1

CSE1004 – Network and

Communication
 Module-1: Networking Principles
2
and Layered Architecture
Data Communication Model

Data Flow

Line Configuration or Types of Connection

Networks - Need of Network – Applications - Categories of Networks

Network Topology

Protocols and Standards

Network Models(OSI, TCP/IP)

 Data communication Model
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 Message : Is the information to be

communicated. Popular forms of
information include text, numbers, pictures,
audio and video.
 Sender: Is the device that sends a message.
It can be computer, workstation, telephone,
video camera and soon.
 Receiver: Is the device that receives the
message. It can be computer, workstation,
telephone, video camera and soon.
 Protocol: Is a set of rules that both sender
and receiver must agree.
 Transmission Medium : Is the physical
path by which a message travels from
sender to receiver.
Example : Twisted-pair cable, Coaxial cable,
Fibre-optic, and radio waves
 Characteristics

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Theeffectiveness of data communication system depends on:

 Delivery: Thesystem must deliver the data to the correct destination.

 Accuracy: Thesystem must deliver the data accurately.

 Timeliness: Thesystem must deliver data in a timely manner.

 Jitter: Thevariation in the packet arrivaltime.

Some packets arrives at 30 msand some at 40 ms,leads to uneven quality.
 Network Criteria
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 The important network criteria are:

1. Performance: Depends on number of factors, including number of
users, type of transmission medium used, capabilities of
hardware, and the efficiency of the software.
 It can be measured in many ways:

Transit time(ms) – The amount of time required for a message

to travel from one device to another.
Response time(ms) – Is the elapsed time between a request
and a response.
Throughput(bps) – Number of packets transmitted per
second.
Delay(ms)
 Network Criteria
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2. Reliability - Network reliability is measured by

 the frequency of failure,
 the time it takes a link to recover from failure, and
 the network robustness in a catastrophe.
3. Security – Protecting data from unauthorized access by means
of implementing procedures and policies to recover from
breaches and data losses.
 Data Flow/ Transmission Mode
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 Simplex
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 In simplex mode, the

communication is
unidirectional.
 Only one of the two devices
on a link can transmit; the
other only can receive.
 The simplex mode can use the
entire capacity of the channel
to send data in one direction.
 Example: Keyboard and
Monitors
 Half-Duplex
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 In half-duplex mode, each

station can transmit and
receive, but not at the same
time.
 When one device is sending,
the other can only receive,
and vice versa.
 Entire capacity of the channel
can be utilized for each
direction.
 Ex: Walkie-talkies
 Full-Duplex/Duplex
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 In full-duplex mode, both

stations can transmit and
receive simultaneously.
 The capacity of the channelis
divided in both directions.
 Example: Telephone network.
 Type of Connection
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 In a network devices are connected through links.

 Link - Is a communication pathway that transfers
data from one device to another.
 Point-to-Point
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 A point-to-point connection
provides a dedicated link
between two devices.
 The entire capacity of the link
is reserved by those two
devices.
 Ex:TVInfrared Remote Control
 Multipoint/ Multidrop
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 Also called mutlidrop

connection.
 Two or more devices share a
single link.
 The capacity of the channel is
shared.
14

 A topology is a geometrical representation of relationships

between all the links and devices(nodes) in a network.
 Topologies can be either physical or logical.
 Physical topologies describe how the cables are run.
 Logical topologies describe how the network messagestravel.
 Thebasic four topologiesare:
Mesh
Star
Bus
Ring
 Others: Tree and Hybrid
 Mesh Topology

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 Dedicated Point-to-point link.

 Link carries traffic only between the two devices it connects.

 For “n” nodes in a fully connected meshtopology with duplex mode, the number of
links required = n(n-1)/2.
 No of I/O ports needed = n -1

 If n=5, then linksneeded=10.

 I/O ports = 4.

