Access Methods

In networking, to access a resource is to be able to use that resource. This lesson introduces the
role of access methods in putting data on a network cable. It focuses on three major access
methods: carrier-sense multiple-access methods, token passing, and demand priority.

The Function of Access Methods

The set of rules that defines how a computer puts data onto the network cable and takes data
from the cable is called an ​access method​. Once data is moving on the network, access methods
help to regulate the flow of network traffic.
Traffic Control on the Cable
To understand traffic on a computer network, it helps to use an analogy. A network is in some
ways like a railroad track, along which several trains run. The track is interspersed with
occasional railway stations. When a train is on the track, all other trains must abide by a
procedure that governs how and when they enter the flow of traffic. Without such a procedure,
entering trains would collide with the one already on the track.
There are important differences between a railroad system and a computer network, however. On
a network, all traffic appears to move simultaneously, without interruption. Actually, this
appearance of simultaneity is an illusion; in reality, the computers take turns accessing the
network for brief periods of time. The more significant difference arises from the higher speed at
which network traffic moves.
Multiple computers must share access to the cable that connects them. However, if two
computers were to put data onto the cable at the same time, the data packets from one computer
would collide with the packets from the other computer, and both sets of data packets would be
destroyed. Figure 3.1 shows what happens when two computers try to access the network at the

same time.
Figure 3.1​ ​Collision occurs if two computers put data on the cable at the same time
If data is to be sent over the network from one user to another, or accessed from a server, there
must be some way for the data to access the cable without running into other data. And the
receiving computer must have reasonable assurance that the data has not been destroyed in a data
collision during transmission.
Access methods need to be consistent in the way they handle data. If different computers were to
use different access methods, the network would fail because some methods would dominate the
cable.
Access methods prevent computers from gaining simultaneous access to the cable. By making
sure that only one computer at a time can put data on the network cable, access methods ensure
that the sending and receiving of network data is an orderly process.

Major Access Methods

The three methods designed to prevent simultaneous use of the network media include:
● Carrier-sense multiple access methods (with collision detection or with collision
avoidance).
● Token-passing methods that allow only a single opportunity to send data.
● Demand-priority methods.

Carrier-Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) Access Method

Using the method known as ​carrier-sense multiple access with collision detection​ ​(CSMA/CD),
each computer on the network, including clients and servers, checks the cable for network traffic.
Figure 3.2 illustrates when a computer can and cannot transmit data.

