The Northern sites of the region (A, B and D) present
different climatic conditions than Southern sites C, E and F. The Northern location presents a
coastal steppe or cloudy climate, which is characterized by clouds, moderate temperatures and
humidity. These sites show a high variability of organisms as compared with the rest of locations
which might be representative of matures BSCs in soils (Yeager, Kormosky and Housman, 2004;
CONAMA, 2010).

Physicochemical parameters
The average of the percentage of humidity, electrical conductivity and pH of soil samples for each
site are shown in Table 3. For all the sites, the pH values were according to the expected optimal
value for the development of biocrusts, which ranges from 6 to 8 (Weyman & Pedziwilk, 2000;
Queiroz, Bastos & Almeida, 2002; Morales, Rodríguez & García, 2002). Electrical Conductivity (EC),
which is an indirect measure for the salinity of the samples, showed moderate values in all sites
independently of the geographical location. Coquimbo region of Chile is characterized for a
variable salinity in different locations which is mostly related with the presence of elevated
concentrations of calcium, sodium, carbonates and sulphates salts. In addition, these soils are
poorly washed due to the limited rains characteristic of a semi-desert climate (CONAMA, 2010;

6
Drees et al., 2006). Organic matter (OM) and organic carbon (OC) were higher than expected for
this region (Aguilera et al., 1998). The high values for OC founded in the samples might be due to
the biological activity of BCSs, according with Maestre & Cortina, 1998.

Table 3 Humidity, conductivity, pH and organic matter of samples per location

Location Humidity Electrical conductivity pH Organic Organic
(%) (mS m- )-1 matter carbon
(%) (%)

A 1.0 ± 0.29 31.64 ± 5.51 7.67 ± 0.08 3.53 ± 1.09 2.05 ± 0.63

B 3.3 ± 2.71 26.26 ± 9.11 7.42 ± 0.16 1.30 ± 0.09 0.75 ± 0.05

C 1.5 ± 0.36 13.39 ± 4.90 7.06 ± 0.15 3.30 ± 1.04 1.92 ± 0.61

D 4.7 ± 2.40 24.19 ± 4.90 7.54 ± 0.14 1.25 ± 0.33 1.25 ± 0.33

E 1.6 ± 0.46 15.22 ± 3.89 7.34 ± 0.04 1.18 ± 0.57 1.18 ± 0.57

F 1.0 ± 0.13 16.50 ± 2.28 7.07 ± 0.09 1.26 ± 0.38 1.26 ± 0.38

CONCLUSION
Microbial diversity of populations forming biological crusts might be determined through the
diversity of amplicons obtained from DNA extracted form soil crusts samples at six locations from
Coquimbo region of Chile. The thirty-four samples analyzed have different microorganism's
composition, and the microbiological biodiversity in the soil crusts can be used as an indicator of
different levels of maturity of the biocrusts. The micro-heterogeneity of the soil crusts samples of
nearby sites is evident and there is not a pattern in the microbial composition of the samples. We
did not observe a direct relationship between the microbial pattern determined through DNA
fragments amplification and the physicochemical characteristics of the soils where the samples
were obtained. The next step is the characterization of the phylogeny and diversity of the soil crusts
samples through Illumina platform to establish a suitable methodology to cultivate and to inoculate
the communities of microorganisms on soils from mine sites apt for reclamation.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The work was sponsored by FONDEF-Chile ID 14L10151.

7
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9
Integrating Biodiversity into Mining Operations:
Approaches and Key Elements
Felipe Ramírez
CTA- Consultoría y Tecnología Ambiental Chile

ABSTRACT
The standard practice to approach biodiversity by mining activities in Latin-America, traditionally
includes baseline and monitoring programs for the most conspicuous flora and fauna groups in
order to comply with local requirements and guidelines. Throughout recent years, this has shown
not to be enough. Today stakeholders of a mining project demand accurate information regarding
biodiversity in all of its forms. In order to provide stakeholders with accurate information, mining
activities most incorporate biodiversity key elements during all phases of a project and throughout
the mine life. This requires identification and understanding of all the elements that biodiversity
contain and how they interact in an environment surrounding a mining project.
A comprehensive biodiversity engagement needs to include adequate bioindicators, a precise
ecosystem services identification, impact assessment through the mitigation hierarchy approach,
communication with local and regional stakeholders and a robust monitoring program of these key
biodiversity features. Using international standards (International Finance Corporation –IFC-
Performance Standard 6, International Council of Mining and Metals – ICMM – principles and
UICN red list of threatened species, among others) while developing a specific biodiversity
management and action plan for a mining operation contribute to a full understanding on the
biodiversity interactions, during mining activities.
This article present how key biodiversity elements on precious and base metal mining operations in
Mexico, Central and South America, show different approaches and challenges depending on each
environment. The comparisons of the assessments in these three mining operations show that
although biodiversity values differ, key elements provide useful elements for decision making and
stakeholder engagement.

1
INTRODUCTION
The following article, describes how traditional definitions of biodiversity, which include variability
in composition, structure and function (e.g. Noss, 2001) of genes, species and ecosystems, and the
interactions between them, are currently being addressed by mining companies in Latin America.
Mining operations usually focus on more narrow definitions of biodiversity, which may be
restricted by factors such as type (e.g., habitats/ecosystems, species or processes), taxonomy and/or
species interactions, scale (e.g., ecosystem classifications, species, subspecies or populations),
conservation status, or value type (e.g., only existence values of biodiversity or also ecosystem
services) (Burgin, 2008; Quétier & Lavorel, 2011). These narrow definitions are often chosen on the
basis of selected biodiversity components are representative of biodiversity as a whole. Today
biodiversity has become a more material business issue for the metals and mining sector; therefore
stakeholders expect companies, as responsible businesses, to manage biodiversity alongside other
sustainability issues. Mining activities most incorporate biodiversity key elements during all
phases of a project and throughout the mine life. A comprehensive biodiversity engagement needs
to include adequate bioindicators, a precise ecosystem services identification, impact assessment
through the mitigation hierarchy approach; communication with local and regional stakeholders
and a robust monitoring program of these key biodiversity features, including international
standards.

METHODOLOGY
For the comparison of the key biodiversity elements, three mining operations were selected:
 Operation 1. Nickel mining operation in Izabal, Guatemala (brownfield project),
 Operation 2. Gold and Silver project in Zacatecas, Mexico (greenfield project), and
 Operation 3. Copper operation in Chile (operating mine).

On these operations, the following biodiversity studies where developed (where applicable):
aquatic life (macroinvertebrates, fish, and habitat assessments), wildlife (amphibian, reptiles, birds,
and mammals), bioacoustics and ecosystem services identification. All studies used standardized
methodologies suggested by the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the World Resource
Institute (WRI), and comply with local and international standards (IFC- Performance Standard 6,
ICMM – principles and UICN red list). Based on the results of the assessments, three key
biodiversity values were obtained for each operation:

a) Critical habitat, as defined by IFC PS61,

b) Critically endangered species (using UICN red list of threatened species2), and

11Critical habitats are areas with high biodiversity value, including (i) habitat of significant importance to
Critically Endangered and/or Endangered species; (ii) habitat of significant importance to endemic and/or
restricted - range species; (iii) habitat supporting globally significant concentrations of migratory species
and/or congregatory species; (iv) highly threatened and/or unique ecosystems; and/or (v) areas associated with
key evolutionary processes.

2
c) Ecosystem services (number and type of services based on the definitions of the WRI) 3.

For each operation, key biodiversity values were evaluated based on the most relevant international
guidelines, which address biodiversity. The selection of guidelines was based on the current
expected standard for the mining industry. These guidelines are presented in the following table:

Table 1 International Standard: biodiversity related guidelines

Standard Guideline

The design will avoid construction in protected areas and world heritage properties; when
ICMM located in adjacent areas, environmental management practices to ensure that operations
are not incompatible with the international value for which they are considered.

A biodiversity based alternative analysis should be prepared, so that there is no significant

IFC
conversion or degradation of natural habitats , unless No other viable alternatives within
PS6, Paragraph 14
the region exist for development of the infrastructure on modified habitat

The design will include mitigation measures to achieve no net loss of biodiversity:
IFC Avoiding impacts on biodiversity through the identification and protection of set asides;
PS6, Paragraph 15 Minimize habitat fragmentation, such as biological corridors; Restoring habitats during
operations and/or after operations and Implementing biodiversity offsets.
In areas of critical habitat, No activities will be developed unless:
No other viable alternatives within the region exist.
IFC
The activities does not lead to measurable adverse impacts on those biodiversity values;
PS6, Paragraph 17
The activities does not lead to a net reduction in the global and/or national/regional
population of any Critically Endangered or Endangered species; and
IFC
Measures to avoid the potential introductions of alien species.
PS6, Paragraph 22

The comparison of each guideline was both, qualitative and quantitative, since, ecological
conditions vary from each site, and local biodiversity will be better understood through complex
biogeographical models. Also the background information, including environmental and social
baseline data, was included in the analysis, since the information helped explained the current
biodiversity status and the relationship of native species in response to the environment.

2 Including species threatened with global extinction and listed as CR and EN on the IUCN Red List of
Threatened Species. Critically Endangered species face an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild, while
Endangered species face a very high risk of extinction in the wild.
3 Ecosystem services, as defined by IFC´s PS6 guideline notes are the benefits that people, including businesses,

derive from ecosystems. Ecosystem services are organized into four types: (i) provisioning services, which are
the products people obtain from ecosystems; (ii) regulating services, which are the benefits people obtain from
the regulation of ecosystem processes; (iii) cultural services, which are the nonmaterial benefits people obtain
from ecosystems; and (iv) supporting services, which are the natural processes that maintain the other services.

3
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Biodiversity values
The most diverse area was observed in the nickel mining operation located in a humid subtropical
forest (615 species), followed by the gold and silver operation with 120 species and last, the copper
operation located in the Atacama Desert with only 20 species. The observed biodiversity value is
presented in the following table.