Advantages:
1) Eliminates traffic problem.
2) Robust.
3) Easyfault detection and isolation.
4) Privacy/Security - Prevents other user from gaining access tomessages.
Disadvantages:
1) Number of cabling and I/O ports ishigh.
2) Reconfiguration is difficult.
 Star Topology

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 Dedicated point-to-point link to the central controller called hub.
 Devices are not linked to one another.
 Unlike mesh,star does not allow direct communication between devices.
 Controller acts as an exchange.
Advantages:
1) Lessexpensive than meshin terms of cabling and I/O ports.
2) Installation and reconfiguration is easy.
3) Robust.
4) Easyfault deduction and isolation.
Disadvantages:
1) Dependency on hub.
2) Hub goes down then entire network isdead.
 Bus Topology

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 Oldest topology.
 Provides multipoint connection.

 Useslong cable as a backbone.

 Devices are connected by using drop line and tap.

Advantages:
1) Easyinstallation.
2) Lessnumber of cables than meshand star.
Disadvantages:
1) Fault detection and isolation is difficult.
2) Reconfiguration is not possible - adding new devices are not possible. Thislimits
the number of devices.
3) Adding new devices needs a replacement of main cable.
4) Busgoes down then the entire network isdead.
 Ring Topology

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 Developed by IBM.
 Provides point-to-point connection.

 Eachnode is linked with the nodes on either side of it.

 Usestoken passing mechanism.

 Eachdevice incorporates “repeater” – Regenerates the bits and passes them

along thering.
Advantages:
1)Easy to install and configure.

2)Easy fault detection and isolation.

Disadvantages:
3) Unidirectional traffic with single ring.
4) Fault in the ring disable the entire network.
Note: Theseproblems can be eliminated by using dual ring.
 Tree Topology

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 Hybrid Topology

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22
 Considerations for choosing topology
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 Money-Bus n/w may be the least expensive way to

install a n/w.
 Length-of cable needed- the linear bus n/wuses
shorter lengths of cable.
 Future growth-with star topology, expending a n/w is
easily done by adding another devices.
 Cable type-most common used cable in commercial
organization is twisted pair. Which often
used with star topologies.
 What is a Computer Network?
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 A computer network is a Characteristics of a computer

system in which multiple network:
computers are connected to  Share Resources from one
computer to another.
each other to share
information and resources.  Create files and store them in one
computer, access those files from
the other computer(s) connected
over the network.
 Connect a printer, scanner, or a
fax machine to one computer
within the network and let other
computers of the network use the
machinesavailable over network.
 Hardware's required to setup a
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computer network
 Network Cables
 Distributors
 Routers
 Internal Network Cards
 External Network Cards
 Devices Used in Network Computer
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Network
 Routers
 Gateways
 Repeaters
 Bridges
 Hub
 Modem
 Need/Use of Network
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 Resource Sharing
Hardware (computing resources, disks, printers)
Software (application software)
 Information Sharing
Easy accessibility from anywhere (files, databases)
Search Capability (WWW)
 Communication
Email
Message broadcast
 Remote computing
 Distributed processing
 Network Applications
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o E-mail

o Searchable Data (Web Sites) :Google, Bing, Yahoo, Baidu,etc

o E-Commerce :Amazon, ebay,flipcart,etc

o News Groups

o Internet Telephony(VoIP)

o Video Conferencing

o Chat Groups

o InstantMessengers

o InternetRadio
 Categories of Networks

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Classification of
network

LocalArea Metropolitan WideArea

Network Area Network Network
(LAN) (MAN) (WAN)

 The main difference among these classifications is their area of

coverage.
 Local Area Network(LAN)
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 A LAN is a private network that
connects computers and devices in a
limited geographically area such as
a home, school computer laboratory,
office building.