Figure 3.2​ ​Computers can transmit data only if the cable is free
Only when a computer "senses" that the cable is free and that there is no traffic on the cable can
it send data. Once the computer has transmitted data on the cable, no other computer can transmit
data until the original data has reached its destination and the cable is free again. Remember, if
two or more computers happen to send data at exactly the same time, there will be a data
collision. When that happens, the two computers involved stop transmitting for a random period
of time and then attempt to retransmit. Each computer determines its own waiting period; this
reduces the chance that the computers will once again transmit simultaneously.
With these points in mind, the name of the access method—carrier-sense multiple access with
collision detection (CSMA/CD)—makes sense. Computers listen to or "sense" the cable
(carrier-sense). Commonly, many computers on the network attempt to transmit data (multiple
access); each one first listens to detect any possible collisions. If a computer detects a possible
collision, it waits for a random period of time before retransmitting (collision detection).
The collision-detection capability is the parameter that imposes a distance limitation on
CSMA/CD. Due to attenuation—the weakening of a transmitted signal as it travels farther from
its source, discussed in ​Chapter 2​, "Basic Network Media"—the collision detection mechanism is
not effective beyond 2500 meters (1.5 miles). Segments cannot sense signals beyond that
distance and, therefore, might not be aware that a computer at the far end of a large network is
transmitting. If more than one computer transmits data on the network at the same time, a data
collision will take place that will corrupt the data.
Contention Method
CSMA/CD is known as a ​contention​ method because computers on the network contend, or
compete, for an opportunity to send data.
This might seem like a cumbersome way to put data on the cable, but current implementations of
CSMA/CD are so fast that users are not even aware they are using a contention access method.
CSMA/CD Considerations
The more computers there are on the network, the more network traffic there will be. With more
traffic, collision avoidance and collisions tend to increase, which slows the network down, so
CSMA/CD can be a slow-access method.
After each collision, both computers will have to try to retransmit their data. If the network is
very busy, there is a chance that the attempts by both computers will result in collisions with
packets from other computers on the network. If this happens, four computers (the two original
computers and the two computers whose transmitted packets collided with the original
computer's retransmitted packets) will have to attempt to retransmit. These proliferating
retransmissions can slow the network to a near standstill.
The occurrence of this problem depends on the number of users attempting to use the network
and which applications they are using. Database applications tend to put more traffic on the
network than word-processing applications do.
Depending on the hardware components, the cabling, and the networking software, using a
CSMA/CD network with many users running several database applications can be very
frustrating because of heavy network traffic.
Carrier-Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA) Access
Method
Carrier-sense multiple access with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA)​ is the least popular of the
three major access methods. In CSMA/CA, each computer signals its intent to transmit before it
actually transmits data. In this way, computers sense when a collision might occur; this allows
them to avoid transmission collisions. Unfortunately, broadcasting the intent to transmit data
increases the amount of traffic on the cable and slows down network performance.
Token-Passing Access Method
In the access method known as ​token passing​, a special type of packet, called a token, circulates
around a cable ring from computer to computer. When any computer on the ring needs to send
data across the network, it must wait for a free token. When a free token is detected, the
computer will take control of it if the computer has data to send.
The computer can now transmit data. Data is transmitted in frames, and additional information,
such as addressing, is attached to the frame in the form of headers and trailers, discussed later in
this chapter.
In Figure 3.3, the server is shown transmitting data. It takes control of the free token on the ring
and sends data to the computer with the address 400080865402.

Figure 3.3​ ​Token-passing access method

While the token is in use by one computer, other computers cannot transmit data. Because only
one computer at a time can use the token, no contention and no collision take place, and no time
is spent waiting for computers to resend tokens due to network traffic on the cable.
Demand Priority Access Method
Demand priority​ is a relatively new access method designed for the 100-Mbps Ethernet standard
known as 100VG-AnyLAN. It has been sanctioned and standardized by the Institute of Electrical
and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) in its 802.12 specification, which is discussed later in this
chapter.
This access method is based on the fact that repeaters and end nodes are the two components that
make up all 100VG-AnyLAN networks. Figure 3.4 shows a demand-priority network. The
repeaters manage network access by doing round-robin searches for requests to send from all
nodes on the network. The repeater, or hub, is responsible for noting all addresses, links, and end
nodes and verifying that they are all functioning. According to the 100VG-AnyLAN definition,
an end node can be a computer, bridge, router, or switch.

Figure 3.4​ ​Star-bus network access method for 100VG-AnyLAN is demand priority
Demand-Priority Contention
As in CSMA/CD, two computers using the demand-priority access method can cause contention
by transmitting at exactly the same time. However, with demand priority, it is possible to
implement a scheme in which certain types of data will be given priority if there is contention. If
the hub or repeater receives two requests at the same time, the highest priority request is serviced
first. If the two requests are of the same priority, both requests are serviced by alternating
between the two.
In a demand-priority network, computers can receive and transmit at the same time because of
the cabling scheme defined for this access method. In this method, four pairs of wires are used,
which enables quartet signaling, transmitting 25 MHz signals on each of the pairs of wire in the
cable.
Demand-Priority Considerations
In a demand-priority network, there is communication only between the sending computer, the
hub, and the destination computer. This is more efficient than CSMA/CD, which broadcasts
transmissions to the entire network. In demand priority, each hub knows only about the end
nodes and repeaters directly connected to it, whereas in a CSMA/CD environment, each hub
knows the address of every node in the network.
Demand priority offers several advantages over CSMA/CD including:
● The use of four pairs of wires.
By using four pairs of wires, computers can transmit and receive at the same time.
● Transmissions through the hub.
Transmissions are not broadcast to all the other computers on the network. The
computers do not contend on their own for access to the cable, but operate under the
centralized control of the hub.
Introduction to LAN Protocols
This chapter introduces the various media-access methods, transmission methods, topologies, and devices used in a local area
network (LAN). Topics addressed focus on the methods and devices used in Ethernet/IEEE 802.3, Token Ring/IEEE 802.5, and
Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI). . Figure 2-1 illustrates the basic layout of these three implementations.

