See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/257076379

Tunnelling and Supported Deep Excavations in the Greater Cairo

Conference Paper · January 2006

CITATIONS READS
4 1,566

1 author:

Fathalla M. El-Nahhas
Ain Shams University
68 PUBLICATIONS   212 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Numerical Modelling View project

Tunnelling and Underground Structures in Soft Ground View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Fathalla M. El-Nahhas on 28 May 2014.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Keynote Paper at the Int. Symposium on Utilization of Underground Space in Urban Areas,
International Tunnelling Association & Egyptian Tunnelling Society,
Sharm El-Sheikh, Egypt (pp. 27-56), 2006.

Tunnelling and Supported Deep Excavations in the Greater Cairo

Fathalla M. El-Nahhas
Professor of Geotechnical Engineering and Foundations, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt
Telephone: (2010) 5072991, fax: (202) 6855881 and email: elnahhas@thewayout.net

ABSTRACT

There have been mounting documented experiences for developing the underground space in the
Greater Cairo region during more than two decades. The remarkable step of implementing the central
underground portion of the first line of Cairo Metro in the early 1980s proved that critical urban
problems, as the mass transportation through downtown Cairo, could be solved efficiently by utilizing
the underground space. This 5-km long section was constructed through a very congested urban area
using stretches of deep excavation supported by two parallel lines of reinforced concrete diaphragm
walls. During the late 1980s, several types of tunnelling boring machines were used for the first time
in Cairo to construct the spine tunnel of the Greater Cairo Wastewater Project. The successful
implementation of these two projects contributed significantly to the transfer of badly needed new
construction technologies such as; diaphragm walls, bentonite slurry TBMs, pipejacking and grouting.

This technology transfer was fully employed for the construction of the subsequent underground
phases of the second line of Cairo Metro connecting the three parts of the Greater Cairo (Cairo, Giza
and Qalioubeya) from 1994 to 1999. Furthermore, several new tunnelling and underground projects
were executed in different areas of the Greater Cairo. A huge network of smaller branch sewer tunnels
had been constructed under many areas of Cairo. Several road tunnels were also constructed during the
past 10 years; such as Al-Azhar twin-tunnels utilizing a TBM and Orouba Road cut-and-cover tunnel
using diaphragm and tangent pile walls. The number of underground car parking garages within the
Greater Cairo has been growing every year in an attempt to deal with the current alarming traffic
problems within several areas.

This keynote-paper focuses on the geotechnical aspects of the past and future development of
underground space in the Greater Cairo. Compiled records of in-situ monitoring programs and results
of sophisticated numerical geotechnical analysis are discussed to illustrate the quantitative
performance of some of the completed projects of underground structures. Looking at the future, some
challenging aspects that need cooperative sustaining efforts to accelerate the current activities of
utilizing the urban underground space in order to improve, or at least preserve, the current
environmental urban condition in the Greater Cairo are identified and discussed.

1. INTRODUCTION

The Greater Cairo region includes the City of Cairo and some of the adjacent urban districts of the
Giza and Qalioubeya Governorates. The River Nile represents the western boundary Cairo and
separates it from the Giza urban areas while the Qalioubeya Governorate is located to the north of
Cairo across the Ismailia Canal. There have been mounting documented experiences for developing
the underground space in the Greater Cairo region during more than two decades. The remarkable step
of implementing the central underground portion of the first line of Cairo Metro in the early 1980s
proved that critical urban problems, as the mass transportation through downtown Cairo, could be
solved efficiently by utilizing the underground space. During the late 1980s, several types of
tunnelling boring machines were used for the first time in Cairo to construct the spine tunnel of the
Greater Cairo Wastewater project. The successful implementation of these two projects contributed
significantly to the transfer of badly needed new construction technologies such as; diaphragm walls,
bentonite slurry TBMs, pipejacking, grouting, …etc.

Several new tunnelling and underground projects were executed in different areas of the Greater Cairo
during the 1990s utilizing the benefits of this technology transfer. For instance, the construction of
several underground phases of the second line of Cairo Metro was completed to connect the three
parts of the Greater Cairo (Cairo, Giza and Qalioubeya) from 1994 to 1999. A huge network of
smaller branch sewer tunnels had been constructed under many areas of Cairo. Furthermore, several
road tunnels were also constructed during the past 10 years; such as Al-Azhar twin-tunnels utilizing a
TBM and Orouba Road cut-and-cover tunnel using diaphragm and tangent pile walls. The number of
underground car parking garages within the Greater Cairo has been growing every year in an attempt
to deal with the current alarming traffic problems within several areas.

Figure 1 shows the layout of the major tunnelling and underground projects that have been
constructed within the Greater Cairo during the last 20 years. The proposed alignment of line 3 of
Cairo Metro is also shown.

Line 2

Spine Tunnel
Wastewater

Line 3

Oruba Road
Tunnel

Line 1

Al-Azhar Road
Tunnels

Figure 1: Major Tunnelling and Underground Projects within the Greater Cairo

2
2. SUBSURFACE CONDITION IN THE GREATER CAIRO REGION

2.1 Geology and Stratigraphy

Geological studies of the Greater Cairo postulated that the Nile developed its course through the area
after the down faulting of a huge limestone block extending between what is known now as the El-
Muqattam cliff, on the east, and the Pyramids plateau (Said, 1981). Stratigraphy of deposits under the
Greater Cairo consists of several hundred meters of recent alluvial and diluvial layers that are
underlain by Pliocene very stiff plastic clay that rests on the Upper Eocene limestone marine
formations as illustrated in Figure 2.

Figure 2: Cross-Section through the Nile Valley in the Greater Cairo Region (El-Sohby and Mazen,
1985)

The central area of the Greater Cairo was built in the Nile valley on Quaternary deposits. These recent
deposits consist mainly of silt and clay layers of several meters thick underlain by the sand and
gravely sand layers. The fine-grained layers were formed by over-bank flooding and deposition during
periods of flood while the underlying medium to coarse sand and gravel layers were formed by
estuary deposition (Attia, 1954; El-Ramli, 1985; and El-Sohby and Mazen, 1985). The sand and
gravel layers represent the main aquifer under the Greater Cairo and hence have main role on the
changes of groundwater levels under this area. On the other hand, most of the tunnelling projects have
been advanced through these deposits.