 LAN’s are used to share resources

and to exchange information.
 Traditional LAN’s run at 10-
100Mbps.
 Common Topologies used are bus,
ring and star.
 High data rates with less errors.
 Types of LAN
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PAN HAN
 A Personal area network (PAN) is a
 A House area network (HAN) is a
computer network used for
type of local area network that
communication among computer and
develops from the need to facilitate
different information technological
communication and interoperability
devices close to one person. Common
among digital devices present inside
Technologies used are USB, Bluetooth
or within the close vicinity of a home.
and Infrared. Range is ~10m

Smartphone Headphone

Laptop PDA

Mouse Printer
 LAN
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Advantages Disadvantages

• Easy to share devices • Power - a good LAN is

(printers, scanners, external requiredto be on all the
drives) times.
• Security - each computer and
• Easy to share data device become another point
(homework, pictures) of entry for undesirables.
• if all computers running at
• Cost of LAN Setup is low. once, can reduce speed for
each.
• Area covered is limited
 Metropolitan Area Network(MAN)
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 Covers a larger geographical

area than is a LAN, ranging from
several blocks of buildings to
entire cities.
 It may be a single network as a
cable TV network or it may be
means of connecting a number of
LANs into a larger network so that
resources may be shared.
 MAN is wholly owned and
operated by a private company
or may be a service provided by
a public company.
 MAN
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Advantages Disadvantages

• Efficiency and shared • It can be costly

(hardware, software,
access. support, etc.)

• Security problems
• All the computer-
owning residents of • As the network consists
the area have equal of many computers over
ability to go on line. the span of a city, the
connection can lag or
become quite slow.
 Wide Area Network(WAN)
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 Is the largest network of all network

types.

 The internet is the largest WAN in the

world.

 WAN generally covers large

distances such as states, countries
or continents.

 WAN is group of MANs or LANs or

the mixture of both network.

 Types of WAN: EPN, VPN

 VPN
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 A virtual private network

(VPN) is a computer Frequency
Band
network in which some of
Productionsite Headoffices
the links between nodes are
carried by
connections open
circuits in or virtual
network (e.g.,some larger
the Internet)
instead of by physical
wires.
 Enterprise Private Network (EPN)
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 An enterprise private
network is a network build
by an enterprise to
interconnect various
company sites, e.g.,
production sites, head
offices, remote offices,
shops, in order to share
computer resources.
 Comparision
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 Network Standards

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 Standards provides guidelines to the manufactures,

vendors, government agencies and other
providers to work regardless service of
manufacturer. the individual
It guarantees interoperability, compatibility, interconnectivity.
It ensures that hardware and software produced by different vendors
can worktogether.
 Standards are developed by cooperation among
standards creation committees, forums,
and government regulatory agencies.
 Organizations For Communication Standards/
Standardization Bodies
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a) International Standards Organization (ISO)

b) International Telecommunications Union (ITU)

c) American National Standards Institute (ANSI)

d) Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)

e) Electronic Industries Association (EIA)

f) Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)

 International Standards Organization (ISO)
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- A multinational body whose membership is drawn mainly from
the standards creation committees of various governments
throughout the world
- Its membership comprises national standards organizations, one
from each of 163 countries
- Dedicated to worldwide agreement on international standards
in a variety field.
- Aims to facilitate the international exchange of goods and
services by providing models for compatibility, improved
quality, increased quality, increased productivity and decreased
prices.
 International Telecommunications Union (ITU)

50 Also known as International TelecommunicationsUnion-

Telecommunication Standards Sector (ITU-T)
- An international standards organization related to the United
Nations that develops standards for telecommunications.
- Two popular standards developed by ITU-Tare:
i)V series – transmission over phone lines
ii)X series – transmission over public digital networks, email
and directory services and ISDN.
 American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
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- A non-profit corporation not affiliated with USgovernment.
- ANSI members include professional societies, industry
associations, governmental and regulatory bodies, and
consumer groups.
- Discussing the internetwork planning and engineering, ISDN
services, signaling, and architecture and optical hierarchy.
 Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers(IEEE)

52 - The largest national professional group involved in developing

standards for computing, communication, electrical engineering,
and electronics.
- Aims to advance theory, creativity and product quality in the
fields of electrical engineering, electronics and radio.
- It sponsored an important standard for local area
networks called Project 802 (eg. 802.3, 802.4 and 802.5
standards.)
 Electronic Industries Association (EIA)

53 - An association of electronics manufacturers in the US.