Figure 2-1: Three LAN implementations are used most commonly.

What is a LAN?
 ​
A LAN​ is a high-speed, fault-tolerant data network that covers a relatively small geographic area. It typically connects workstations,
personal computers, printers, and other devices. LANs offer computer users many advantages, including shared access to devices
and applications, file exchange between connected users, and communication between users via electronic mail and other
applications.
LAN Protocols and the OSI Reference Model
LAN protocols function at the lowest two layers of the OSI reference model, as discussed in "Internetworking Basics," between the
physical layer and the data link layer. Figure 2-2 illustrates how several popular LAN protocols map to the OSI reference model.

Figure 2-2: Popular LAN protocols mapped to the OSI reference model.

LAN Media-Access Methods

LAN protocols typically use one of two methods to access the physical network medium: ​carrier sense multiple access collision
detect​ (CSMA/CD) and ​token passing.​
In the CSMA/CD media-access scheme, network devices contend for use of the physical network medium. CSMA/CD is therefore
sometimes called ​contention access.​ Examples of LANs that use the CSMA/CD media-access scheme are Ethernet/IEEE 802.3
networks, including 100BaseT.
In the token-passing media-access scheme, network devices access the physical medium based on possession of a token.
Examples of LANs that use the token-passing media-access scheme are Token Ring/IEEE 802.5 and FDDI.
LAN Transmission Methods
LAN data transmissions fall into three classifications: ​unicast,​ ​multicast​, and ​broadcast.​ In each type of transmission, a single packet
is sent to one or more nodes.
In a unicast transmission, a single packet is sent from the source to a destination on a network. First, the source node addresses the
packet by using the address of the destination node. The package is then sent onto the network, and finally, the network passes the
packet to its destination.
A multicast transmission consists of a single data packet that is copied and sent to a specific subset of nodes on the network. First,
the source node addresses the packet by using a multicast address. The packet is then sent into the network, which makes copies
of the packet and sends a copy to each node that is part of the multicast address.
A broadcast transmission consists of a single data packet that is copied and sent to all nodes on the network. In these types of
transmissions, the source node addresses the packet by using the broadcast address. The packet is then sent into the network,
which makes copies of the packet and sends a copy to every node on the network.
LAN Topologies
LAN topologies define the manner in which network devices are organized. Four common LAN topologies exist: bus, ring, star, and
tree. These topologies are logical architectures, but the actual devices need not be physically organized in these configurations.
Logical bus and ring topologies, for example, are commonly organized physically as a star. A bus topology is a linear LAN
architecture in which transmissions from network stations propagate the length of the medium and are received by all other stations.
Of the three most widely used LAN implementations, Ethernet/IEEE 802.3 networks--- , including 100BaseT---, implement a bus
topology, which is illustrated in ​Figure 2-3​.
Figure 2-3: Some networks implement a local bus topology.

A ring topology is a LAN architecture that consists of a series of devices connected to one another by unidirectional transmission
links to form a single closed loop. Both Token Ring/IEEE 802.5 and FDDI networks implement a ring topology. ​Figure 2-4​ depicts a
logical ring topology.
A star topology is a LAN architecture in which the endpoints on a network are connected to a common central hub, or switch, by
dedicated links. Logical bus and ring topologies are often implemented physically in a star topology, which is illustrated in ​Figure 2-5​.
A tree topology is a LAN architecture that is identical to the bus topology, except that branches with multiple nodes are possible in
this case. ​Figure 2-5​ illustrates a logical tree topology.

Figure 2-4: Some networks implement a logical ring topology.

Figure 2-5: A logical tree topology can contain multiple nodes.