Table 2 Biodiversity values

Critical No. of No. Protected No. of Type of

Mining
Ecosystem Habitat fauna fauna species ecosystem ecosystem services
Operation
(Y/N) species services
Humid Provisioning
1 Y 615 13 4
subtropical Habitat
Provisioning,
2 Dry Forest Y 120 2 6 Regulation
Cultural
Provisioning
3 Desert Y 20 7 2
Habitat

Protected species include: endangered, critically endangered and vulnerable; Data source: CTA,
2015.

As observed, the least diverse area (located in the desert), presents a higher composition of
protected species (35%), therefore including the largest density of critical habitats. Mining
operation 1 presents the most abundant fauna (mostly constituted by bird species). The least
abundant and diverse is the desert, including primarily reptiles and birds (most of them endemic),
alien species were also identified and quantify on all three scenarios. Species size is also important
to mention, since the remaining large size fauna is traditionally used as game species, current
biodiversity value has being directly influenced by local hunting pressure. For example, in
operation 1, game species constitute a large percentage, and local communities, are used to
obtaining protein from this resource, indicating that a sustainable biodiversity framework, which
includes game species and their use, will be preferable. Regarding the ecosystem services, the more
diverse are present in the dry forest, including 6 ecosystem services.

Table 2 Approaches and International Standard compliance

Standard Guideline

Operation 1. Full compliance. A private reserve was established, to preserve local

protected species and biodiversity values.
Operation 2. Full compliance. Biological corridors and water bodies (artificial) were
ICMM
incorporated into the design.
Operation 3. Full compliance. Two adjacent conservation zones have periodical monitoring
programs in place.

4
 Standard Guideline
Operation 1. Included.
IFC
Operation 2. Included.
PS6, Paragraph 14
Operation 3. Not considered.
Operation 1. Included. Habitat restoration program in place. Ecosystem services
conservation is achieved by the implementation of EMPs.
IFC Operation 2. Included. Habitat restoration programs and ecosystem services conservation
PS6, Paragraph 15 is included on EMPs. Regional Programs include the local communities.
Operation 3. Not included. Operation was already in place. No critical habitat was
identified within the mining footprint.
Operation 1. Endangered species and their habitat were identified. Critical habitat is
included in the conservation programs.
IFC Operation 2. Endangered species and their habitat were identified. Critical habitat will be
PS6, Paragraph 17 included in the conservation programs when the construction begins.
Operation 3. Endangered species and their habitat were identified (all in adjacent areas).
Critical habitat were identified and selected for set asides.
Operation 1. Included.
IFC
Operation 2. Not included.
PS6, Paragraph 22
Operation 3. Included.
The presentation will provide visual records of the actions developed on each operation. Data
source: CTA, 2015.

Bioindicators
A detail review of the species composition suggested the best group of bioindicators for each
operation. For the nickel operation, where several streams and small creeks are present, the best
bioindicators are macroinvertebrates, particularly the Ephemeroptera, Plechoptera and Trichoptera
(EPT) which indicate a good habitat quality, as opposed to Diptera which indicate disturbance
and/or contamination. This selected group enables the company to measure the impact while
refurbishing the plant and set a benchmark for future monitoring programs during operation.

Macroinvertebrates

Figure 1 Ephemeroptera Figure 2 Plechoptera Figure 3 Trichopetra Figure 4 Diptera

(Heptagenidae) (Perlidae) (Polycentropodidae) (Simulidae)

For the Gold and silver operation, with is located on a vast area with abundant shrubs and small
mammals (rodents), the best bioindicators are birds, and reptiles which have shown to be sensitive

5
to habitat disturbances and trophic web alterations. Long term assessments of these groups (prior
to construction) will provide the operation with an indicator of the ecosystems health.

Figure 5 Parabuteo unicinctus Figure 6 Caracara cheriway

For the copper operation, located in the desert, the best bioindicators are also birds (although
scarce), and some reptiles (lizards), which are restricted to microhabitats and therefore are sensitive
to landscape disturbances. The selected species are both endangered and considered endemic to the
Atacama Desert, which provides an excellent opportunity to monitor if the operation impacts the
species composition.

MONITORING AND STAKEHOLDER ENGAGEMENT

For all three mining operations the prepared biodiversity management and action plans contribute
to a full understanding on the biodiversity interactions, during mining activities, also present clear
objectives and benchmarks to evaluate its applicability. These BMP include a hierarchical impact
assessment based on selected species (the ones considered endangered and/or most relevant);
which allow maximizing the monitoring effort on this groups, even when large set of species are
present. For mining operations 1 & 2, which were not operating during surveys and are located in
the most diverse areas, a strong baseline effort contributed to determine, the ideal biondicators
among a large set of species. Selecting the endangered species as key biodiversity values and
incorporating on early stages of the mining plan will allow to:
 Maximize the effort of biodiversity related programs, by focusing on bioindicators,
specifically selected for each mining site and also,
 Guarantee that critical habitat can be avoided, through the identification and protection
of set asides, and also minimize habitat fragmentation, such as biological corridors; By
focusing the conservation efforts on the critical habitat, a mining project can avoid the net
loss of biodiversity.
 Contribute to the sustainability of ecosystem services at each site.

For operation 3, located on the least diverse area, the monitoring effort includes advance detection
methods (like bioacoustics), which allow to obtain more accurate data while monitoring fewer
individuals.

Restoration of habitats during operations and/or after operations is key for contributing to no net
loss, identifying and integrating ecosystem services may provide an ideal tool to select these
habitats and also to determine which species will provide adequate indicators. In all three

6
scenarios local stakeholders include conservation non-governmental organizations, local
governments and communities. All stakeholder identify the ecosystem services present, therefore
monitoring programs and conservation action provide an opportunity to strengthen the relations
among key actors.

As stated on IFC, PS6 GN, projects that involve significant risks and impacts across multiple
biodiversity values and ecosystem services would benefit from applying an “ecosystem approach
“to understanding the environment. As described by the Convention on Biological Diversity, the
ecosystem approach is “a strategy for the integrated management of land, water and living
resources that promotes conservation and sustainable use in an equitable way.” 4 The comparison
of these three operations with different biodiversity values, and approaches to biodiversity
management, is a good example of how broader approaches lead to better results in the long term
management of the environmental biological and social elements of the project.

REFERENCES
Bonnie, R. & Wilcove, D. S. (2008). Ecological Considerations. Pp. 53-67 in: Carroll, N., Fox, J. and Bayon, R.
(eds.) Conservation and Biodiversity Banking: A Guide to Setting Up and Running Biodiversity
Credit Trading Systems.Earthscan: London.

Bull, J. W., Gordon, A., Law, E. A., Suttle, K. B. & Milner-Gulland, E. J. (2014). Importance of Baseline
Specification in Evaluating Conservation Interventions and Achieving No Net Loss of Biodiversity.
Conservation Biology DOI: 10.1111/cobi.12243

Burgin, S. (2008). BioBanking: an environmental scientist’s view of the role of biodiversity banking offsets in
conservation. Biodiversity and Conservation 17: 807-816.

CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) Trade Database.
UNEP-WCMC, Cambridge, U.K. http://www.unep-wcmc.org/citestrade/trade.cfm

Fox, J. & Nino-Murcia, A. (2005). Status of Species Conservation Banking in the United States. Conservation
Biology 19: 996-1007. Gardner, R. C. (2008). Legal Considerations. Pp. 53-67 in: Carroll, N., Fox, J. and
Bayon, R. (eds.) Conservation and Biodiversity Banking: A Guide to Setting Up and Running
Biodiversity Credit Trading Systems. Earthscan: London. Gardner, T. A. (2010). Monitoring Forest
Biodiversity: Improving conservation through ecologically responsible management. Earthscan:
London. Gardner, T. & von Hase, A. (2012). Key ingredients for Biodiversity Offsets to Achieve No
Net Loss. Unpublished report to the New Zealand Department of Conservation. Available from:
http://www.doc.govt.nz/upload/documents/conservation/key-ingredients-for-biodiversity-offsets.pdf

Foxall, J., Grigg, A. and ten Kate, K (2005) Protecting shareholder and natural value. 2005 benchmark of
biodiversity management practices in the extractive industry. Insight Investment, London, UK.
(http://www.naturalvalueinitiative.org/download/documents/Publications/PDF%204%20protecting_s
hareholder_and_natural_value_2005.pdf)

ICMM. 2006. Good Practice Guidance for Mining and Biodiversity. London: ICMM (International Council on
Mining and Metals).

4The CBD defines “ecosystem”as a “dynamic complex of plant, animal and micro-organism communities and
their non-living environment interacting as a functional unit.”

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IFC (International Finance Corporation). 2012. Performance Standard 6, Biodiversity Conservation and
Sustainable Management of Living Natural Resources. 9 pp.

IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature). 2003. “Guidelines for Application of IUCN Red List
Criteria at Regional Levels: Version 3.0,” IUCN Species Survival Commission, IUCN, Gland,
Switzerland. http://www.iucn.org/

Noss, R. F. (2001).Indicators for monitoring biodiversity: a hierarchical approach. Conservation Biology 4: 355-
364.

Palmer, M. A. & Filoso, S. (2009). Restoratin of Ecosystem Services for Environmental Markets. Science 325:
575-576.

Pilgrim, J. D. & Ekstrom, J. M. M. (2014). Technical conditions for positive outcomes from biodiversity offsets.
An input paper for the IUCN Technical Study Group on Biodiversity Offsets. Gland, Switzerland:
IUCN. 46 pp.

SEMARNAT (Secretaría de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales) Manifestación de Impacto Ambiental,

Sector Minero (punto IV.2.5 Diagnóstico ambiental).

CITES (Convención sobre el Comercio Internacional de Especies Amenazadas de Fauna y Flora Silvestres).
2013. Apéndices I, II y III. Gland, Suiza. 42 pp. http://www.cites.org/esp/resources/species.html

Benoit I. 1989. Libro rojo de la flora terrestre de Chile. Corporación Nacional Forestal. Santiago. 157 pp.