- Provide activities include public awareness education and lobby

efforts in addition to standards development.

- Responsible for developing the EIA-232-D and EIA-530

standards.
 Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)
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- Concerned with speeding the growth and evolution of Internet

communications.
- Reviews internet software and hardware.
 Communication Protocols

55 - Protocol is a set of rules that govern(manages) all aspect of data

communication between computers on a network.

- These rules include guidelines that regulate the following characteristics of a

network: access method, allowed physical topologies, types of cabling, and
speed of data transfer.

- A protocol defines what, how, when it communicated.

- Thekey elements of a protocol are syntax, semantics and timing.

- Protocols are to computers what language is to humans. Since this article is in

English, to understand it you must be able to read English. Similarly, for two
devices on a network to successfully communicate, they must both
understand the sameprotocols.
 Elements of protocol
i) Syntax
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Thestructure or format of the data.
8 bits 8 bits
Sender address Receiver address data

64 bits
ii) Semantics
- Refers to the meaning of each section of bits.
- how is a particular pattern to be interpreted, and what action is to be taken
based on that interpretation.
iii) Timing
a. When data to be sent
b. How fast it can be sent
Eg. If a sender produces data at 100 Mbps but the receiver can process data at
only 1 Mbps, the transmission will overload the receiver and data will be
largely lost.
 Commonly Used Protocol
Protocol
Point To Point (PPP)
Transfer/Transmission Control Protocol
(TCP/IP)
Internetwork package exchange (IPX)
NetBIOS extended user interface
(NetBEUI)
File transfer Protocol (FTP)
Simple mail Transfer protocol (SMTP)
Hyper text transfer protocol (HTTP)
Apple Talk
OSI Model
Remarks
Used to manage network communication
over a modem
Internet backbone protocol. The most
widely used protocol.
Standard protocol for Novell NOS
Microsoft protocol that doesn’t support
routing to other network. Running only
Windows-based clients.
Used to send and received file from a
remote host
Used to send Email over a network
Used for Internet to send document that
encoded in HTML
Protocol suite to network Macintosh
computer and a peer-to-peer network
protocol
A way of illustrating how information travels
58

Network Models
 Postal System

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Components Functionality Equivalent Functionality

Components
Hostel Supports students Computers Supports processes
Students Generates letters Processes Generate messages
Hostel boy Collects/Distributes Software Multiplex/De-
multiplex
Postmen Path of the letter/Bundle Router Determines the path
letters
Infrastructure Transporting Software Hop-to-hop transfer
(Air, Land, Sea)

Path Student –Hostel Boy- Post Men-Truck-Plane-Post Men-Receiver

 OSI Reference Model

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TheOSI stand for Open System Interconnection

It was first introduced in the late 1970s by the ISO (Internationald

Organization for Standardization).

An OSI is a set of protocols that allow any two different system to

communicate regardless of their underlying architecture.

TheOSI model is not a protocol; it is a model for understandingand

designing a network architecture that is flexible, robust, and inter-operable.