LAN Devices
Devices commonly used in LANs include ​repeaters​, h
​ ubs,​ ​LAN extenders,​ ​bridges,​ ​LAN switches,​ and ​routers.​

Note​ Repeaters, hubs, and LAN extenders are discussed briefly in this section. The function and operation of bridges, switches, and
routers are discussed generally in "Bridging and Switching Basics," and "Routing Basics."

A ​repeater​ is a physical layer device used to interconnect the media segments of an extended network. A repeater essentially
enables a series of cable segments to be treated as a single cable. Repeaters receive signals from one network segment and
amplify, retime, and retransmit those signals to another network segment. These actions prevent signal deterioration caused by long
cable lengths and large numbers of connected devices. Repeaters are incapable of performing complex filtering and other traffic
processing. In addition, all electrical signals, including electrical disturbances and other errors, are repeated and amplified. The total
number of repeaters and network segments that can be connected is limited due to timing and other issues. ​Figure 2-6​ illustrates a
repeater connecting two network segments.

Figure 2-6: A repeater connects two network segments.

A ​hub​ is a physical-layer device that connects multiple user stations, each via a dedicated cable. Electrical interconnections are
established inside the hub. Hubs are used to create a physical star network while maintaining the logical bus or ring configuration of
the LAN. In some respects, a hub functions as a multiport repeater.
A LAN ​extender​ is a remote-access multilayer switch that connects to a host router. LAN extenders forward traffic from all the
standard network-layer protocols (such as IP, IPX, and AppleTalk), and filter traffic based on the MAC address or network-layer
protocol type. LAN extenders scale well because the host router filters out unwanted broadcasts and multicasts. LAN extenders,
however, are not capable of segmenting traffic or creating security firewalls. ​Figure 2-7​ illustrates multiple LAN extenders connected
to the host router through a WAN.

Figure 2-7: Multiple LAN extenders can connect to the host router through a WAN.

Data communication
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: ​navigation​, ​search

Data transmission​, ​digital transmission​, or ​digital communications​ is the

physical transfer of ​data​ (a ​digital​ ​bit stream​) over a point-to-point or
point-to-multipoint communication​ channel. Examples of such channels are
copper wires​, ​optical fibres​, ​wireless​ communication channels, and ​storage media​.
The data are represented as an ​electromagnetic​ ​signal​, such as an ​electrical
voltage​, ​radiowave​, ​microwave​, or ​infrared​ signal.
While ​analog transmission​ is the transfer of continuously varying ​analog signal​,
digital communications is the transfer of discrete messages. The messages are
either represented by a sequence of pulses by means of a ​line code​ (​baseband
transmission)​ , or by a limited set of continuously varying wave forms (​passband
transmission)​ , using a digital ​modulation​ method. The passband modulation and
corresponding demodulation (also known as detection) is carried out by ​modem
equipment. According to the most common definition of ​digital signal​, both
baseband and passband signals representing bit-streams are considered as digital
transmission, while an alternative definition only considers the baseband signal as
digital, and passband transmission of digital data as a form of ​digital-to-analog
conversion​.
Data transmitted may be digital messages originating from a data source, for
example a computer or a keyboard. It may also be an ​Analog signal​ such as a phone
call or a video signal, ​digitized​ into a bit-stream for example using ​pulse-code
modulation​ (PCM) or more advanced ​source coding​ (​analog-to-digital conversion
and ​data compression​) schemes. This source coding and decoding is carried out by
codec​ equipment.

Describe OSI Model

Open System Interconnection​, an ISO standard for worldwide communication Networks

that defines a networking framework for implementing protocols in seven layers.​ ​Open
Systems Interconnection (OSI)​ ​model is developed by ISO (International organization for
standardization) in​ ​1984​.
OSI reference model is a logical framework for standards for the network
communication. OSI reference model is now considered as a primary standard for
internetworking and inter computing. Today many network communication protocols are
based on the standards of OSI model. In the OSI model the network/data
communication is defined into seven layers. The seven layers can be grouped into​ ​three
groups​ ​-​ ​Network​,T
​ ransport​ ​and​ ​Application​.
 Layer 7 – Application Layer : ​The application layer serves as the window for users and
application processes to access network services. The application layer makes the
interface between the program that is sending or is receiving data and the protocol
stack. When you download or send emails, your e-mail program contacts this layer. This
layer provides network services to the end-users like Mail, ftp, telnet, DNS.
Function of Application Layer :
● Resource sharing and device redirection.
● Remote file access.
● Remote printer access.
● Inter-process communication.
● Network management.
● Directory services.
● Electronic messaging (such as mail).
● Network virtual terminals.