The unique deposition environment of the sand and gravel deposits and the evolution of the Nile River
through this area some five million years ago are described in detail by El-Ramli (1992). More
recently, the River Nile had significantly changed its course through the Cairo area. Some of the
abandoned branch channels and lakes were later filled by man, mainly during the nineteenth century.
Hence, a surface man-made fill layer of heterogeneous mixture of silt, clay, sand, bricks, pottery and
pieces of limestone is commonly encountered at, but not limited to, these locations. Average
geotechnical properties of the main soil deposits in central Cairo are given by El-Nahhas et al. (1989).

A geological feature of large pocket of boulders and cobbles (of about 325-m long) was encountered
during the construction of the wastewater spine tunnel through the deep sand and gravel layers. An
investigation was conducted on these boulders and cobbles to study their nature, origin, sizes and their
likely incidence (El-Ramli, 1992). The study provided invaluable information on the deposition
mechanism of these layers and the characteristics of the boulders and cobbles. Very hard petrified-
wood segments were also encountered about 10 years later in front of the 9.4-m TBM during the

3
construction of Line 2 through the same deposits. Similar petrified wood segments as well as boulders
were again encountered during advancing Al-Azhar road tunnels.

2.2 Groundwater levels

The groundwater levels under the Nile valley, in general, and under the Greater Cairo area, in
particular, had been remarkably affected by the fluctuation of the water levels of the River Nile up to
the mid 1960s. The historical annual variation of the river water levels was characterized by a
consistent rise of the summer flooding during August to November with a slight decrease in these
levels during the two-month period of January and February that was defined for the yearly
maintenance of the irrigation structures. For hundreds of years, the groundwater adjacent to the river
was flushed every summer and a thin layer of fine Nile alluvial silt and clay were deposited on some
open low-level areas adjacent to the river channel. After the construction of the Aswan High Dam and
its impounding, the water levels of the River Nile within the Greater Cairo have been controlled to a
fairly constant level except during the annual winter maintenance period.

By late 1960s, a gradual rise of the groundwater levels was noticeable under the central areas of the
Greater Cairo. This new trend simultaneously developed with the remarkable increase of population
of the main urban area. Several studies were conducted in the 1970s and the early 1980s for the design
and implementation of new underground metro lines for the Greater Cairo region and the
rehabilitation of the Greater Cairo wastewater network. These studies identified several new sources
of groundwater recharge in Cairo; such as water percolation of excessive traditional irrigation of near-
by cultivated land, leakage of water supply and wastewater pipes, and others. Extensive records of
groundwater levels under the City of Cairo were available by early 1980s. They indicate, in general,
that the groundwater table tended to be higher than the relatively stable water level in the Nile River.

Detailed review of more recent records of groundwater levels has been conducted lately and indicates
minor changes in some areas while others are experiencing a steady rise. It is also apparent that
without the implementation of the major rehabilitation works of the wastewater network of the City of
Cairo, during the 1990s, the rise in groundwater levels in those areas and all-over Cairo could have
been much higher (El-Nahhas, 2003).

3. TUNNELLING UNDER THE GREATER CAIRO

3.1 Spine Tunnel of the Greater Cairo Wastewater Project

Master plan of the new wastewater collection system for the Greater Cairo was produced and
approved in the 1970s. It included the construction of a main deep collector (about 18 km long) from
Maadi in the south to Ameria in the north (Abu-Saada, 1991) as illustrated on Figure 1.

In the late 1980s, major sections of this spine tunnel (9.7 km long) were constructed using five
bentonite slurry TBMs excavating up to 6.1 m diameter. Another section of this tunnel (5.15 m
excavated diameter, 2.5 km long) as well as several kilometres of smaller secondary branch tunnels
were constructed using open face shields advanced under compressed air. Construction of this phase
of the spine tunnel was completed in 1990. This tunnel was lined with precast reinforced concrete
ribbed segments 0.8 to 1.0 m long as a primary lining. Each ring of the precast segments was provided
with a tapered segment to negotiate the curved tunnel alignment. The joints between segments were
sealed using either neoprone or hydrotite gaskets. The secondary lining consisted of a cast-in-place
90o reinforced concrete invert slab forming full shell with layers of acid-resistant blue bricks.

Tens of kilometres of main branch tunnels were constructed later to connect the spine tunnel to the
main districts of Cairo. Earth pressure balance TBMs excavating up to 3.25 m in diameter were

4
utilized for advancing some of these tunnels. Smaller branch tunnels of up to 1 m in diameter were
also constructed using the micro-tunnelling techniques. More recently the spine tunnel was extended
several kilometres further south to Maadi and Dar-Elsalam through limestone formations using full-
face rock TBM.

Studies were conducted on several sections of the spine tunnel utilizing both in-situ monitoring and
numerical modelling. Results of these studies were reported and discussed by El-Nahhas et al. (1990-
a, 1991), Shalaby (1990), Ahmed (1991), El-Nahhas (1991, 1993, 1994, 1999), Eisenstein and
Ezzeldine (1994), and Ezzeldine (1995).

3.2 Tunnels of Cairo Metro-Line 2

The second line of Cairo Metro, 21.6 km long, serving a total of 20 stations including 12 underground
stations connected by a double-track tunnel having excavated diameter of 9.4 m (Abdel Salam, 1992;
Burchell and Richards, 1994). The line starts at the ground surface in Shubra El-Kheima in the
Qalioubeya Governorate. It proceeds southwards on a viaduct before descending into a cut-and-cover
tunnel to cross Ismailia Canal to Cairo Governorate. The underground sections of the line continues
southward to central Cairo where it turns west to cross the two branches of the Nile to the Giza
Governorate. The final section of the line changes to on-grade mode at Boulak El-Dakrour and
continue southward parallel to the Upper Egypt Railways up to the final terminal at El-Monib Station.