Di Castri, F. 1968. Equisse écologique du Chili. Biologie de l`Amerique australe. En: Debouteville CL & E
Rapaport (eds) Etude sur la faune du Sol. Vol. IV: Biologie de Lamerique Australe: 7-52. Editions du
Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Paris, France.

Glade, A. 1993. Libro Rojo de los Vertebrados Terrestres de Chile. Actas del Simposio “Estado de Conservación
de los Vertebrados Terrestres de Chile”. Segunda edición. CONAF. Santiago, Chile. 67 pp.

SAG (Servicio Agrícola y Ganadero). 2012. La Ley de caza y su reglamento. Departamento de Recursos
Naturales Renovables. Ministerio de Agricultura. Santiago, Chile. 97 pp.

8
 C HAP T E R 1 1

SUSTAINABLE
USE OF WATER
Effect of Seawater on the Acid Consumption for
Different Types of Ores
Pía Hernández1, Cecilia Cerda1, María Taboada1,2,3, Teófilo Graber1,2,3 and Héctor
Galleguillos1,2,3
1. CSIRO-Chile International Centre of Excellence in Mining and Mineral Processing, Chile
2. Departamento de Ingeniería Química y Procesos de Minerales, Universidad de Antofagasta,
Chile
3. CICITEM, Centro de Investigación Científico Tecnológico para la Minería. Chile

ABSTRACT
Currently the demand of water by mining companies is increasing and this resource is scarce. For
this reason it is imperative that mining companies only use sea water in their processes.
The aim of this study was to determine the effect of seawater on the acid consumption of different
copper ores.
The experimental tests were performed using four different ores obtained from different places in
the Region of Antofagasta, Chile. The ores used have a range of between 1.41% and 0.36% total
copper and a range between 0.29% and 0.02% soluble copper. The ore mineralogy was determined
using X-ray diffraction (XRD). The predominant minerals were: quartz, albite and orthoclase. The
particle size used in these tests was 150 µm. As leaching solutions, sea water, water and a mixture
of both in a ratio of 1 were used. Magnetic stirring at laboratory scale was used for to perform the
tests.
In order to reach a pH = 1.2, the acid consumption for the different minerals varied between 34 and
84 [kg acid/ton ore]. It was determined that acid consumption is not dependent of the leaching
solution used, but the mineralogy of the ore, specially gangues, are very important for this
consumption. Furthermore, chloride ion provided by the seawater did not show significant effect
on proton activity according to experimental results obtained in this work.
These results show the possibility that mining companies use seawater without increasing
operational costs in sulfuric acid.

1
INTRODUCTION
Many copper mining industries are using sea water in its processes due to the growing demand for
water produced by water shortages.
On leaching copper ores is used acidic, therefore there is a large consumption of this reagent
according to the mineralogy of the ore to process. The copper minerals can be divided into two
groups: oxide and sulfide. The oxide minerals only needs acid for the leaching process, the sulfide
minerals needs acid and an oxidant agent.
By the other hand, the gangues presents in the ores have a great influence on the leaching behavior
of the system because they can interact with the leaching agents, consuming them and altering
variables such as pH and redox potential. The copper deposits in Chile have almost 95% of silicates
as gangues. These silicates are often dissolving through a hydrolysis reaction therefore its
dissolution rate increases with decreasing pH. Domic (2001)classifies the gangues according the
acid consumption in the following categories: gangue highly reactive, gangue moderately reactive,
gangue slightly reactive and gangue not reactive. Jansen and Taylor (2003) have studied the
mineralogy of the gangues from different points of view (consumption and generation of acid,
leaching reactions, effect on copper recovery, mineralogical study, etc.).
In addition several authors have postulated that the chloride ion has an effect on the proton (H+)
activity. Senanayake (2007) postulated that a chloride medium is advantageous on the leaching of
oxides because is obtained a favorable kinetic of leaching at atmospheric conditions due to enhance
of proton activity and complexation of chloride with metal ions. Chloride facilitates the dissolution
of copper oxide in acidic solutions. Puvvada, Sridhar & Lakshmanan (2003)explains in his study,
that the values of the activity coefficients of the chlorinated salts are generally higher than the
corresponding sulfate salts. For most transition metal sulfates average activity coefficient decreases
sharply with increasing molality, opposite to that observed in chlorinated salts.
The aims of this work are to determine the effect of sea water on the consumption of acid of a
copper ore and to determine the effect of sea water on the proton activity.

METHODOLOGY

Reagents
For experimental tests H2SO4 (95-97%) analytical grade reagents was used in all tests. Water and sea
water were used as leaching agents. Seawater was obtained of San Jorge Bay (Antofagasta, Chile).
The characterization of sea water is shown in Table 1. Water corresponds to tap water.

Table 1 Characterization of sea water

Parameter Unity Value Parameter Unity Value

Conductivity (k) mS/cm 54.20 Ca2+ mg/L 403

pH - T° of measurement °C - 8.02 – 21.3 °C Cl- mg/L 20,063
ORP mV 159 F- mg/L 0.87
TDS mg/L 36,980 PO43- mg/L 0.74

2
CaCO3 mg/L 114 SO42- mg/L 2,811
HCO3 mg/L 139 NO3- mg/L 3.01
Mg2+ mg/L 1,292 NO2- mg/L < 0.1
Na+ mg/L 10,725 NH4+ mg/L < 0.1
K+ mg/L 387 Cu2+ mg/L 0.072

Ores
Four different ores were used for to performance the tests. The particle size used was below 150 µm
(100% low #100 mesh ASTM). The mineralogy (obtained by X-ray diffraction, XRD) and the
chemical analyses of copper (obtained by atomic absorption spectrometry, AAS) are shown in the
Table 2.

Table 2 Mineralogy and chemical analyses of copper

% w/w
Mineral
1 2 3 4

SiO2 51.61 29.42 12.86 20.94

(Cu,Fe)12As4S13 0.70 - - -
KAl2(Si3Al)O10(OH)2 6.82 5.15 - 11.45
(Mg,Fe)6(Si,Al)4O10(OH)8 1.17 1.49 1.57 1.51
KAlSi3O8 20.80 19.53 - 1.88
NaAlSi3O8 18.90 34.47 36.10 56.40
CaCO3 - 2.56 5.60 3.39
CaSO4·2H2O - 1.79 - 1.65
Al2Si2O5(OH)4 - - - 2.00
CuFeS2 - 0.93 4.39 0.26
CaMg(CO3)2 - - - 0.52
FeS2 - 0.65 3.91 -
Fe3O4 - 1.04 26.60 -
KMg3(Si3Al)O10(OH)2 - 2.97 - -
Ca2(Mg,Fe2+)4Al(Si7Al)O22(OH,F)2 - - 4.46 -

K(Al3(SO4)2(OH)6 - - 4.51 -

Grade of copper
Soluble copper (%) 0.25 0.08 0.02 0.29

Total copper (%) 0.36 0.80 1.28 1.41

3
Experimental procedure
A solution of 10 g/l H2SO4 is prepared using the chosen leaching agent (water, sea water or mix
water/sea water). A glass microburette (10 ml ± 0.02 ml) is filled with this solution. The
microburette measures the volume used for to obtain a pH determined. 10 g of ore and 200 ml of
leaching agent (water, sea water or mix) are added to a baker of 500 ml. Magnetic stirring of 300
rpm is used. Initially, the pulp is stirred for 15 minutes and the pH of the pulp is measured. Then
slowly drops of acid solution are added to the pulp to obtain pH 2.5. The time is measure until pH
stabilization (approximately 30 minutes). Once the pH has stabilized at 2.5, the volume of acid
solution added is determined. The process is repeated until pH 2, 1.5 and 1.2. To measure the pH, a
pH meter/ORP portable (Hanna) is used. Before each measurement, the equipment is calibrated
using patterns solutions pH 1.68 and 4.01. This same procedure is performed with different
leaching agents and different ores. Each test was performed in duplicate.

RESULTS
Figure 1 shows the results of acid consumption observed up to pH 1.2 using different leaching
agents for copper ores evaluated.

90
Sea water Water Sea water/water
Acid consumption (kg acid/ton ore)

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
1 2 Ores 3 4

Figure 1 Consumption of sulfuric acid (kg acid/ton ore) according to leaching agent used and ore evaluated

Independent of the type of leaching agent used, the ore 4 is the one with a higher acid consumption.
A tendency is not seen on the consumption of acid according to the leaching agent used in these
four samples of ores.
Figures 2, 3 and 4 show the consumption of acid when the pH changes. It is considering the three
types of leaching agents used for each sample of ore.

4
 Sea water
90
1 2 3 4
80

Acid consumption (kg acid/ton ore) 70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
1,0 1,5 pH 2,0 2,5

Figure 2 Consumption of sulfuric acid (kg acid/ton ore) according to different pH using sea water as leaching
agent

Water
90
Acid consumption (kg acid/ton ore)

1 2 3 4
80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
1,0 1,5 pH 2,0 2,5

Figure 3 Consumption of sulfuric acid (kg acid/ton ore) according to different pH using water as leaching
agent

5
 Sea water/water
90
1 2 3 4

Acid consumption (kg acid/ton ore)

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
1,0 1,5 pH 2,0 2,5

Figure 4 Consumption of sulfuric acid (kg acid/ton ore) according to different pH using sea water/water as
leaching agent

The sample of ore 4 shows a higher acid consumption for all pH values tested and for all leaching
agents used.
Using sea water as a leaching agent, it can be seen a big difference in the consumption of acid in the
sample 4 compared with the other three ores samples, which is not observed using water. In the
mixture sea water/water, it can be seen that the consumption of acid of sample 2 and 3 are very
similar in their values.
By literature (Domic, 2001), silicates considered gangues within copper ores can be classified into
five categories in terms of the rate and extent to which react with the acid. According to this
definition and using chemical reactions of gangues with acid (Blowes et al., 2003), the influence of
the type of gangue on acid consumption of the ore sample used in this work, is determined. In this
paper, we consider only the gangues of the ores that are presents with a minimum value of 2.5%
according to results of XRD analysis (see Table 2). Chemical reactions are:

Moscovite (1)
KAl2(Si3Al)O10(OH)2

Orthoclase (2)
KAlSi3O8

Albite (3)
NaAlSi3O8

Calcite (4)

6
CaCO3

Biotite (5)
KMg3(Si3Al)O10(OH)2

Magnesium hornblende (6)

Ca2Mg4Al(Si7Al)O22(OH)2
Taking into account the gangues consumers of acid found in the highest percentage in the sample
of each ore (according to XRD), the maximum consume of acid is determined using the chemical
reactions with acid, presented preliminary (equations 1-6). It is considering the total dissolution of
the gangue. The acid consumption for to obtain total dissolution of the gangue, can be determined
by stoichiometry. Table 3 shows the results of the estimation of maximum acid consumption
assuming total dissolution of the gangues that are present at 2.5%, in each sample of the four ores
evaluated.