Protocols used at application layer are FTP, DNS, SNMP, SMTP, FINGER, TELNET.
Layer 6 – Presentation Layer: ​Presentation layer is also called translation layer. The
presentation layer presents the data into a uniform format and masks the difference of
data format between two dissimilar systems The presentation layer formats the data to
be presented to the application layer. It can be viewed as the translator for the network.
This layer may translate data from a format used by the application layer into a common
format at the sending station, and then translate the common format to a format known
 to the application layer at the receiving station.
Presentation layer provides :
● Character code translation: for example, ASCII to EBCDIC.
● Data conversion: bit order, CR-CR/LF, integer-floating point, and so on.
● Data compression: reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the network.
● Data encryption: encrypt data for security purposes. For example, password encryption.

Layer 5 - Session ​: The session protocol defines the​ ​format of the data​ ​sent over the
connections. Session layer​ ​establish and manages the session​ ​between the two users at
different ends in a network. Session layer also manages who can transfer the data in a
certain amount of time and for how long. The​ ​examples of session layers and the
interactive logins​and file transfer sessions. Session layer reconnect the session if it
disconnects. It also reports and logs and upper layer errors. The session layer allows
session establishment between processes running on different stations. ​The dialogue
control and token management are responsibility of session layer​. It provides:
● Session establishment, maintenance and termination​: allows two application processes on different
machines to establish, use and terminate a connection, called a session.
● Session support: performs the functions that allow these processes to communicate over the network, performing security, name
recognition, logging and so on.

Protocols: ​The protocols that work on the session layer are​ ​NetBIOS, Mail Slots, Names
Pipes, and RPC.
Layer 4 - Transport ​: Transport layer manages end to end message delivery in a network
and also provides the error checking and hence guarantees that no duplication or errors
are occurring in the data transfers across the network. Transport layer also provides the
acknowledgement of the successful data transmission and retransmits the data if no
error free data was transferred. The transport layer ensures that messages are
delivered error-free, in sequence, and with no losses or duplications. It relieves the
higher layer protocols from any concern with the transfer of data between them and
their peers.
The size and complexity of a transport protocol depends on the type of service it can get
from the network layer. For a reliable network layer with virtual circuit capability, a
minimal transport layer is required. If the network layer is unreliable and/or only
supports datagrams, the transport protocol should include extensive error detection and
recovery. The transport layer provides :
● Message segmentation: accepts a message from the (session) layer above it, splits the message into smaller units (if not already
small enough), and passes the smaller units down to the network layer. The transport layer at the destination station reassembles
the message.
● Message acknowledgment: provides reliable end-to-end message delivery with acknowledgments.
● Message traffic control: tells the transmitting station to "back-off" when no message buffers are available.
● Session multiplexing: multiplexes several message streams, or sessions onto one logical link and keeps track of which messages
 belong to which sessions.