Excavation of the first sections of the tunnel started in 1994 using two identical bentonite slurry
TBMs. In 1997, one of these machines crossed safely under the two branches of the Nile in central
Cairo to form a mass transportation link between the Cairo and Giza Governorates. The design of
these machines was more sophisticated than those used on the wastewater project reflecting the
remarkable improvements in such machines in less than 10-year period. They incorporated efficient
grouting systems through the tail skin.

Studies were conducted on several sections of the tunnels of line 2. Results of these studies were
reported and discussed by Mansour (1996), El-Nahhas et al. (1997), Ahmed and Esmail (1998), Abdel
Salam (1999), El-Nahhas (1999), Ezzeldine (1999) and El-Sayed (2001).

3.3 Al-Azhar Road Tunnels

These twin tunnels were constructed to provide a fast link between the congested parts of downtown
Cairo with the eastern parts of the city under the area of the old Fatimid Cairo. The Fatimid area of
Cairo, dating back to the 10th Century, is the historic Islamic Cultural centre of the city, which
includes architectural treasures of old Mosques and Palaces. The two road tunnels aim to create a
vehicular free surface region for tourism and pedestrians, as well as improving the environmental
conditions, in this important zone.

The twin tunnels, each 2.7-km long and an internal diameter of 8.35 m, were constructed using one of
the 9.4-m TBMs that were previously used for boring the tunnels of Cairo Metro-Line 2. Each tunnel
provides two traffic lanes, unidirectional, designed to allow the passage of private cars, taxis and
buses of 4 metres maximum height.

The alignment of the two tunnels faced several constraints and difficulties, including the location of
the ventilation stations in such a congested zone; passing underneath the existing main sewer tunnel,
at a depth of 17m below ground level; avoiding any damage to the existing old buildings and
interference with the piled foundations of an existing grade-separation bridge. Extensive surveys
were carried out to identify the foundations and the structural condition of the existing structures,
where tunnels would be bored underneath or adjacent to them and included surveys of the different

5
types of utilities. Studies were conducted on several sections of Al-Azhar road tunnels. Results of
these studies were reported and discussed by Abu-Krisha (2001) and El-Sayed (2001).

3.4 Tunnels of Cairo Metro-Line 3

Construction of the first phase of this 34-km long line is expected to start in 2007. This line will
extend from Cairo International Airport in the northeast side of Cairo, crossing under the downtown
district and the River Nile and ending at two different points in urban areas of Giza as shown on
Figure 1. Major portion of this alignment will be underground. The 4.3-km first phase, which is
considered of higher priority, will connect Attaba in the downtown area with Abbassia Square. It is
expected that construction of this phase, using technologies similar to those used for Line 2, will be
completed in 4 years (Shehata, 2005). Once the construction of this phase starts, it is foreseen that the
implementation plans of the second phase (6.2- km long) connecting Abbassia Square with Heliopolis
area could be put forward in order speed up the execution of this badly needed mass transportation
project.

It is considered that the construction of this project will be the major tunnelling activity in the Greater
Cairo (and perhaps in Egypt) during the coming decade. It is also expected that some new
construction technologies may be utilized, for the first time in Cairo Metro projects, particularly
during executing its northern parts where the alignment passes through relatively dry ground (El-
Nahhas, 2002).

4. UTILIZED TUNNELLING TECHNOLOGIES IN THE GREATER CAIRO

4.1 Shield Tunnelling under Compressed Air

Open face TBMs of relatively small diameters can be advanced through water bearing soft ground at
relatively shallow depths provided that compressed air is used within the tunnel to allow an overall
balance with the hydrostatic water pressure acting on the tunnel face. However, the compressed air
can only provide a uniform outward pressure while the external hydrostatic groundwater pressure
acting on the tunnel face is increasing linearly with depth between the crown and the invert (Figure 3).
This difference in the distribution of the two opposing pressures usually results in a loss of
compressed air at the crown and some inward groundwater seepage at the invert. Furthermore,
advancing an open face TBM under compressed air is usually associated with a rise of the
groundwater table in the surrounding area.

Figure 3: Counter Balancing of Hydrostatic Water Pressure at the Face of Open Face TBM under
Compressed Air

6
Field measurements were compiled during advancing a section of the spine tunnel of the Cairo
Wastewater Project (El-Nahhas et al., 1990-a; Shalaby, 1990; Ahmed, 1991). The excavated diameter
of the tunnel was 5.15 m advanced at a depth to centreline of about 14 m below the ground surface.
The groundwater table prior to the tunnel construction was located at a depth of about 4 meters below
ground surface and the utilized air pressure was unusually high reaching about 140 kPa. Figure 4
shows the measured development of surface and subsurface ground settlement during the advance of
tunnel face. Figure 5 shows a comparison between measured and calculated settlement above a section
of the spine tunnel that was constructed under compressed air. These results confirm that the use of
compressed air reduced significantly the ground settlement above this tunnel.

Figure 4: Measured Surface and Subsurface Ground Settlement above Compressed Air Tunnel

Figure 5: Calculated and Measured Ground Settlement above Compressed Air Tunnel

The piezometers measurement indicated that the rise in the water table could start as early as about 10
meters ahead of the tunnel face and continued as late as about 30 meters behind the face. The water
table did not go back to its original state until the tunnel advance was completed and the compressed
air was fully released. Measured maximum settlement directly above the tunnel centreline was about
16 mm increasing to about 21 mm after the compressed air was switched off and the groundwater

7
table stabilized. It should be noted, however, that the rate of advancing an open face TBM is relatively
slow with some health risk on workers and possible ground blow-out directly above the tunnel face.

4.2 Tunnelling using Bentonite Slurry TBMs

Most of the limitations of open face TBMs coupled with compressed air are overcome with the
introduction of the bentonite slurry TBMs. The outward pressure acting on the face is limited to the
front part of the TBM and varies linearly with depth. It is similar in distribution but usually slightly
higher than the external hydrostatic groundwater pressure (Figure 6).