Table 3 Mineralogy and chemical analyses of copper

Ore sample Maximum consumption of acid

[kg H2SO4/ton ore]
1 1.487
2 2.026
3 1.383
4 2.318

These results justify the trends seen in Figure 1, where ore sample 4 has a higher consumption of
acid to reach a pH of 1.2, followed by the ores samples 2, 1 and 3, respectively. According to these
results, the acid consumption is mainly determined by the mineralogy of the ore present. A clear
effect of the leaching agent used (sea water, water or mix) on the acid consumption not was
observed. Therefore the use of sea water would not produce an increase on the acid consumption.
By the other hand, there was no effect observed on proton activity due to the presence of chloride
ions at the conditions evaluated in this study. This can be attributed to the concentration of chloride
used in the experiments (maximum 20 g/l). This value can be low therefore there is no effect as
described by some authors (mentioned by literature). Perhaps by increasing chloride concentration,
this effect would be appreciated.

CONCLUSIONS
The experimental work showed the following:
 Comparing the acid consumption obtained of the four samples of ore, to reach a pH of 1.2, it
is observed that the mineral 4 has a greater consumption of sulfuric acid, followed by the
sample 2, 1 and 3. This is an expected result and can be explained to analyze the mineralogy
of the sample, where the silicate and carbonate species are those that determine the higher or
lower acid consumption. Considering that the ore sample 4 has 73.12% of gangue, ore sample
2 has 64.68%, ore sample 1 has 46.38% and finally ore sample 3 has 46 16% gangue.

7
  The previous point, it is checked by calculating a maximum acid consumption only
attributed to the gangues that react with the acid to total dissolution, using chemical
reactions where ore sample 4 presents maximum acid consumption of 2,318 kg H2SO4/ton
ore, ore sample 2,, 2,026 kg H2SO4/ton ore, ore sample 1, 1,487 kg H2SO4/ton ore, and ore
sample 3, 1,383 kg H2SO4/ton ore.
 It was not observed that the acid consumption was dependent on the solvent used (leaching
agent) for the four samples of ore used.
 The effect of chloride ion contributed to the system by sea water, showed no effect on proton
activity. This could be because the chloride concentration in seawater is not high so that the
effect is significant, as several authors have postulated.
 In general, at the conditions evaluated in this study, the leaching agent (sea water, water or
mix of both) not show an effect on the acid consumption. The mineralogy shows a
fundamental role on this variable.
 Sea water presents an alternative viable for to replacement the freshwater on leaching
process of copper ores. This will produce decrease of demand of freshwater therefore this
resource can be available for population.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors acknowledge CONICYT for financing this study through the Fondecyt Project No.
1140169, CORFO for financing CSIRO Chile and CICITEM R04I1001.

REFERENCES
Blowes, D., Ptacek, C., Jambor, J. and Weisener, C., (2003) The Geochemistry of Acid Mine Drainage. Treatise
on Geochemistry, 9: pp. 149-204.

Domic, E., (2001) Hidrometalurgia: Fundamentos, procesos y aplicaciones. Chile. Andros Impresos.

Jansen, M. and Taylor, A., (2003) Overview of Gangue Mineralogy Issues in Oxide Copper Heap Leaching,
Copper 2003 Conference, pp. 2.

Puvvada, G.V.K., Sridhar, R. and Lakshmanan, V., (2003) Chloride Metallurgy: PGM Recovery and Titanium
Dioxide Production. JOM Journal of the Minerals, Metals and Materials Society, 55(8), pp. 38-41.

Senanayake, G., (2007) Review of Theory and Practice of Measuring Proton Activity and pH in Concentrated
Chloride Solutions and Application to Oxide Leaching. Minerals Engineering, 20(7), pp. 634-645.

8
Life-of-Mine Water Reuse and Treatment Strategies
Tobias Rötting
Schlumberger Water Services, United Kingdom

ABSTRACT
Water reuse and treatment are essential components of every mining operation. With increasing
cost and scarcity associated with fresh water supplies in many major commodity-producing
regions, the economics of water supply now dictate that water reuse must be maximized.
Depending on the intended use, water may be recycled within the mine without any treatment or
with much less treatment than would be required for discharge. However, the application of cost-
intensive technologies such as reverse osmosis (RO) or nano-filtration is becoming increasingly
common in mining operations—driven to a large extent by the requirement for low sulfate and total
dissolved solids levels in both process waters and environmental discharges.
A major consideration that is frequently overlooked in the design of treatment systems is the long-
term evolution of mine or process water quality. In many instances, water-treatment design is
founded on the current operational water chemistry, which can change dramatically due to either
changing ore mineralogy or a progressive buildup of conservative solutes in process-reclaim
circuits. Moreover, the volumes of water requiring treatment may also vary significantly with time.
Retro-fitting treatment systems to resolve these problems can be more costly than designing for the
long term from the outset.
To anticipate long-term contingencies for water reuse and treatment, a holistic approach that
integrates technology and expertise will optimize water management and the strategic operational
reuse of water. Using integrated models to represent the physical water balance and chemical mass
balance of mine-water management systems, water availability and chemical quality is predicted
over the life of the mine. The models also simulate the performance of alternative treatment
technologies, which help determine the size of storage infrastructure and help assess the benefits or
disadvantages of blending waters from multiple sources within a single operation.

1
INTRODUCTION
Water is vital for any mining operation. Water affects mineral extraction and processing, stability of
pit slopes and mine workings, community relations and potential environmental impacts. In many
arid or semi-arid areas such as South America, Australia, southern Africa or south-western USA,
where many of today’s large mineral deposit are located, the restricted availability of suitable water
resources can limit the amount of ore that can be extracted and processed, or the costs of water may
negatively affect the financial viability of the project. Tighter regulations and the interests of the
communities surrounding a mine also imply that mines must closely control the quantities and
quality of water they abstract or discharge. Therefore, water reuse and treatment are becoming
more and more important.
Water reuse can considerably decrease the fresh water requirements of an operation, and also
reduce the volume of water released and associated treatment costs to meet stringent discharge
criteria. Water that is recycled within an operation may require no or much less treatment,
depending on its intended reuse. Often only the removal of suspended solids may be sufficient to
use the water again in ore-crushing or even in a heap-leach circuit. However, other uses, for
example in metallurgical processes, may require low levels of certain solutes such as chloride or
fluoride. Such constituents may gradually accumulate in the circuit if the reclaimed water is not
treated or partially replaced. Required treatment processes to make water fit for reuse may range
from relatively simple methods such as lime addition and decantation to more sophisticated and
cost-intensive technologies such as nano-filtration or reverse osmosis.
As both capex and opex of water treatment systems can be very substantial, adequate planning is
essential to minimize costs. Moreover, ill-designed water treatment strategies may lead to
compliance problems that are costly and can affect reputation, mine permits and social perception.
A thorough understanding of the site or process water balance and chemical composition at the
different locations is necessary to devise an efficient water reuse and treatment strategy. A vital
aspect that is frequently overlooked is the long-term evolution of mine or process water quality.
When a water-treatment scheme is designed exclusively based on the current operational water
chemistry, the system may soon become unfit for purpose if water quality changes due to varying
ore mineralogy or a gradual build-up of conservative solutes in the process-reclaim stream. The
retro-fitting of treatment systems to resolve these problems can be more costly than designing for
the long term from the outset.
Schlumberger has a long track record of integrating technology solutions for the global mining
industry to optimize operational reuse of water. The key component of the approach is the
development of integrated models to represent the physical water balance and chemical mass
balance of mine-water management systems. These models are used to predict water availability
and chemical quality over the life of the mine. They can also be applied to simulate the performance
of alternative treatment technologies or water management strategies, to size storage infrastructure
and assess the benefits of blending or separating waters from multiple sources within an operation.
This article outlines the methodology to construct these models and depicts applications in the
mining sector.

2
METHODOLOGY
Physical water balance model
The physical water balance model is constructed using the GoldSim software (GoldSim Technology
Group, 2014). GoldSim is a flexible program which permits physical mass balance calculations to be
performed at any specified point within a mine water conveyance system or a mineral processing
circuit. For all such points, referred to as elements, graphic output can be generated with a high
degree of self-documentation. Multiple elements performing different functions are also
graphically represented and the inter-relationships between elements can be displayed such that it
is generally easy to visualize the model structure (see an example in Figure 1).

Figure 1 A relatively simple Mine Site-Wide Water Management model implemented in GoldSim

The physical water balance model is focused on the volume of water moving through the system.
The movement of chemical mass, associated with the movement of water, is addressed in the same
model but as a parallel structure. With the exception of flow-dependent factors related to water
quality (such as the calculation of dilution ratios), the physical water balance portion of the model is
independent of the chemical mass balance. The chemical mass balance is described below.

A GoldSim model can be designed as a probabilistic, dynamic simulator, running continuously

through the historical period and into future mine life in a sequence of time-steps with selected

3
inputs permitted to vary within defined stochastic distributions. The model provides continuity in
time through the use of stock elements that track the accumulation of water in the system and allow
these to influence other components of the model. Additionally, the model can use a calendar to
introduce or vary operational rules at specified points in time, or to simulate seasonal variation of
inputs.