It consists of seven separate but related layers, each of which defines a part
of the process of moving information acrossnetwork.
 The Layered Approach to
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Communication
7. Application

6. Presentation

5. Session

4. Transport

3. Network

2. Data Link

1. Physical
 Division of Layers
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7. Application

Upper Layers
6. Presentation

5. Session

4. Transport

3. Network
Lower Layers
2. Data Link

1. Physical
 OSI Reference Model
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 Upper Layer (Application Layer):

This part consist three top layer as: Application layer, Presentationlayer,
Session layer.
These layers provide the application services required for the exchange
of information.
 Lower Layer ( Data Transport):
These layer consist remaining four layers as: Physical layer, Data link,
Network layer, Transport layer.
These layers handle the data transport issues.
In other word these layers provides the end-to-end service necessaryfor
the transfer of data between two system.
 Physical Layer

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 The data units on this layer are calledbits.
 Responsible for physical connection betweendevices
 Movements of individual bits from one node to next
• Repeaters & Hub are used in physical layer.
 Functions:
Converts bits into signals
Bit Synchronization
Manage physical connection
Bit rate control
Line configuration
Physical topology
Transmission mode
Multiplexing
Switching
 Date Link Layer (DLL)
 The data unit on this layer is called frame (Group of bits
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)
 This layer divided into two sub layers:
Media Access Control (MAC )
 The MAC sub-layer controls how a computer on the network gains
access to link resources and grant permission to transmit it.
Logical Link Control ( LLC)
 The LLC layer controls frame synchronization flow control and
error checking.
 DLLtaks:
Framing
Physical Addressing
Error Control
 Bridge used in DLL.
 Network Layer
 Theunit of data at network layer is called packet or Data-gram.
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 Network layer is responsible for providing logical address known as IP
address. Router works on this layer. Main functions of this layer are
following:-
 Define IP address
 Find routes based on IPaddress to reach its destination
 Connect different data link type together like as Token Ring, Serial, FDDI,
Ethernet etc.
 Router used in network layer.
 Functions:
Logical Addressing
Routing
 IP address
 IPaddress a 32 bit long software address which made from twocomponents:
 Network component: - Defines network segment of device.
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 Host component :- Defines the specific device on a particular network segment
 Subnet mask is used to distinguish between network component and hostcomponent.
 IPaddresses are divided in five classes.
Class A addresses range from1-126.
Class B addresses range from 128-191.
Class C addresses range from192-223.
Class D addresses range from224-239.
Class E addresses range from 240-254.
 Following addresses have special purpose: -
 0 [Zero] is reserved and represents all IPaddresses;
 127 is a reserved address and it is used for testing, like a loop back on an interface:
 255 is a reserved address and it is used for broadcastingpurposes.
 Transport Layer
 Provides reliable end-to-end delivery of the transmission.
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 Connection-less service uses UDP protocol; Connection-oriented service usesTCP
protocol.
 For a reliable connection, sequence numbers and acknowledgments (ACKs) areused.
 Reliable connection controls flow through the uses of windowing or
acknowledgements.
 In this layer data unit called segment.
 Gateway devices used in transportlayer.

 Functions:
Segmentation and Reassembly
Connection Management
Reliable and Unreliable data delivery
Flow Control
Connection Multiplexing
 Segmentation

 Segmentation is the process of breaking large data file into smaller files that can be
69 accommodate/supported by network.
 Tounderstand this process think about a 700 MBmovie that you want to download from
internet. You have 2MBPS internet connection. How will you download a 700MB movie
on 2MBPSinternet connection?
ANSWER:
 In this case segmentation process isused.
 On server, transport layer breaks 700MB movie in smaller size of segments (less than
your internet connection speed). Assumethat 700Mb movie is divided in 700 segments.
Each segment has file size of 1Mb that your PC can easily download at current
connection speed. Now your PCwill download 700 small files instead of one large file.
So next time when you see download progress bar in browser, think it about segment
receiver progress bar. Once your browser receives all segments from server, it will pop
up a message indicating download is completed. Transport layer at your PCwill merge
all segments back in a single 700Mb movie file. End user will never know how a
700Mb movie makes its way through the 2Mbps connection line.
 Reliability

 Reliability means guaranteed data delivery.

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 Toinsure delivery of each single segment, connection oriented method is
used.
 In this approach before sending any segments three way handshake process
is done.