Figure 6: Counter Balancing of Hydrostatic Water Pressure at the Face of Bentonite Slurry TBM

This type of TBMs was successfully used to control groundwater during the construction of major
tunnelling projects in Egypt, in general, and the Greater Cairo region, in particular. These include
major parts of the spine tunnel of the Cairo Wastewater Project (El-Nahhas, 1993 and 1994), the
tunnels of Line 2 of Cairo Metro (El-Nahhas et al., 1997 and El-Sayed, 2001), the four parallel tunnels
of El-Salam Syphon under Suez Canal (El-Nahhas et al., 1996 and Esmail, 1997) and Al-Azhar Road
Tunnels (Abu-Krisha, 2001 and El-Sayed, 2001).

Figure 7 illustrates the configuration of three different designs of Bentonite Slurry TBMs that were
used under Cairo for the construction of the Cairo Wastewater spine tunnel, the tunnels of Cairo
Metro Line 2 and Al-Azhar twin road tunnels. Two different types of TBMs (manufactured by Wayss-
Freytag and Markham-Okumura) were used for the spine tunnel while one type of TBM
(manufactured by Herrenknecht) was used for the other two projects. Each of the first two 1980s-
machines was 6.1-m diameter. Grouting the gap between the lining and the soil was conducted, with
slight delay, through the lining using special holes that were plugged once the grouting was
completed. However, the first TBM was equipped with rubber membrane tail seals while steel brushes
were used in the second TBM. The third 1990s-TBM was 9.4-m diameter and equipped with steel
brushes tail seal and grouting through the tail skin.

Quantitative performance of a TBM for controlling the ground losses (ahead of the tunnel face,
around the shield and behind its tail) can be demonstrated best by plotting compiled full-scale actual
records of ground settlement versus the distance from tunnel face (El-Nahhas, 1981 and 1986). Figure
7 summarizes the range of measured ground surface settlement above each of the three shown TBMs

8
during their early trials through the typical sand and gravel deposits of the Greater Cairo. More details
are given by El-Nahhas (1993 and 1999).

It is evident from these records that the steel brushes at the tail seal (second TBM) contributed
significantly to controlling ground losses just behind the tunnelling machines. Furthermore, the
immediate filling of the gap behind the precast segmental lining through the tail skin of the third TBM
was outstanding in minimizing ground losses. This was extremely essential for controlling the ground
deformations above the relatively large diameter (9.4-m) tunnels of Cairo Metro Line 2 and Al-Azhar
road tunnels.

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 7: Measured Surface Settlement above Three Different Bentonite Slurry TBMs Used in the
Greater Cairo Wastewater Project, 6.1-m diam.: a) Wayss-Freytag TBM & b) Markham-
Okumura TBM and c) Cairo Metro Line 2, 9.4-m diam.: Herrenknecht TBM.

9
Several attempts of 2 and 3 dimensional numerical deformation analyses were conducted to model
tunnels constructed using the bentonite slurry TBMs. The results of these studies were reported and
discussed by El-Nahhas (1993), Ezzeldine (1995), Mansour (1996), El-Nahhas et al. (1997), Esmail
(1997), Ahmed and Esmail (1998) and El-Sayed (2001).

Figure 8 shows the results of a 3D finite element modelling of the double-track single tunnel of Cairo
Metro Line 2. Similar analysis was performed for Al-Azhar twin tunnels at the critical section of its
intersection with the location of the existing wastewater tunnel. The calculated settlement fields, after
constructing the first tunnel and the final settlement field after constructing both tunnels, are shown on
Figure 9.

The use of Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) for predicting settlement above similar future tunnels is
discussed by Ahmed et al. (2003) and Ali et al. (2004).

Figure 8: Calculated 3D Settlement Field above the Tunnel of Cairo Metro Line 2 (El-Sayed, 2001)

After tunnel 1 After tunnel 1&2

Figure 9: Calculated 3D Settlement Fields above Al-Azhar Twin Tunnels (El-Sayed, 2001)

10
5. SUPPORTED DEEP EXCAVATION IN THE GREATER CAIRO

5.1 Cairo Metro-Lines 1 and 2

The entire length of the underground portion of line 1 of Cairo Metro (about 4.5-km long) and all the
new underground stations of the second line (10 stations) were constructed utilizing the cut-and-cover
technique. This construction technology included execution of supported deep excavations within a
box of reinforced concrete diaphragm walls. In all cases, the final depth of these deep excavations was
situated within the sand and gravel layers after removal of the man-made fill and the underlying silt
and clay.

As illustrated in Figure 10-a, excessive pumping out the groundwater from a deep excavation results
in a significant drop of the water table within the surrounding areas with possible excessive settlement
of the adjacent buildings and other structures. Furthermore, if the exist hydraulic gradient at the
bottom of excavation exceeded the safe value, there is a risk of sand boiling at the final level of
excavation before casting the raft. On the other hand, the huge amount of pumped groundwater from
the excavation requires special safe arrangements to drain it safely without overloading existing sewer
system or polluting near-by water channels.

Alternatively, the concrete diaphragm walls can be extended deeper without reinforcement and a low-
permeability grouted plug is provided at their toes as shown on Figure 10-b. The grouting materials
are injected in two stages, bentonite-cement slurry followed by soft-silica gel, in order to reduce the
permeability of the sand to 10-6 m/s. Before starting excavation, integrity of the grouted plug is
checked using pumping tests conducted with close monitoring of groundwater levels utilizing a
number of piezometers. If needed, re-grouting of unsatisfactory areas of the plug is performed.

(a) (b)

Figure 10: Supported Deep Excavation with and without Grouted Plug

Excavation is carried out in stages simultaneously with the installation of permanent and temporary
lateral supports of cast-in-place reinforced concrete slabs and steel pipes, respectively. During
excavation, the groundwater above the grouted plug is lowered, to an elevation just below the planned
final excavation level, using pumping from deep wells at a moderate rate. Thickness of the grouted
plug and its elevation are selected to satisfy a safe limit of the average hydraulic gradient within the
plug (less than 3) and an adequate average buoyancy factor of safety (1.1 or more) of the remaining
soil mass below the final excavation level.