Incorporation of uncertainty
As a simulator of a complex system, the GoldSim incorporates uncertainty. Uncertain inputs can
include for example future precipitation depths and operational factors such as pit dewatering
flows. GoldSim addresses uncertainty by using Monte Carlo simulations to propagate uncertainty
through the system. In a Monte Carlo simulation, each uncertain variable is input as a spectrum,
based on a probability distribution. The Monte Carlo simulation repeatedly samples the value
distribution and repeats the model evaluation with a different set of input parameters during
multiple model reruns or ‘realizations’. A Monte Carlo simulation will typically run up to 1000
realizations, resulting in a large number of independent results representing a probability
distribution for the system.

An important fraction of the uncertainty within a mine site water balance model is often associated
with the climatic inputs. Daily precipitation and pan evaporation can be stochastically sampled
from probability distributions derived using historic climate data for the site. Other water balance
components can also be modelled with stochastic elements, for example to represent the variable
availability of pit sump pumps as a result of proximity to active mining areas.

Geochemical mass balance model

The geochemical mass balance model is constructed using the GoldSim Contaminant Transport
Module (GCTM). The key inputs to the GCTM comprise concentration values for each parameter of
concern or interest at each source-term, for example acid waters or process solutions, including pits,
leach pads and WRF.
The concentration inputs for each source-term are variably included as:
(i) constants
(ii) flow-dependent variables
(iii) partially flow-dependent variables.

Following the assignment of geochemical inputs to each source-term, the GCTM integrates the
concentration values for each chemical parameter with flow volumes generated by the GoldSim
water balance to yield a chemical mass load. During model execution, the movement of chemical
load through the sequence of transport, storage and mixing stages of the model is simulated. At
each point of mixing, the GCTM calculates an aggregate mass load for each chemical parameter.
This is then divided by the gross water volume to produce an adjusted series of concentration
values.

Certain chemical reactions, for example precipitation of gypsum when saturation is reached, can
also be integrated in the GCTM if these reactions are appropriately transcribed into the model.

4
The GCTM functions as an integral sub-component of the GoldSim water balance model. Thus, the
GCTM can perform water quality simulations for an infinite range of scenarios with respect to
climatic inputs or facility discharge chemistry and flow permutations.

Presentation of model outputs

Following the execution of any model run, GoldSim can generate results for any model element
within the water management system. Denominated ‘reporting boxes’ permit analysis of temporal
trends with respect to virtually any variable within the model structure, for example the volume of
seepage emanating from any individual WRF, pregnant solution volumes derived from heap leach
pads, or projected variations of discharges from water treatment facilities. The chemical water
quality results of the GCTM can also be visualized or exported at each of the ‘reporting boxes’.

Typically, probabilistic time-series outputs are exported to Excel, formatted and graphed as flow
rates, storage volumes or water chemistries through time. The median value (50% of all values
calculated by the model), 5th and 95th percent values within the probabilistic range or even more
detailed percentiles can then be easily plotted.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The outlined methodology has been applied at mine sites on the five continents to optimize water
management and reuse, to minimize water treatment costs while ensuring water quality compliant
with regulations or process needs, and to prevent accidental release to the environment from
overflowing storage or conveyance infrastructure.
As an example, a mine in West Africa with a net-positive site water balance experienced a rapid
increase of stored water in an on-site reservoir. However, non-compliant water quality prevented
discharge of excess water to the environment. An integrated physical water balance and chemical
mass transport model was developed to simulate and assess different strategies to reverse the
increasing trend. Tested options included blending of reservoir water with lower TDS waters on
site to allow compliant discharge, and a number of configurations involving varying levels of water
treatment using reverse osmosis (RO).
The ‘Do Nothing’ scenario (Figure 2) clearly indicates that stored water volume would increase
unsustainably during the operational period and beyond if no changes in the water management
approach were implemented. The blending-and-discharge scenario would also result in a net-
positive reservoir water balance throughout life of mine, albeit at lower levels than in the ‘Do
Nothing’ scenario.

5
 Figure 2 Evolution of stored water volume in the reservoir under the ‘Do Nothing’ scenario

Figure 3 Evolution of stored water volume in the reservoir under the optimized RO treatment scenario

The scenarios with RO treatment indicated that it would be possible to reverse the net positive
trend in the reservoir water volume. In the optimized scenario (Figure 3), water levels in the

6
reservoir are stabilized during most of the operational period and then reduced towards mine
closure.
An important factor in RO treatment configurations is the management or disposal of the generated
brine stream, which typically constitutes between 10 % and 30 % of the treated volume. In this case
study, one option for brine management was discharge into the tailings management facility (TMF).
A concern with this option related to the increase of sulfate levels in the TMF water. However, the
chemical mass balance model indicated that sulfate would be stabilized at acceptable levels due to
gypsum precipitation in the TMF.
Another concern related to the potential increase of ammonia concentrations in the water stream.
Ammonia is notoriously difficult to remove in conventional water treatment systems, but
Schlumberger has developed a proprietary ammonia removal process which can selectively remove
this contaminant from water. The system has been successfully tested at laboratory and pilot scale,
and is ready to be implemented at full scale if desired by the operation.

CONCLUSION
Water quantities and qualities within a mine water management system can change substantially
during mine life as the mine configuration and ore mineralogy evolve. Mine water management,
reuse, and treatment strategies that consider these changes result in a solution fit for purpose in the
long term. More importantly, a strategic long-term solution avoids the consequences of inadequate
planning, which include detrimental or even catastrophic water excess or shortage and costly retro-
fitted solutions.
Integrated physical and chemical water balance models of a mine water management system assist
the mining operation in day-to-day operation and strategic mine planning in the long term.
Integrating technology and expertise early in the planning cycle can substantially reduce long-term
cost.

REFERENCES
GoldSim Technology Group (2014) GoldSim User Guide, GoldSim Technology Group LLC, Vol. 1+2.

7
Reduction of Irrigation Water in Mining Roads Using
Dust Suppressants
Felipe Domínguez1, Arnaldo Recabarren2 and Pablo Volta3
1. Liplata Peru
2. VialCorp Química, Chile
3. VialCorp Ingeniería y Construcción, Chile

ABSTRACT

Currently mining companies, mainly in Peru and North of Chile, have seen the decrease of
availability of water for their processes. For this reason it is essential that activities such as watering
mining roads and service are managed as efficiently as possible.

The purpose of this paper is to show the experience that companies Liplata VialCorp Group in Peru
and Chile have developed over recent years, offering its clients a comprehensive service dust
control, applying methodologies and using saline and asphalt, polymers and vegetables derivatives
allowing reducing dust emissions on the roads and increasing safety on the roads.

The methodology used is based on the following concepts:

i) Dust suppressors efficient and effective.

ii) A specific irrigation technology for mining.
iii) Analysis of results by using dust measurement equipment

In 2014 these companies executed more than 20 millions of square meters in dust control services
only in mining industry, with the consequent decrease of particulate matter PM10, achieving a 75%
average reduction. With respect to water consumption, the values indicated a drastic reduction of
its use, in relation to the traditional situation of irrigation of pure water, reaching values close to
90%.

1
INTRODUCTION

The mining operations have an extensive network of unpaved operation roads. The daily traffic
mainly of heavy equipment and trucks, along with causing a rapid deterioration of the road
surface, produces significant levels of airborne dust. To combat this effect, companies have
traditionally used water with a very low efficiency due to its high consumption and short time
effect. Mine operators of projects located in areas of high evaporation and low rainfall as northern
Chile and southern Peru say that the palliative effect of applying a liter of water on a square meter
of road surface in summer does not exceed 20 minutes.

Since the early 2000s mining in Chile faced with a sharp decline in the availability of water to meet
its operations, which added to pressure from neighbor communities and the growing demands of
environmental authorities for free chores powder and an optimized use of water, encouraged the
search for solutions that have a huge challenge to reduce levels of PM10 and PM2.5 using a minimal
amount of water.

Currently a large number of mining companies in Chile have implemented operations of what is
called "comprehensive dust control service", which considers:
 The selection and supply of a specific dust suppressant that fits the needs for the job.
 The application of the suppressor on the roads via tanker equipment specially implemented.
 The self- system efficiency through the use of equipment for the comparative measurement
of emissions of particulate matter in suspension

This report shows in detail these 3 aspects of the operation and has the specific results of dust
reduction and water consumption obtained with the implementation of this integral service in a
mine site in northern Chile.

FUNTIONAL AND STRUCTURAL PROBLEMS ON UNPAVED ROADS

It’s common to mix up problems associated with the structure of a road with those related to its
functionality. For purposes of this study will be called problems of first and second order
respectively.

The first order problem have to do with the structure of the road , ie its ability to support loads. To
ensure proper structure in the package of layers comprises a read there are basically two ways that
can be applied independently or together: i) selecting the appropriate granular material , especially
in regard to particle size , its volumetric distribution and clay content, and ii ) applying a stabilizing
product that chemically increases the capacity of the whole aggregate support. In any project of
designing a road surface this is the first step to be executed.

The second order problems or "functional” have to do with how the user perceives the way to go
through it. A road can have an adequate structural design to withstand the stresses of load without
significantly deteriorate, but emit dust. Here is an important point: You cannot solve a problem of
dust emission (problem of second order) if the structural aspect (major issue) is not resolved

2
What was described in the preceding two paragraphs can be summarized in one idea: The correct
operation of dust suppressants is subject to have structurally adequate roads. The diagram below
summarizes the issues raised:

FIGURE N°1 STAGES OF THE STRUCTURAL-FUNCTIONAL PROBLEM

Source: Grupo VialCorp, 2014.

The operating mining roads may experience various negative effects with the application of
traditional methods of irrigation water. Generally it is presented consolidated (compact) and
despite being constantly hydrated emits large amounts of dust. Excess thin plastic material with
low adsorption capacity forms a surface contact muddy water, which may result in loss of control if
high rates trucks irrigation last used. In areas of high tension as curves, folders sectors have totally
destroyed by the low capacity of the natural ground support. The visibility is permanently reduced
product dust emissions generated by the transit of trucks.