Protocols : ​These protocols work on the transport layer TCP, SPX, NETBIOS, ATP and
NWLINK.
Layer 3 - Network ​: This layer is​ ​incharge of packet addressing​, converting​ ​logical
addresses into physical addresses​, making it possible to data packets to arrive at their
destination.​ ​This layer is also incharge of setting the routing.​ ​The packets will use to
arrive at their destination, based on factors like traffic and priorities.​ ​The network layer
determines that how data transmits between the network devices​. It also​ ​translates the
logical address into the physical address​ ​e.g computer name into MAC address. It is
also responsible for defining the route,​ ​it managing the network problems and
addressing​ ​The network layer controls the​ ​operation of the subnet,​ ​deciding which
physical path the data should take based on network conditions, priority of service, and
other factors.​ The X.25 protocols works at the physical, data link, and network layers​ ​It
provides :
•​ ​Routing : ​Routes frames among networks.
•​ ​Subnet Traffic Control : ​Routers (network layer intermediate systems) can instruct a
sending station to "throttle back" its frame transmission when the router's buffer fills up.
•​ ​Frame Fragmentation : I​ f it determines that a downstream router's maximum
transmission unit (MTU) size is less than the frame size, a router can fragment a frame
for transmission and re-assembly at the destination station.
•​ ​Logical-Physical Address Mapping : ​translates logical addresses, or names, into
physical addresses.
•​ ​Subnet Usage Accounting : h
​ as accounting functions to keep track of frames forwarded
by subnet intermediate systems, to produce billing information.
In the network layer and the layers below, peer protocols exist between a node and its
immediate neighbor, but the neighbor may be a node through which data is routed, not
the destination station. The source and destination stations may be separated by many
intermediate systems.
Protocols : ​These protocols work on the network layer IP, ICMP, ARP, RIP, OSI, IPX
and OSPF.
Layer 2 - Data Link layer : ​The data link layer provides​ ​error-free transfer​ ​of data frames
from one node to another over the physical layer, allowing layers above it to assume
virtually error-free transmission over the link. Data Link layer defines the format of data
on the network. A network data frame, packet, includes checksum, source and
destination address, and data. The data link layer handles the​ ​physical and logical
connections to the packet's destination​, using a network interface. This layer gets the
 data packets send by the network layer and​ ​convert them into frames​ ​that will be sent
out to the network media, a​dding the physical address of the network card​ ​of your
computer, the physical address of the network card of the destination,​control data and a
checksum data, also known as CRC​. T ​ he X.25 protocols works at the physical, data link,
and network layers​ ​. the data link layer provides :
● Link Establishment and Termination : ​Establishes and terminates the logical link between two nodes.
● Frame Traffic Control : ​Tells the transmitting node to "​back-off algoritham​" when no frame buffers are
available.
● Frame Sequencing : ​Transmits/receives frames sequentially.
● Frame Acknowledgment : ​Provides/expects frame acknowledgments. Detects and recovers from errors that occur in
the physical layer by​ ​retransmitting non-acknowledged frames​ a​ nd handling duplicate frame receipt.
● Frame Delimiting : ​Creates and recognizes frame boundaries.
● Frame Error Checking : ​Checks received frames for integrity.
● Media Access Management : ​determines when the node "has the right" to use the physical medium.
Layer 1 – Physical : ​The physical layer, the lowest layer of the OSI model, is concerned
with the transmission and reception of the​ ​unstructured raw bit stream over a physical
medium​. It describes the​ ​electrical/optical, mechanical, and functional interfaces​ ​to the
physical medium, and carries the signals for all of the higher layers.​ ​Physical layer
defines and cables, network cards​ ​and physical aspects. It also provides the interface
between network and network communication devices. This layer gets the frames sent
by the Data Link layer and​ ​converts them into signals​ ​compatible with the transmission
media. If a metallic cable is used, then it will convert data into e​lectrical signals​; if a fiber
optical cable is used, then it will​ ​convert data into luminous signals​; if a wireless network
is used, then it will​ ​convert data into electromagnetic signals​; and so on. When receiving
data, this layer will get the signal received and​ ​convert it into 0s and 1s​ ​and send them
to the Data Link layer, which will put the frame back together and check for its
integrity​ ​The X.25 protocols works at the physical, data link, and network layers​ ​.
Physical layer provides :
Data Encoding : ​Modifies the simple digital signal pattern (1s and 0s) used by the PC to
better accommodate the characteristics of the physical medium, and to aid in bit and
frame synchronization. It determines:
● What signal state represents a binary 1.
● How the receiving station knows when a "bit-time" starts.
● How the receiving station delimits a frame.

Physical Medium Attachment, Accommodating Various Possibilities in the Medium :

● Will an external transceiver (MAU) be used to connect to the medium?
● How many pins do the connectors have and what is each pin used for?

Transmission Technique ​: determines whether the encoded bits will be transmitted

 by​baseband (digital) or broadband (analog) signaling​.
Physical Medium Transmission ​: transmits bits as electrical or optical signals appropriate
for the physical medium, and determines:
● What physical medium options can be used.
● How many volts/db should be used to represent a given signal state, using a given physical medium.