11
After casting the raft, the temporary lateral supports are removed and pumping of groundwater is
stopped. Uplift pressure on the lower surface of the raft increases gradually until reaching the
hydrostatic condition. At this stage, permanent control of groundwater level is achieved and the
grouted plug ends its critical task. It should be noted, however, that permanent resistance to the uplift
forces has to be fully secured with adequate factor of safety before terminating the pumping activity.

This system was used with a remarkable success for the construction of the supported deep
excavations of the Greater Cairo Metro network during the implementation of line 1 (Abel-Salam,
1984; El-Nahhas, et al., 1988, 1989, 1990-b, 1994; Shalaby, 1989; and Abdel-Rahman, 1993) and line
2 (Abel-Salam, 1995; Ahmed and Abel-Salam, 1996; Assaf, 1997; El-Nahhas et al., 1998; Mostafa,
1998; Fayed, 2002; Abdel-Motaal (2004) and El-Nahhas, 2003).

Figure 11 shows the location of the two instrumented test sections of the first line of Cairo Metro and
the details of that at the Orabi Station. A comparison between the measured settlement troughs
adjacent to the supported deep excavations of the first line of Cairo Metro and the results of numerical
modelling using the finite element method is shown on Figure 12. More details are given by El-
Nahhas et al. (1989, 1990-b), Shalaby (1989) and El-Nahhas (1992).

Figure 11: Instrumented Section at Orabi Station, Cairo Metro Line 1

Figure 12: Comparison between the Measured and the Calculated Settlement adjacent to Supported
Deep Excavations of Cairo Metro Line 1

12
Special attention was made during the in-situ geotechnical monitoring of the early stages of the deep
excavations of Line 2 (El-Nahhas 1999) to document the ground settlement during excavation of the
diaphragm wall panels. Figure 13 compares the observed trend of the measurements with those
reported by Clough and O’Rourke (1990) for large number of case studies. It is apparent that such
settlement should not ignored during the assessment of safety of existing buildings and other
structures or main utility lines located directly adjacent to the diaphragm wall.

Figure 13: Measured Settlement due to Excavation of the Diaphragm Wall Panels of Subway Stations,
Cairo Metro Line 2

The hydraulic efficiency of the grouted plug of line 1 was documented using the readings of a set of
pneumatic and electrical piezometers. The in-situ measurements confirmed the full control of
groundwater adjacent to the deep excavation. Figure 14 shows the measured pore water pressure
under the bottom of excavation just before casting the reinforced concrete floor. Results of the
numerical back-analysis of the groundwater flow into the deep excavation are presented and discussed
by Hassan and El-Nahhas (1994) and El-Nahhas et al. (2006-b).

Measurements below Final Excavation Level

0

-5

Final Excavation Level

Depth below GS (m)

-10

Hydrostatic Pressure
Adjacent to Excavation

-15
Elevation of
Grouted Plug

-20

-25
0 100 200 300
Pore Water Pressure (kPa)

Figure 14: Measured Pore Water Pressure below the Deep Excavations of Cairo Metro

13
5.2 Underground Parking Garages

The entire length of the underground portion of line 1 of Cairo Metro (about 4.5-km long) and all the
new underground stations of second line (10 stations) were constructed utilizing the cut-and-cover
technique. This construction technology included execution of supported deep excavations within a
box of reinforced concrete diaphragm walls. In all cases, the final depth of these deep excavations was
situated within the sand and gravel layers after removal of the man-made fill and the underlying silt
and clay. Following the remarkable success of this system, it was utilized for the construction of deep
excavations of several projects in Egypt, particularly for underground parking garages in the Greater
Cairo as described by Baligh (1994), El-Nahhas and Morsy (1996), Wahby (2002), Hatata (2002),
Moharram (2003), El-Nahhas (2003) and Monib (2005).

The supported deep excavation of the new headquarters of the Faisal Islamic Bank in Egypt is
presented here as a typical example of the recent well documented case studies. A system of
diaphragm walls coupled with a 3-m grouted plug was selected for the construction of four
underground floors of this project (Baligh, 1994). The new development consists of a tower twenty-
six story high over an area of about 800 m2 and a seven-story annex. The site covers an area of about
1800 m2 about 200 m west of the Nile in Giza. Three of the underground floors under the entire area
will be used as car park and a fourth similar floor will be utilized for the bank safes.

The 13-m deep excavation was mainly in loose to dense sand. The excavation vertical walls were
multipropped utilizing two levels of tie-back anchors (Figure 15) and a system of struts at the corners.
The building was founded on a raft foundation resting on a system of strip piles to carry the building
loads to a depth about 27 meters below ground surface.

In-situ geotechnical performance of the supported deep excavation was investigated by implementing
a program of field measurements of the lateral deformation of the diaphragm walls and groundwater
levels using inclinometers and piezometers, respectively (El-Nahhas and Morsy, 1996). An extensive
finite element modelling (Figure 16) of the implemented construction procedure was conducted using
the Plaxis software. Figure 16 compares the inclinometer readings with the results of the back-
analysis. Detailed discussion on the results of this analysis is given by El-Nahhas and Morsy (2002).

Figure 15: Cross-Section through the 13-m Supported Deep Excavation of the New Faisal Islamic Bank

14
 Lateral
Displacement
(mm )

0 10 20 30
0
5
10 Plaxis
15 SI-1

Depth
20 SI-3
SI-4
25
30
35

Figure 16: Finite Element Mesh and Comparison of Measured and Calculated Lateral Deflection of the
Diaphragm Walls

It should be stated that this system of supported deep excavation proved its documented success for
areas close to the River Nile in the Greater Cairo region. However, other less expensive technologies,
such as tangent and adjacent pile walls or soldier piles-lagging system without any grouted plugs, are
more suitable for dry areas of the Greater Cairo away from the River Nile. The frequency of using
such systems in the Greater Cairo has been increasing recently. For instance, tangent pile walls were
used for the portal sections of El-Orouba Road tunnel. However, more field data on the performance
of these systems, their quantitative effect on adjacent structures, cost, and rate of construction is
needed in order to encourage their use on a larger scale. It is also expected that such systems would be
utilized for the construction of some parts of line 3 of Cairo Metro.