FIGURE 1 - 2 REDUCED VISIBILITY DURING OPERATION

3
 FIGURE 3 SLIPPERY BINDER AFTER WATER IRRIGATION WITHOUT RATE CONTROL

ALTERNATIVE CHEMICALS FOR DUST REMOVAL

Today you can find several alternatives of dust suppressants with features that have advantages
and disadvantages when it comes to solving a particular problem. Below is a table of classification:

TABLE N°2 MATRIX OF PRODUCTS

Suppresor
Product Principle
type
Chlorides (calcium, sodium, magnesium) Hygroscopic, crystallization
Chemical Ammonium chloride Electrochemical (ionic)
Sodium silicate Adhesive and cementing
Polymers Binder adhesive
Vegetable oils Binder adhesive
Asphalts Binder adhesive
Organic Molasses Binder adhesive
Sulfonated oils Electrochemical (ionic)
Lignosulfonates Electrochemical (ionic)
Enzymes Electrochemical (ionic) by the enzyme
Source: VialCorp S.A., 2014.

Regardless of the product being used, it is essential to the proper functioning of suppressing the
operation of preparation and product application is executed in strict accordance with the technical
protocols specified by the supplier, by delegating the task to internal departments or expert
contractors with focus in dust control. According to the experience of VialCorp Group , most of the
examples of failure in the use of dust suppressants are associated with its uninformed use and not
to an incompatibility of the product, where companies have decided to operate with its own staff

4
resources and without specialized equipment , control and monitoring of results, assuming the
poor results unfairly to the product.

Relevant aspects to the proper management in the use of dust suppressants are:

a. Strict adherence to protocols for preparing the product. Usually the products used must be
dissolved in water, to which is necessary the permanent control of the final density of the
solution and/or the product/water rati. Registration is recommended.
b. Irrigation rate. Conventional road irrigation equipment (tanks) delivered last irrigation rates
ranging from 0.7 to 1.0 liters/m2. This amount of liquid added to roads of fine material with a
high degree of compaction can cause slippage of equipment that carries minerals. Irrigation
equipment for mining tracks must work under the range of 0.5 liters/m2, plus the driving must
been done by a highly qualified operator.
c. Tracking results. Observing the behavior of treatment by specialists that record data on the
evolution of airborne dust is relevant. This optimizes the use of resources, identifies critical
aspects of the operation and is highly incident to have under control in the contract price.

METHODOLOGY OF SELFCONTROL EFFICIENCY. MEASURES OF DUST

Dust measurement is a tool used to get a quantitative idea of the change in emissions of particulate
matter on roads, designed to measure the effectiveness of dust suppression treatment (DST) and set
conservation thresholds. Measuring a level of particles per cubic centimeter, which then is
compared to a second measurement result.

It is performed by measuring devices that capture the amount of airborne dust and environmental
conditions at the time: Date and Time Measurement, Exposure Time, Speed and Wind Direction,
Temperature and environment humidity, PM 10 (visible dust), PM2.5 (dust entering human
airways).

Mining operations in Peru and operated by Liplata and VialCorp measurements are made with
DustMate equipment. The DustMate is a device developed by the British firm Turnkey
Instruments, which by an internal pump of 600 cc/min capacity, is able to directly obtain a sample
from the surrounding air. The absorbed particles are analyzed in quantity and size of a laser
photometer, delivering results for particle sizes concentration PM1, PM2.5 and PM10 with a
frequency of up to 1 sample per second.

For measurements, vacuum cleaner is installed in the rear bumper of the vehicle, just behind the
rear wheel, so to directly obtain the amount of dust generated by the traction of the tire with the
road. The vehicle as it travels the road allows the equipment to be storing second by second dust
level at each point, which is finally possible to construct “distance/emission” curves that evaluate
the different sections considered in this experience. During the set measurements performed in the
same road, it can be obtained the performance curve of the road under desired characteristics, in
the case of this analysis, you can get the performance of the road treated with the chosen product.
First baseline measured correspond to the level of existing suspension dust on the roads before the

5
start of work of the implementation of DST and subsequently periodic measurements are executed
on the road to show their performance once treated with the powder suppressor element.

With the obtained data it can be seen a graph such behavior simply reflecting the evolution and
efficiency of the DST. It can further be desirable to set a minimum efficiency threshold, for example
25% of the baseline value as parameter acceptable powder. This level can be set on the basis of
existing tasks in the real needs of the client, which can be derived for example in a service level
contract .

The methodology considers weekly monitoring of efficiency in dust control through the following
three stages: 1) Measure baseline, 2) Application of dust suppressant, 3) Weekly measurement of
efficiency (comparison of the level of road dust with treatment compared to baseline)

The baseline may be a value obtained on a standard and representative segment of the project
against which all other roads or to determine a baseline for each road. This is a decision that is
asked to the client of the project. You need to separate basis for service roads and mining roads
lines, since they have emission ranges with different orders of magnitude. The conditions under
which the baseline measurement of a road is done is for the worst situation, that is without dust
suppressant or prior treatment of irrigation water.

The following graphs represent the behavior of the DST made by VialCorp in Pacific Mining
Company (CMP):

GRAPH N°1 EXAMPLES OF DUST MEASUREMENTS IN SERVICE ROADS AT CMP

GRAPH N°2 DUST MEASUREMENTS IN MINE ROADS AT CMP

6
COMPAÑÍA MINERA DEL PACÍFICO (CMP) CASE

Since 2012 to date, Minera Pacific Company, CMP, located in the Atacama Region in Chile, has
implemented comprehensive service control dust in their mining roads, completely outsourcing the
management of dust control on roads, allocating their resources (personnel and equipment) to
exclusive production of mineral.

The objectives of this service are: i) Reduce dust emissions on the roads under contract with a
minimum of interventions by the applicator company, ii) Reduce and keep under control the
consumption of irrigation water on roads compared to traditional irrigation situation of pure water,
iii) Increase traffic safety for trucks and vans regarding the risk that traditional irrigation produces
with common water.

The expected results due to the service execution are: i) Reduction of dust emissions from the roads
by at least 75% compared to traditional irrigation situation with common water, ii) Reduce water
consumption by 90% compared with common water irrigation, iii) Reduction in the use of grader
hours for road maintenance.

The expected benefits of operating the service are: i) i ) Do not spend resources from
production to support tasks , ii ) Ongoing search of savings through implementation of
best practices , solutions and innovative products to the field of dust control on roads, iii )
Have performance data through permanent engineering for measuring results ( levels of
dust and water consumption) , iv ) Increased safety due to the strict and continuous
monitoring of irrigation protocols , v ) Products and irrigation equipment used do not
require transit stop, so this does not alter the normal daily operation of the mine.

During 2014 - 2015 season DST service considered an area of 213.867 [m2] of mining roads and
180.000 [ m2] of service roads for 5 months (dry season ), with an estimated contract price of 0.35

7
USD/m2 per month, this value considered suppressor, irrigation service con with contractor’s own
cisterns trucks and control engineering.

5.1 Supressants used

For the contract with CMP two suppressants were used: a) Hexahydrated magnesium chloride
(bischofite) for mining roads without slope, b) H14 to ramp roads

The bischofite is a product of high efficiency and low cost, characterized by forming a traction
strength resistant surface and capable to hydrate just with environmental moisture (hygroscopic).

H14 is a product made by VialCorp focused on mining ramps whose characteristics are:
 It is a modified asphalt emulsion of fast curing, used as a solution (ratio asphalt/water from 1:20
to 1:80). Its composition varies according to each customer's needs (soil type, traffic type,
geography, topography, climate).
 Traffic is not interrupted during application. It adheres and moisturises the treated soil particles
while maintaining optimum moisture, not being necessary water irrigation after the application.
 Applied as suppressor does not substantially improve the bearing capacity. Previously it should
be resolved structural problems.
 Hardens the surface preventing damage induced by surface traction, increasing the life of the
road.
 Works in plastic and non-plastic soils.
 According to its formulation (asphalt content) can withstand rainfall
 Compliance of toxicity standards (EPA TCLP Test 1311), Reactivity (EPA 1001 and 1002) and
corrosivity (EPA 1110 A. No Corrosive Classification)

RESULTS

1.2.1 Efficiency in dust reduction

For this contract the baseline scored 3.516 [particles/cc] for mining roads and 792 [particles/cc] to
the roads of light vehicles. The measurements of particulates (PM10 ) were performed once a week
throughout the whole project, under similar conditions of temperature and relative humidity. The
data recorded during the 5 -month contract in 2014 originate graphics N°3 and N°4 for service
roads and mining respectively. Red line indicates efficiency sets by 75% and a black line indicated
baseline.

a) Service roads (light vehicles): The graph N°3 shows all measurements recorded during this
contract, where the baseline for service roads is set at 792 [particles/cc]. All curves have baseline as
origin. In the first stage of the project it is prioritized the treatment services in those sectors with the
highest level of dust emissions. After receiving the application of conservation all light vehicles
roads showed more than 75 % efficiency, and since late March a rise is observed in PM-10 values
exceeding 75% as a result of the deterioration that rainfall (zonal catastrophe) caused on these
roads, which was successfully solved with new conservations reducing PM10 values and leaving
binder freewheeling defect. At the end of the contract all roads achieved the compromised
effectiveness.

8
b) Mining roads: The graph N°4 shows that works began by stabilizing highest traffic ramps
as Algarrobo ramp, Cristales ramp and BLB. At the middle of the second month of contract the
application of impact on ramps El Laco, Romeral and DIB began. Throughout all the contract, all
the ramps achieved above the effectiveness level of 75%, with exception of Cristales ramp, that
during about a month exceeded the committed levels of PM-10, product of earthmoving works that
took place in the sector and, once completed those works, preservation work with H14 dust
suppressant was planified, which allowed significantly reduce levels of PM-10.