Protocols used at physical layer are​ ​ISDN, IEEE 802 and IEEE 802.2​.

TCP/IP MODEL
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)​ protocol suite is the
engine for the Internet and networks worldwide. Its simplicity and power has led to its
becoming the single network protocol of choice in the world today.
TCP/IP is a set of protocols developed to allow cooperating computers to share
resources across the network. It was developed by a ​community of researchers
centered​ around the ​ARPAnet​. Certainly the ​ARPAnet is the best- known TCP/IP
network.
The most accurate name for the set of protocols is the "​Internet protocol suite​". ​TCP
and IP are two of the protocols in this suite​. The Internet is a collection of networks.
Term "Internet" applies to this entire set of networks.
Like most networking software, ​TCP/IP is modeled in layers​. This layered
representation leads to the ​term protocol stack​, which refers to the stack of layers in
the protocol suite. It can be used for positioning the TCP/IP protocol suite against others
network software like Open System Interconnection (OSI) model.
By dividing the communication software into layers, the protocol stack allows for division
of labor, ease of implementation and code testing, and the ability to develop alternative
layer implementations. Layers communicate with those above and below via concise
interfaces. In this regard, a layer provides a service for the layer directly above it and
makes use of services provided by the layer directly below it. For example, the IP layer
provides the ability to transfer data from one host to another without any guarantee to
reliable delivery or duplicate suppression.
TCP/IP is a family of protocols​. A few provide "low- level" functions needed for many
applications. These include IP, TCP, and UDP. Others are protocols for doing specific
tasks, e.g. transferring files between computers, sending mail, or finding out who is
logged in on another computer​. Initially TCP/IP was used mostly between
minicomputers or mainframes.​ These machines had their own disks, and generally
were self contained.
Application Layer : ​The application layer is provided by the program that uses ​TCP/IP
for communication​. An application is a user process cooperating with another process
usually on a different host (there is also a benefit to application communication within a
single host​). Examples of applications include Telnet and the File Transfer
Protocol (FTP).
Transport Layer : ​The transport layer provides the ​end-to-end data transfer by
delivering data from an application to its remote peer​. Multiple applications can be
supported simultaneously. The most-used transport layer protocol is the ​Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP),​ which provides ​connection-oriented​ ​reliable data
delivery​, ​duplicate data suppression, congestion control, and flow control​.
Another transport layer protocol is the​User Datagram Protocol​ It
provides ​connectionless, unreliable, best-effort service​. As a result, applications
using UDP as the transport protocol have to provide their own ​end-to-end integrity,
flow control, and congestion control,​ if desired. Usually, UDP is used by applications
that need a fast transport mechanism and can tolerate the loss of some data.
Internetwork Layer : ​The ​internetwork layer​, also called the ​internet layer or the
network layer​, provides the “​virtual network​” image of an internet this layer shields the
higher​ ​levels from the physical network architecture below it​. Internet Protocol (IP) is
the most important protocol in this layer​. It is a connectionless protocol that does not
assume reliability from lower layers. ​IP does not provide reliability, flow control, or
error recovery.​ These functions must be provided at a higher level. IP provides a
routing function that attempts to deliver transmitted messages to their destination.
A ​message unit​ in an IP network is called an ​IP datagram​.
This is the basic unit of information transmitted across TCP/IP networks. Other
internetwork-layer protocols ​are IP, ICMP, IGMP, ARP, and RARP​.
Network Interface Layer: ​The network interface layer, also called ​the link layer or the
data-link layer​, is the interface to the actual network hardware. ​This interface may or
may not provide reliable delivery​, and may be packet or stream oriented. In
fact, ​TCP/IP does not specify any protocol here​, but can use almost any network
interface available, which illustrates the flexibility of the IP layer. Examples are ​IEEE
802.2, X.25,ATM, FDDI, and even SNA.TCP/IP​specifications do not describe or
standardize any network-layer protocols, they only standardize ways of accessing those
protocols from the internet work layer.