6. CONCLUDING REMARKS

This keynote paper describes the mounting documented experiences for developing the underground
space in the Greater Cairo region during more than two decades. The central underground portion of the
first line of Cairo Metro was constructed successfully in the early 1980s and several types of tunnelling
boring machines were tried for the first time in Cairo to construct the spine tunnel of the Greater Cairo
Wastewater Project during the late 1980s. The remarkable success of these two projects contributed
significantly to the transfer of badly needed new construction technologies such as; diaphragm walls,
bentonite slurry TBMs, pipejacking and grouting. The updated versions of these technologies were used
for the implementation of the second line of Cairo Metro connecting the three parts of the Greater Cairo
(Cairo, Giza and Qalioubeya) from 1994 to 1999. Furthermore, they were utilized for construction of
other large underground projects such as, Al-Azhar twin-tunnels using a TBM and Orouba Road cut-
and-cover tunnel using diaphragm and tangent pile walls.

Compiled results confirm that constructing relatively small shallow tunnels using open face TBMs with
compressed air through the typical ground condition of the central areas of the Greater Cairo will result
in acceptable settlement. However, their rate of advance is relatively slow with some health risk on
workers and possible ground blow-out directly above the tunnel face. These problems become more
serious as the tunnel size gets bigger and its route gets deeper. It is noteworthy that compressed air is
sometimes used during emergencies to allow access to the tunnel face when a bentonite slurry machine
is faced with problematic ground condition (such as encountering huge hard boulders) or for fixing

15
mechanical failure of any critical part at the TBM face. This situation is considered the most critical,
particularly for relatively large diameter and deep tunnels, until alternative safer and economical
procedures become available.

A large pocket of boulders and cobbles was encountered within the deep sand and gravel layers of the
Greater Cairo during the construction of the wastewater spine tunnel. Very hard petrified-wood
segments were also encountered about 10 years later during the construction of Line 2 through the same
deposits. Similar petrified wood segments as well as boulders were again encountered during advancing
Al-Azhar road tunnels. Therefore, these geological features should be always considered when choosing
the suitable tunnelling method and while designing a TBM to advance through these deposits.

It is evident from compiled records of ground settlement above bentonite slurry TBMs that
the use of steel brushes at the tail seal (in the 1980s) contributed significantly to controlling
ground losses just behind the tunnelling machines. On the other hand, the immediate filling of
the gap behind the precast segmental lining through the tail skin (of the 1990s TBMs) was
outstanding in minimizing ground losses particularly for relatively large diameter (9.4-m)
tunnels of Cairo Metro Line 2 and Al-Azhar road tunnels.

Measurements of groundwater levels in the central areas of the Greater Cairo in the 1980s confirmed
that the water table, in general, tend to be higher than the relatively stable water level in the Nile River.
Detailed review of recent records of groundwater levels indicates minor changes in some areas while
others are experiencing a steady rise in the water table elevation.

The number of underground car parking garages within the Greater Cairo has been growing every year
in an attempt to deal with the current alarming traffic problems within several areas. The use of laterally
supported diaphragm walls with a grouted plug proved to be successful for areas close to the River Nile.
However, different forms of less expensive grouted plugs should be examined to make the system more
feasible and to encourage deeper use of underground space in these areas. On the other hand, other less
expensive technologies of in-situ walls, such as tangent and adjacent pile walls or soldier piles-lagging
system without any grouted plugs, are more suitable for dry areas of the Greater Cairo away from the
River Nile. The frequency of using such systems in the Greater Cairo has been increasing recently.
However, more field data on the performance of these systems, their quantitative effect on adjacent
structures, cost, and rate of construction is needed in order to encourage their use on a larger scale. It is
also expected that such systems would be utilized for the construction of some parts of line 3 of Cairo
Metro.

It is considered that the construction of Line 3 of Cairo Metro Project will be the major tunnelling
activity in the Greater Cairo (and perhaps in Egypt) during the coming decade. It is also expected that
some new construction technologies may be utilized, for the first time in Cairo Metro projects,
particularly during executing its northern parts where the alignment passes through relatively dry ground

7. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Major parts of this keynote paper were based on the results of the continuing research programs at Ain
Shams University, Cairo, Egypt on geotechnical aspects of developing underground space using
tunnelling and other underground structures. The author wishes to thank all his colleagues and former
graduate for the rewarding work with them during the past 25 years. In particular, special gratitude is
due to Prof. Ali A. Ahmed, Dr. Mohamed M. Morsy, Dr. Mohamed T. Abdel-Rahman, Dr. Mohamed A.
Abdel-Motaal, Dr. Hossam A. Ali, and Dr. Sayed M. El-Sayed.