GRAPH N°3 SERVICE ROADS DUST MEASURMENTS

GRAPH N°4 MINING ROADS DUST MEASURMENTS

El Chancador was identified as the sector that needed major maintenance throughout the contract
resulting from the high level of existing particles in suspension due to the presence of the primary
crusher and the output of the mine pit. El Laco ramp also presented a high level of conservations

9
product that continuity necessary administrative aspects at the beginning of the application of
impact was not taken. La Rampa Algarrobo was the area that requires less product conservations
due to the rapid stabilization achieved in the first month of the contract thanks to the good
preparation of the binder and also by remaining applications suppressor product made in previous
years.

1.2.2 Water consumption

The monthly water consumption during the contract is shown in the Graph N°5:

GRAPH N°5 TOTAL WATER CONSUMPTION

In the graph N°3 the baseline that was used was given by the client in 2012 and corresponds to the
average consumption of water used in irrigation in mining roads CMP Los Colorados, equivalent to
50.5 liters/m2 monthly. This graph shows the difference in water consumption for irrigation of
roads that occurs when DST is being implemented at the site. The biggest monthly water
consumption occurred in April due to maintenance performed because of the rains in March 2015,
which considered reapply several service roads and perform conservations in all mining roads, in
addition to the execution of a conservation of the route C-440 of 36.000 [m2] area.

The reduction in water consumption for irrigation in the roads reached 96% compared to the water
consumption by CMP intended for the same purpose .

According to records of particulate matter throughout the contract an average efficiency of 84% for
service roads and 90% for mining roads was reached, higher values than the efficiency limit setted
(75%), allowing a safe execution for operators of light and heavy vehicles in Los Colorados. These
high efficiency levels significantly affect the productivity of the mine because it allows an increase
in the movement of trucks extraction which enables increase the productivity.

In some sectors it had to make maintenance more often than initially considered because the total
width of strip in implementing the DST was not contemplated, which resulted particulate material
in suspension deposited on the treated binder steadily either by wind, dusting tire (air turbulence)
and the effect of some heavy vehicle fans. It was suggested to the client the whole of the band in the
implementation of DST and where segregated lanes with parapets are generated, these physical

10
separators should also be treated with a stabilizer (irrigation slope). In all roads treated with DST it
could be reached visually good standard since the beginning of the applications until the end of the
project.

CONCLUSIONS

Services management of dust control are essential for mining companies to reduce their water
consumption and increase safety. The results show values above 90% water saving and 75%
reduction in particulate matter. As an added value, mining tracks are safer due to the increased
visibility and decreased time intervals in which the road surface is wet. You go from a situation in
which the road is watered 3 to 6 times a day to only 2-6 irrigations per month.

To ensure the successful implementation of a Dust Suppressive Treatment (DST) is essential that
the use of suppressive procedures are strictly abided, accompanied engineering and continuous
improvement and self-control. The uninformed use of a dust control agent may enable serious
safety incidents and environmental damage. It requires equipment specially adapted for controlled
irrigation rates and lower compared to systems that are traditionally implemented with
conventional tankers.

Optimization of resources is key when achieving technical and economic efficiencies, so

determining the appropriate frequency of application of DST will allow comply with customer
requirements, avoid unnecessary loss of product, labor and resources of all types. Currently are
available dust control products capable of providing solutions to specific problems of a chore, since
in the same project is possible to find different types of soil, roads with or without slopes and dry
and rainy seasons of the year. The idea of solving all the problems of a mining company with a
single product or standard procedure is a false proposition, so it is vitally important to have
companies and experts in the subject.

11
Geomembrane Floating Covers in the Mining and
Energy Sectors to Protect Water
Brian Fraser1 and Andrew Mills2
1. Layfield Environmental Containment, Canada
2. Layfield Canada Ltd., Canada

ABSTRACT
Floating geosynthetic covers have been used over the past 30 years to protect water resources by
government water authorities and agricultural owners in the United States, Canada, Australia and
South America. Driven by climate change and growing shortages of fresh water, governments and
industry are increasingly looking at new technology to help protect our diminishing fresh water
resources. Floating covers are an important technology designed to protect water from costly
evaporation losses while protecting water from contamination including dust and debris
prevention. Increasingly floating covers are being used by both the energy and mining sectors to
help save costs from water losses while providing an important sustainability strategy for their
communities. Increasingly in mining applications, floating covers are being used to help maintain
fluid chemistry by preventing dilution of liquids. This paper outlines the growing trend of
expanding the use of engineered floating covers into mining and processing applications and
specific examples of floating covers used in mining. These applications include evaporation control,
preventing water contamination and maintaining consistent fluid temperatures for a variety of
mining process applications. The paper also addresses the importance of choosing the correct
materials for floating covers. This includes information of the special fortified geomembrane
materials designed to provide enhanced longevity, mechanical and flexibility properties. The paper
also outlines the emerging applications of floating covers in mining and best practices required for
designing, fabrication and installation of floating cover systems.

1
INTRODUCTION
Floating covers are the most effective method of containing and storing large volumes of water.
They are less expensive than other storage methods yet the covers provide protection of the water
from the environment. Floating covers have been in use for many years for the storage of potable
water and are being used more and more for applications in mining and energy extraction. Floating
covers typically protect against the loss of water due to evaporation but can also prevent dilution of
treated process water such as heap leach solutions. Specialised insulated covers can be used for
temperature control and all covers provide debris control. The most effective floating covers will
require the selection of skilled and experienced designers and installers.

BACKGROUND
Floating covers are an established technology that has been used to protect water resources for
many years. The first floating covers were developed to protect potable water (drinking water) in
municipal facilities. Much of that work was done in California where they have a large demand for
potable water and limited sources. In 1976 the Burke Company was awarded a patent for what we
now call the defined-sump floating cover which is now the most common floating cover type
(Burke et al., 1976). Since that time floating covers have evolved into a reliable and effective water
storage method.
The California potable water system is very interesting as it is based on a limited number of water
treatment plants working year-round to make potable water and then extensive storage facilities to
adjust for changes in demand. A lined reservoir with a floating cover has proven to be the most cost
effective storage method for potable water in California and in a number of other jurisdictions.
They are a less expensive storage option than other covered storage techniques such as tanks or
reservoirs with a structural roof. It is possible to make a floating cover reservoir much larger than a
tank or reservoir with a structural roof as there are no structural support limitations with a floating
cover. In areas where large volumes of water need to be stored floating covers are often the best
option. A good example of these large water storage reservoirs is the Upper Chiquita Reservoir
(Figure 1) which was a 923 mega liter reservoir was completed in 2011 for at a cost of US$ 53
million (Mills and Falk, 2013).

Figure 1 The Upper Chiquita Reservoir in the Santa Margerita Water District

2
Floating covers create a barrier between the water in the pond and the environment. This barrier
provides important benefits including the prevention of evaporation, prevention of dilution due to
rainwater, and the exclusion of sunlight which can affect water quality. Floating covers also prevent
dust and debris from entering the main water source.
Depending on the location of the floating cover certain benefits may be of more value than others.
Here are a couple of examples.
In the US there is an EPA regulation in place to control disinfection byproducts called the Stage 2
Disinfectants and Disinfection Byproducts Rule (S2DBPR 2006). This has led to additional floating
covers being installed across the US, and especially in California, to limit the formation of
trihalomethanes in stored water. Trihalomethanes can affect the taste of the water and are
considered to be a risk to health.
In Australia they have been adding floating covers to municipal reservoirs and mining applications
to prevent the evaporation and dilution of water. Parts of Australia have been experiencing a
prolonged drought so the key benefit of the floating cover in their location has been the
preservation of water volumes.

FORTIFIED FLOATING COVER MATERIALS

In order to be used for a floating cover a material needs to be flexible and strong. For many years
the standard material for potable water floating covers has been Chlorosuphonated Polyethylene
(CSPE). CSPE is a type of rubber that can be welded during fabrication and installation but then
cures in service to create a durable, flexible material. CSPE has been used in floating covers for over
30 years and has excellent UV resistance and longevity. CSPE is still the preferred material for
potable water floating covers in California and many other parts of the US. CSPE is widely
available for floating covers.
Recently the authors have been working on the development of new materials with lower initial
costs, improved longevity, and ease of repair over the long term. One of the key developments in
this area has been the development of fortified geomembrane technology. Fortified geomembranes
use additional UV and heat stabilizers to increase the longevity of the material and to provide a
larger reservoir of stabilizers that can resist the attack of chemicals over a longer term.
The initial development of stabilized geomembrane materials was focussed on UV resistance which
culminated in a 30,000 hour UV study published in 2009. This study showed that polyolefin
geomembrane materials could reach extended life times if properly stabilized (Mills, Martin and
Sati, 2009). As a result of this study a fortified polyolefin material was developed that has a 25-year
warranty. This material has now been adapted for use in floating covers.
Further development explored the long term chemical resistance of fortified geomembranes. One
key chemical in mining and energy extraction is salt water or brine. The authors developed a long-
term elevated-temperature brine test which showed that fortified materials were better able to resist
chemical attack (Mills, 2015).
For many years a particular mine site in Australia was having difficulty with floating covers and
liners used to store very pure process water. They had experienced a number of floating cover and
liner failures over the years. Investigation showed that it was the purity of the water that was
causing issues with the plastic materials. When the water is very pure there are no minerals present
(especially calcium) and the water is said to have a low Langelier Saturation Index (LSI). Low LSI
water can be created through reverse osmosis treatment methods or if the water is deionized. Water

3
with a low LSI is particularly aggressive and can erode concrete water pipes, dissolve copper
piping, and harm certain types of plastic cover and liner materials. In 2013 the authors developed a
test method to explore the long term resistance of materials this unique water. The materials that
were ultimately chosen for this application were fortified geomembrane and cover materials (Fraser
and Mills, 2015). Figure 2 shows the liner and floating cover being installed for a 60 mega liter low
LSI containment in Australia.