Three way handshake process

Three way handshake process

1) PC1 sends a SYN single to PC2 indicating that it wants to establish a reliable
session.
2) P2 replies with ACK/SYN signal where ACK is the acknowledgment of PC1’s
SYN
71 signal and SYN indicates that PC2 is ready to establish a reliable session.
3) PC1 replies with ACK signal indicating that is has received SYN signal and
session is now fully established.
Once connection is established data transmission will be initiated. To
provide maximum reliability it includes following functions:-
 Detect lost packets and resend them
 Detect packets that arrived out of order and reorder them
 Recognize duplicate packets and drop extra packets
 Avoid congestion by implementing flow control
 Flow control
 Thetransport layer implements two flow controlmethods:

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 Ready/not ready signals
 Windowing

Ready / not ready signals method

 In this method sender sends data according to its buffer size. Receiver receives data in its buffer. When receivers
buffer get filled, it send a not ready signal to sender, so sender can stop transmitting more segments. Receivers
sendready signal when it becomesready to receive next segments.Thismethod hastwo problems.
 First, the receiver may respond to the sender with a not ready signal only when its buffer fills up. While this
message is on its way to the sender, the sender is still sending segments to the receiver, which the receiver will
have to drop because its buffer space isfull.
 The second problem with the uses of this method is that once the receiver is ready to receive more segments, it
mustfirst senda ready signal to the sender, which mustbe received before sender can sendmore segments.
Windowing
 In windowing a window size is defined between sender and receiver. Sender host will wait for an
acknowledgement signal after sending the segments equal to the window size. If any packet lost in the way,
receiver will respond with acknowledgement for lost packet. Sender will send lost packet again. Window size is
automatically set during the three step handshake process. It can be adjust anytime throughout the lifetime of
connection.
 Connection Multiplexing/Application Mapping
 Connection multiplexing feature allows multiple applications to connect at a time.
 For example a server performs a number of functions like email, FTP,DNS,Web
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service, file service, data service etc.

 Suppose server has a single IPaddress, how will it perform all these different
functions for all the hosts that want to connect with it?

ANSWER:
Tomake this possible transport layer assigns a unique set of numbers for each connection.
These numbers are called port or socket numbers. These port numbers allow multiple
applications to send and receive data simultaneously.
 Port numbers are divided into following ranges by the IANA
 0–1023 [Well-Known]—For common TCP/IP functions and applications
 1024–49151[Registered]—For applications built by companies
 49152–65535 [Dynamic/Private]—For dynamic connections or unregistered
applications
 Common TCP and UDP Port Numbers

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TCP UDP
FTP– 20,21 DNS-53
Telnet-23 DHCP-67,68
SMTP-25 TFTP-69
DNS-53 NTP-123
HTTP-80 SNMP-161
POP-110
HTTPS-443
 Session Layer
 Session layer deals with connections.
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 It establishes, manages, and terminates sessionsbetween twocommunicating
nodes.
 This layer provides its services to the presentation layer.
 Session layer also synchronizes dialogue between the presentation layers of
the two hosts and manages their data exchange.
 For example, web servers may have many users communicating with server
at a given time. Therefore, keeping track of which user communicates on
which path is important and session layer handle this responsibility
accurately.
 Thesession layer responsible for following:
Dialog Controller
Synchronization
Translation
 Presentation Layer
 Presentation layer prepares the data.
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 It takes data from application layer and marks it with formatting code such as .doc,
.jpg, .txt, .avi etc.
 These file extensions make it easy to realize that particular file is formatted with
particular type of application.
 With formatting presentation layer also deals with compression and encapsulation.
 It compresses (on sending computer) and decompresses (on receiving computer) the
data file.