16
8. REFERENCES

Abdel-Rahman, A. H. (1993) Numerical modelling of concrete diaphragm walls. M. Sc. Thesis,

Geotechnical and Foundation Engineering, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt.
Abdel-Motaal, M. A. (1999) Mitigation of seismic construction hazards for underground station.
Journal of Soil Mechanics and Foundations, The Egyptian Geotechnical Society, Housing and
Building Research Centre, Giza, Egypt, Vol. 15, No. 2.
Abdel Salam, M. E. (1984) Grouting of alluvial soil in Cairo underground metro. Proc. of Conf. on
Tunnelling in Soft and Water Bearing Ground, A. A. Balkema, pp. 135-142.
Abdel Salam, M. E. (1992) Cairo Metro network- line 2. Proc. of Int. Symposium on Current
Experiences in Tunnelling, National Authority for Tunnels and International Tunnelling
Association, Cairo, pp. 1-15.
Abdel Salam, M. E. (1999) Historic Nile crossing by a bored tunnel. Proc. of Int. Symposium on
Ground Challenges & Expectations in Tunnelling Projects. The Egyptian Tunnelling Society
and the International Tunnelling Association, Cairo, pp. 1-17.
Abdel-Salam, N. (1995) In-situ performance of a subway station in Cairo M. Sc. Thesis, Geotechnical
and Foundation Engineering, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt.
Abou Saada, M. T. (1991) Greater Cairo Wastewater Project: new collection system in tunnelling. Proc.
of Int. Symposium on Tunnelling in Congested Cities - National Authority for Tunnels, The
Egyptian Society of Engineers and the International Tunnelling Association, pp. 123-130.
Abu-Krisha, A. (2001) Settlement control of CWO sewer tunnel during boring El-Azhar road tunnels in
Cairo. Proc. of Int. World Tunnel Congress, Milan, Italy.
Ahmed, A. A. (1991) Interaction of tunnel lining and ground. Ph. D. Thesis, Geotechnical and
Foundation Engineering, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt.
Ahmed, A. and Abel-Salam, N. (1996) In-situ performance of subway stations in Cairo. Proc. of
Seventh International Colloquium on Structural and Geotechnical Engineering, Ain Shams
University, Cairo, Vol. 1, pp. 447-460.
Ahmed, A. A. and Esmail, K. A. (1998) Prediction of tunnelling subsidence below El-Dokki flyover.
Proc. of Eighth International Colloquium on Structural and Geotechnical Engineering, Ain Shams
University, Cairo, Vol. 3, pp. 202-210.
Ahmed, A. A., Ali, H.; El-Sayed, S.; and Nour, S. (2003) Neuronet prediction of tunnelling induced
settlements. Proc. of the Tenth Int. Colloquium on Structural and Geotechnical Eng., Ain
Shams Univ., Cairo, Paper No. GE37.
Ali, H.; El-Sayed, S.; and Nour, S. (2004) Neuronet prediction of tunnelling induced settlements.
Presentation at the Egyptian Tunnelling Society, 28 September 2004.
Assaf, O. M. (1997) Analysis of interaction of in-situ walls with the ground M. Sc. Thesis,
Geotechnical and Foundation Engineering, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt.
Attia, M. (1954) Deposits in the Nile Valley and delta. Mines and Quarries Department, Geol. Survey,
Cairo, Egypt. 356 p.
Baligh, M.M. (1994) Foundation of the Faisal Islamic Bank Tower, Part I- Conceptual design of a deep
excavation support system near the Nile. 2nd Geotechnical Engineering Conference, Cairo
University, Egypt, 100-136.
Burchell, A. and Richards, D. (1994) Stations and tunnels on the Cairo Metro. Tunnels and Tunnelling,
Middle East Issue, Spring 1994, pp. 12-14.

17
Clough, G. W. and O’Rourke, T. D. (1990) Construction induced movements of in-situ walls. Proc. of
ASCE Special Publication No. 25, pp. 439-470.
Eisenstein, Z. and Ezzeldine, O. (1994) The role of face pressure for shields with positive ground
control. Proc. of Int. Congress on Tunnelling and Ground Conditions, Cairo, ITA, Published by
Balkema, Netherlands, pp. 557-571.
El-Nahhas, F. (1981) Behaviour of tunnels in stiff soils. Ph. D. Thesis, Geotechnical Engineering,
University of Alberta, Canada, 305 p.
El-Nahhas, F. (1986) Spatial mode of ground subsidence above advancing shielded tunnels. Proc. Int.
Congress on Large Underground Openings, ITA, Florence, Italy, Vol. 1, pp. 720-725.
El-Nahhas, F. (1991) Ground settlement above urban tunnels constructed using bentonite slurry
machines. Proc. of Int. Symposium on Tunnelling in Congested Cities - National Authority for
Tunnels, The Egyptian Society of Engineers and International Tunnelling Association, pp. 61-74.
El-Nahhas, F. (1992) Construction monitoring of urban tunnels and subway stations, Tunnelling and
Underground Space Technology, Pergamon Press, Vol. 7, No.4, 425-439.
El-Nahhas, F. (1993) Tunnelling under Cairo using bentonite slurry machines. Proc. of Int. Congress on
Options for Tunnelling. Amsterdam, ITA, Elsevier Science Publishers B. V., pp. 351-361.
El-Nahhas, F. (1994) Some geotechnical aspects of shield tunnelling in the Cairo area. Proc. of Int.
Congress on Tunnelling and Ground Conditions, Cairo, ITA, Published by Balkema, Netherlands,
pp. 11-16.
El-Nahhas, F. (1999) Soft ground tunnelling in Egypt: geotechnical challenges and expectations, Journal
of Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology, Pergamon Press, Vol. 14, No. 3, 245-256
(also published in the Proc. of Int. Symposium on Ground Challenges & Expectations in
Tunnelling Projects. The Egyptian Tunnelling Society and the International Tunnelling
Association, Cairo, pp. 59-79).
El-Nahhas, F. (2002) Potential of utilizing the NATM technology for Greater Cairo Metro line No. 3,
Phase 1. Technical Report Submitted to the Arab Consulting Engineers.
El-Nahhas, F. (2003) Geotechnical aspects of controlling groundwater levels in urban areas. A
Keynote Paper, Proc. of the Tenth Int. Colloquium on Structural and Geotechnical Eng., Ain
Shams Univ., Cairo, Vol. 6, KL4.
El-Nahhas, F. and Morsy, M.M. (1996) Faisal Islamic Bank Tower, geotechnical monitoring
program”, Geotechnical Report prepared for ESCO.
El-Nahhas, F. and Morsy, M.M. (2002). Comparison of the measured and computed performance of
propped diaphragm retaining wall in Egypt. Proc. of the Int. Symposium on Numerical Models in
Geomechanics, Rome, Italy, pp. 579-586.
El-Nahhas, F.; Eisenstein, Z.; Shalaby, A.; Salam, M.; and El-Bedaiwy, S. (1988) Geotechnical
performance of diaphragm walls during construction of Cairo Metro tunnel. Proc. Int. Congress
on Tunnels and Water, ITA, Madrid, Spain, Vol.1, pp. 259-266.
El-Nahhas, F. ; Eisenstein, Z.; and Shalaby, A. (1989) Behaviour of diaphragm walls during
construction of Cairo Metro. Proc. Twelfth Int. Conf. on Soil Mechanics and Foundation
Engineering, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, pp. 1483-1486.
El-Nahhas, F.; El-Kadi, F.; and Shalaby, A. G. (1990-a) Field measurements during construction of a
compressed air tunnel in Cairo. Proc. of the Int. Congress on Tunnels and Underground Works-
Today and Future, Chengdu, China, pp. 375-382 ( Also 1991 in Tunnelling and Underground
Space Technology, Pergamon Press, Vol. 6, No.1 pp. 123-127).