Figure 2 Fortified floating cover material at a mine site in Australia

In 2015 a similar application was arose in Chile for a large 500 mega liter copper mine project. On
this project the fluids were required as part of the mining extraction process and had a negative 2.5
LSI. Following the testing protocols outlined above a fortified 2.00 mm (80 mil) HDPE liner was
supplied as the primary containment liner and a custom fortified 1.4 mm (55 mil) geomembrane
was installed for the floating cover. Figure 3 shows the fortified liner being installed for a 500 mega
liter low LSI containment in Chile.

Figure 3 Fortified geomembrane material at a mine site in Chile

4
Fortified floating cover materials are less expensive than previous floating cover materials such as
CSPE but still retain the UV resistance needed for long life. In addition, the fortified materials have
better resistance to chemicals and are easily repaired over the long term life of the cover.

NEW MINING AND ENERGY APPLICATIONS

With the advent of lower cost fortified cover materials the application of floating covers in mining
becomes more cost-effective. In addition to containment of potable water and potable water with a
very low LSI, there are other emerging applications that are specific to mining and energy
exploration. These applications include dilution control, temperature control, and evaporation
control.

Maintaining Fluid Chemistry in Mine Process Ponds

A floating cover separates the fluid in a pond from the environment which can help maintain the
chemistry of the fluid. In mining this is most important when we are dealing with heap leach
solution ponds. The chemistry in these ponds needs to be controlled so that additional chemicals do
not need to be added to maintain the chemistry. A floating cover provides protection from the two
most frequent causes of chemical changes to pond chemistry; dilution and evaporation.
Locations where there is a lot of precipitation can have a problem with ponds talking on too much
water. The additional water from precipitation dilutes the liquid in the pond which can lead to
increased costs. If the pond contains a heap leaching solution then dilution reduces the chemical
concentration of the solution and more chemical has to be added. If the pond contains saturated
brine then dilution will usually mean that more salt has to be added to the water which leads to an
excess of brine and a disposal problem. The use of a floating cover isolates the pond contents from
any additional precipitation and prevents changes in chemical composition.
Figure 4 shows a run-off pond at a remediation site at a former lead smelter. Precipitation was
diluting the run-off water which was increasing the amount of water that needed to be treated
during remediation. Adding a temporary low-cost floating cover allowed precipitation water to be
pumped off the cover directly to the environment which limited treatment to only the contaminated
water that was under the cover.

Figure 4 Temporary floating cover at a remediation site

5
The second aspect of protecting the chemistry of a pond is preventing evaporation. If a pond is in
an area of high evaporation then water losses can change the chemistry of a pond significantly. This
can lead to the requirement to add significant new water to the system.
Many mine sites are located in desert areas where water is difficult and expensive to obtain.
Previously the cost of a floating cover has been too expensive to justify for evaporation. The authors
have developed a new light-weight low-cost cover specifically for evaporation control that
addresses the problem with cost. In areas with high evaporation rates and a high cost of water these
evaporation covers are become more prevalent. Figure 5 shows an evaporation control cover in
Texas used for water storage in energy exploration. This light-weight cover provides significant
cost savings to the owner in preventing the loss of water. A recent paper discusses the advances of
evaporation control covers in energy extraction (Fraser and Killian, 2015).

Figure 5 Evaporation control cover in Texas

Finally, temperature can cause changes in the chemistry of process ponds. In very cold climates
chemicals (such as salt) can precipitate out of solution if there is a large difference between the
process temperature and the pond temperature. Maintaining solution chemistry may require
maintaining temperature in a process pond. Floating covers prevent the heat that is lost to
evaporation on the surface of a pond and can help maintain temperatures. The cover itself provides
significant heat retention similar to the lid on a coffee cup.
The authors have worked with a local consultant to design a heat loss calculator for tanks. The
diagram in Figure 6 shows the layout of the calculator.

6
 diameter

Height
above
grade Tank
Height
fluid level

Grade Line
depth
below
grade

Figure 6 200 mm thick insulated cover on an acid clarifier

Using this calculator and the input values

 Tank Diameter 30 m
 Tank height 6 m, (water height 5 m)
 Tank is on grade
 Water temp 30C
 Air Temp 5C; Ground temp 10C
 Wind 5 km/h; Humidity 50%
 Geomembrane lined on sides and base

From the calculator the heat loss from this tank would normally be 725 kw. If a floating cover is
added then the heat losses for this same tank would be 74 kw. This reduction in heat loss is mostly
due to eliminating the thermal losses due to evaporation and does not include any insulation in the
cover.
In very cold climates insulation can be added to a floating cover. In figure 7 we show an acid
clarifier at a mine site in northern Canada. This 200 mm thick cover was used to prevent freezing so
that the clarifier could remain in operation throughout the winter. Other insulated cover types can
be used to cover larger ponds.

DESIGN AND INSTALLATION OF FLOATING COVERS

When designing a floating cover there are two guidelines available for potable water covers. These
are the M25 Flexible Membrane Covers and Linings (AWWA, 2000), and the Reservoir Floating
Cover Guidelines (CA/NV, 1999). These guides show the best practices in floating cover design for
potable water.

7
 Figure 7 200 mm thick insulated cover on an acid clarifier.

There are two basic methods of floating cover installation. The most common method is to install
the cover in a dry pond. This method is the most reliable and can be applied to all pond types
including the largest sizes. Figures 1 and 2 illustrate installations in dry ponds. In the dry pond
installation the liner is placed first and is completed and tested. Then the cover is assembled on top
of the liner. The cover sheet material is placed first and thoroughly tested. Then the floats, weights,
and fittings that make the cover operate effectively are placed on top of the sheet material. These
floats and weights take up the slack in the cover as the water level changes in the pond. Done
correctly and the cover will give many years of service. When the weight, floats, and fittings are not
designed and done correctly then the cover will not provide the intended service. Selecting an
experienced designer and installer is an important aspect of a successful installation.
The more challenging type of installation is when the cover must be placed on a pond that is full, or
partially full of water. Figures, 2, 3, 4, and 5 all show covers that were installed when there was
water in the containment. Insulated covers (figure 4) are placed in sections so they are relatively
easy to move out onto the water. What is more challenging is to float a large cover into service. The
most important aspect of a wet installation is access to the pond. There must be sufficient access on
one side of the pond to build the entire cover and then access on the opposite side to rig cables to
draw the cover across the pond. In figure 6 the long, narrow profile of the pond was ideal for a wet
installation with the cover being assembled on the right and then deployed across the pond to the
left. It is even more important that a skilled designer and installer are selected for a wet pond
installation.

CONCLUSION
Floating covers are a mature technique that are finding new applications in mining and energy
extraction as more cost-effective materials and installation techniques are developed. Lined and
covered ponds are one of the most cost-effective water storage options for large volumes of water.

8
New fortified materials are allowing floating covers to move into other mining applications by
maintaining longevity with less costly materials. In addition to the usual application of floating
covers for the storage of potable water applications are emerging for evaporation control,
temperature control, and dilution control. The design of a floating cover requires experience and
skill and the selection of the designer and installer should be done with care.
The use of floating covers in mining and energy exploration is limited only by imagination. If a
large volume of water needs to be contained and protected there is likely a floating cover solution.

REFERENCES
AWWA (2000) M25 Flexible Membrane Covers and Linings for Potable Water Reservoirs (2000), American
Water and Waste Water Association, Denver CO, USA.

Burke, N. Kutnewsky, D. Price, V. Gerber, D. (1976) Reservoir cover and canalizing means, US Patent
#3,991,900, US Patent and Trademark Office, Alexandria, VA, USA.

CA/NV (1999) Reservoir Floating Cover Guidelines, California –Nevada Section of the American Water and
Waste Water Association, Rancho Cucamonga, CA, USA

Fraser, B. Mills, A. (2015) Geomembrane Performance Testing - Impacts of a Negative Langelier Saturation
Index on Geomembranes Geosynthetics ’15, IFAI 1801 County Road B W
Roseville, MN, USA.

Fraser, B, Killian, B. (2015) Emerging applications for evaporation control covers Geosynthetics ’15, IFAI 1801
County Road B W
Roseville, MN, USA.

Mills, A. Falk, S. (2013) Upper Chiquita Reservoir Floating Cover and Liner, Geosynthetics ’13, IFAI 1801
County Road B W
Roseville, MN, USA.

Mills, A. Martin, D. Sati, R. (2009) Long-Term Weathering Stability and Warranty Implications for Thin Film
Geomembranes, Geosynthetics ’09, IFAI 1801 County Road B W
Roseville, MN, USA.

Mills, A. (2015) Geomembrane Resistance to Hot Brine in Produced Water and Flowback Applications,
Geosynthetics ’15, IFAI 1801 County Road B W
Roseville, MN, USA.

US EPA Stage 2 Disinfectants and Disinfection Byproducts Rule (2006) Stage 2 Rule Page, Retrieved from
http://water.epa.gov/lawsregs/rulesregs/sdwa/stage2/regulations.cfm

Fraser, B. Mills, A., Bone, C. (2015) Emerging Applications of Floating Covers in Mining and Energy Sectors
(2015) Hydroprocess 2015, Antofagasta, Chile

9
EDITORS

Jorge Chávez
Dr. Jorge Chávez has a PhD in Chemistry from Universidad de Heidelberg, Germany, along
with a Master in Chemistry from the same University. He also has a Bachelor’s Degree in
Chemistry from Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú. He has extensive experience in
the environmental industry with emphasis on the mining sector; international experience
in environmental management of mining operations and the management of complex
environmental projects of great magnitude, as well as sound technical knowledge, strong
analytical skills and structured thinking. He has also been the leader of multidisciplinary
and multicultural project for sustainably equipment.

Fernando Valenzuela
Dr. Fernando Valenzuela is a professor of Unit Operations and Mining and Metallurgical
Chemistry at The Universidad de Chile. He is a chemist graduated from the same university
and has a Master’s degree in Chemical Engineering from Kyushu University, Japan. He
is a member of the Chemistry PhD Faculty at his university, author of 80 ISI scientific
publications, two chapters of technical books and five international patents on mining
wastewaters processing.