Tasks:
 Data Translation/ Formatting
 Compression/Decompression
 Encryption/Decryption
 Application Layer
 This layer provides platform to send and receive data over the network. All network
applications and utilities that communicate with network fall in this layer. For examples:
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Browsers :- Mozilla Firefox, Internet Explorer, Google Chrome etc
Email clients: - Outlook Express, Mozilla Thunderbird etc.
FTP clients :- Filezilla, sFTP,vsFTP
 Application layer protocols :

SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol) — Used to control the connected networking
devices.
TFTP (Trivial File Transfer Protocol) — Used to transfer the files rapidly.
DNS (Domain Naming System) — Used to translate the name with IP address and vice
versa.
DHCP (Dynamic HostConfiguration Protocol) — Used to assign IP address and DNS
information automatically to hosts.
Telnet— used to connect remote devices.
HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) — Used to browse web pages.
FTP (File Transfer Protocol) — Used to reliably sends/retrieves files.
SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) — Used to sendsemail.
POP3 (Postofficeproocol):-
o
.
Usedtoretrieveemail.
NTP (Network TimeProtocol) — Used to synchronizesclocks.
 Data Exchange Process
On sending computer
 Sending application access the application layer.
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 Application provides data to the presentation layer.
 Presentation layer format the data as per network requirement and forward it's to
session layer.
 Session layer initiate the connection and forward the data to the transport layer.
 Transport layer broke down the large data file in smaller segments and add a
header with control information, which are bits designated to describe how to
determine whether the data is complete, uncorrupted, in the correct sequence, and so
forth.
 Segments are forwarded to the network layer. Network layer add its header, with
logical address and convert it in packet. Network layer forwards packet to data link
layer.
 Data link layer attach its header and footer to the packet and convert it in frame.
 Frames are forwarded to the physical layers that convert them in signals. These
signals are loaded in media.
 Data Exchange Process
On receiving computer:
 Physical layer receive signals from media and convert them in frames. Frames are
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forwarded to the data link layer.
 Data link layer check the frame. All tampered frame are dropped here. If frame is
correct, data link layer strip down its header and footer from frame and hand over
packet to network layer.
 Network layer check the packet with its own implementations. If it's found everything
fine with packet, it strips down its header from packet and hand over segment to
transport layer.
 Transport layer again do the same job. It verifies the segments with its own protocol
rules. Only the verified segments are processed. Transport layer remove its header
from verified segments and reassemble the segments in data. Data is handed over
the session layer.
 Session layer keep track of open connection and forwarded the receiving data to
presentation layer.
 Presentation form the data in such a way that application layer use it.
 Application layer on receiving computer find the appropriate application from the
computer and open data within particular application.
 Encapsulation and Decapsulation Process
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 OSI vs.TCP/IP
83
 OSI(Open SystemInterconnection) TCP/IP(Transmission Control Protocol / InternetProtocol)

OSI is a generic, protocol independent standard, acting TCP/IP model is based on standard protocols around which
as a communication gateway between the network and the Internet has developed. It is a communication
84
end user. protocol, which allows connection of hostsover anetwork.
In OSI model the transport layer guarantees the In TCP/IP model the transport layer does not
delivery of packets. guarantees delivery of packets. Still the TCP/IP model
is morereliable.
Follows vertical approach. Follows horizontal approach.

OSI model has a separate Presentation layer and Session
layer.
OSI is a reference model around which the networks are built. TCP/IP model is, in a way implementation of the OSImodel.
Generally it is used as a guidance tool.
Transport layer of OSI model provides both connection
oriented
and connectionless service.
OSI model has a problem of fitting the protocols into the
model.
Protocols are hidden in OSI model and are easily replaced
as the technology changes.
OSI model defines services, interfaces and protocols very
clearly and makes clear distinction between them. It is
protocol independent.
It has 7 layers
TCP/IP does not have a separate Presentation layer or Session
layer.
The Transport layer in TCP/IP model provides connectionless
service.
TCP/IP model does not fit any protocol
In TCP/IP replacing protocol is noteasy.
In TCP/IP, services, interfaces and protocols are not
clearly separated. It is also protocoldependent.
It has 4 layers