18
El-Nahhas, F.; Eisenstein, Z.; and Shalaby, A. H. (1990-b) In-situ behaviour of Orabi subway station
during construction. Proc. of First Alexandria Conference on Structural and Geotechnical
Engineering, Alexandria University, Egypt, Vol. 1, pp. 189-198.
El-Nahhas, F.; Ahmed, A.; El-Gammal, A.; and Abdel-Rahman, A. (1994) Modelling of braced
excavation for subway stations. Proc. of Int. Congress on Tunnelling and Ground Conditions.
ITA, Cairo, Published by Balkema, Netherlands, pp. 105-111.
El-Nahhas, F.; Ahmed, A.; and Esmail, K. (1996) Ground displacements around multiple tunnels
constructed using closed face machines. Proc. of Seventh International Colloquium on Structural
and Geotechnical Engineering, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Vol. 1, pp. 213-227.
El-Nahhas, F.; Ahmed, A.; and Esmail, K. (1997) Prediction of ground subsidence above tunnels in
Cairo. Proc. of Fourteenth International Conf. on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Eng., Hamburg,
Germany, A. A. Balkema, Vol. 3, pp. 1453- 1456.
El-Nahhas, F.; Ahmed, A.; and Assaf, O. (1998) Analysis of in-situ walls interaction with the ground.
Proc. of Eighth Int. Colloquium on Structural and Geotechnical Eng., Ain Shams Univ., Cairo,
Vol. 3, pp. 211-220.
El-Nahhas, F. M.; Abdel-Rahman, M. T.; and Iskander, G. M. (2006) Utilization of Grouting
Techniques for Construction of Underground Structures in Urban Areas. Int. Symposium on
Utilization of Underground Space in Urban Areas, ETS & ITA, Sharm El-Sheikh (in print).
El-Ramli, A. H. (1985) A geotechnical study of the Greater Cairo zone as related to the behavior of a
mighty river. Proc. of a Seminar on Some Foundation Problems in Egypt and Northern Germany,
Building Research Center, Cairo, pp.106-123.
El-Ramli, A. H. (1992) Geology and geotechnics in some areas in Egypt. Proc. of Int. Symposium on
Current Experiences in Tunnelling, National Authority for Tunnels and International Tunnelling
Association, Cairo, pp. 93-117.
El-Sayed, S. (2001) Elasto-plastic three-dimensional analysis of shielded tunnels. Ph. D. Thesis,
Geotechnical and Foundation Engineering, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt.
El-Sohby, M. A. and Mazen, O. (1985) Geological aspects in Cairo subsoil development. Proc. Eleventh
Int. Conf. on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, San Francisco, A. A. Balkema, Vol. 3,
pp. 2401-2405.
Esmail, K. (1997) Numerical modelling of deformations around closed face tunnelling boring machines.
Ph. D. Thesis, Geotechnical and Foundation Engineering, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt.
Ezzeldine, O. (1995) Design of tunnels constructed using pressurized shield methods. Ph. D. Thesis,
Geotechnical Engineering, University of Alberta, Canada.
Fayed, A. (2002) Numerical modelling of underground subway stations. Ph. D. Thesis, Geotechnical
and Foundation Engineering, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt.
Hassan, A. and El-Nahhas, F. (1994) Assessment of hydraulic efficiency of grouted plug between
diaphragm walls. Proc. of Int. Congress on Tunnelling and Ground Conditions. ITA, Cairo,
Published by Balkema, Netherlands, pp. 327-331.
Hatata, H. (2002) Correlation between calculated and measured behaviour of strutted diaphragm wall at
NSGB headquarter, Cairo. Presentation at the Egyptian Tunnelling Society, 28 May 2002.
Mansour, M. (1996) Three dimensional numerical modelling of hydroshield tunnelling. Ph. D. Thesis,
University of Innsbruck, Austria.
Moharram, A. (2003) Garage El-Tahrir: design approaches and construction control. Presentation at the
Egyptian Tunnelling Society, 29 February 2003.

19
 Monib, M. (2005) Supported deep excavation and soil treatment. Presentation at the Egyptian
Tunnelling Society, 31 May 2005.
Mostafa, M. E. (1998) Behaviour of supported deep excavations. Ph. D. Thesis, Geotechnical and
Geotechnical and Foundation Engineering, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt.
Said, R. (1981) The geological evolution of the River Nile. Springler,Verlag.
Shalaby, A. G. (1990) Behaviour of tunnels in some Egyptian soils. Ph. D. Thesis, Geotechnical and
Foundation Engineering, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt.
Shalaby, A. M. (1989) Geotechnical behaviour of diaphragm walls. Ph. D. Thesis, Geotechnical
Engineering, University of Alberta, Canada.
Shehata, S. (2005) Line 3 of the Greater Cairo Metro. Presentation at the Egyptian Tunnelling Society,
27 September 2005.
Wahby, A. (2002) Design and construction of grouted ground anchors. Presentation at the Egyptian
Tunnelling Society, 26 March 2002.

20

View publication stats