SERVICE FACTOR:

Motor service factor (SF) is the percentage multiplier that a motor can handle for short periods
of time when operating within its normal voltage and frequency tolerance.

f you have a 1HP motor and your service factor is 1.25, then you can operate safely at an HP
= 1.25HP without overheating or damaging the motor.\

POWER FACTOR:

Power factor of an AC electrical power system is defined as the ratio of the real power absorbed
by the load to the apparent power flowing in the circuit.

Real power is the instantaneous product of voltage and current and represents the capacity of
the electricity for performing work. Apparent power is the average product of current and
voltage. Due to energy stored in the load and returned to the source, or due to a non-linear load
that distorts the wave shape of the current drawn from the source, the apparent power may be
greater than the real power. A negative power factor occurs when the device (which is normally
the load) generates power, which then flows back towards the source.

Power factors are usually stated as "leading" or "lagging" to show the sign of the phase angle.
Capacitive loads are leading (current leads voltage), and inductive loads are lagging (current
lags voltage). ... At low values of power factor, more apparent power needs to be transferred
to get the same real power.

AC Brushless Motors

AC brushless motors are some of the most popular in motion control. They use induction of a
rotating magnetic field, generated in the stator, to turn both the stator and rotor at a synchronous
rate. They rely on permanent electromagnets to operate.

DC Brushed Motors

In a DC brushed motor, brush orientation on the stator determines current flow. In some models,
the brush’s orientation relative to the rotor bar segments is decisive instead. The commutator is
especially important in any DC brushed motor design.
AC motors can be divided into two main categories –
Synchronous motor and Asynchronous motor. An asynchronous motor is popularly called as
Induction motor. Both the types are quite different from each other.
INDUCTION MOTOR:

Squirrel cage induction motor.

Slip ring induction motor.

Basic Working Principle of an Induction Motor

Alternating flux is produced around the stator winding due to AC supply. This alternating flux
revolves with synchronous speed. The revolving flux is called as "Rotating Magnetic Field"
(RMF).
The relative speed between stator RMF and rotor conductors causes an induced emf in the
rotor conductors, according to the Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction. The rotor
conductors are short circuited, and hence rotor current is produced due to induced emf. That is
why such motors are called as induction motors.
Now, induced current in rotor will also produce alternating flux around it. This rotor flux lags
behind the stator flux. The direction of induced rotor current, according to Lenz's law, is such
that it will tend to oppose the cause of its production.
As the cause of production of rotor current is the relative velocity between rotating stator flux
and the rotor, the rotor will try to catch up with the stator RMF. Thus the rotor rotates in the same
direction as that of stator flux to minimize the relative velocity. However, the rotor never
succeeds in catching up the synchronous speed. This is the basic working principle of
induction motor of either type, single phase of 3 phase.

Synchronous Speed:
The rotational speed of the rotating magnetic field is called as synchronous speed.

Slip:
The difference between the synchronous speed (Ns) and actual speed (N) of the rotor is called
as slip.
Double Squirrel Cage Motor
Squirrel cage motors are the most commonly used induction motors, but the main drawback in
them is their poor starting torque due to low rotor resistance. (Starting torque is directly
proportional to the rotor resistance). But increasing the rotor resistance for improving starting
torque is not advisory as it will reduce the efficiency of the motor (due to more copper loss). One
can not even add external resistance for starting of purposes, as the rotor bars are permanently
short circuited (Construction of a squirrel cage rotor is here). These drawbacks are removed by
a double squirrel cage motor, which has high starting torque without sacrificing efficiency.

Working Of Double Squirrel Cage Motor

At starting of the motor, frequency of induced emf is high because of large slip (slip =
frequency of rotor emf / supply frequency). Hence the reactance of inner cage (2πfL
where, f = frequency of rotor emf) will be very high, increasing its total impedance.
Hence at starting most of the current flows through outer cage despite its large
resistnace (as total impedance is lower than the inner cage). This will not affect the
outer cage because of its low reactance. And because of the large resistance of outer
cage starting torque will be large.
As speed of the motor increases, slip decreases, and hence the rotor frequency
decreases. In this case, the reactance of inner cage will be low, and most of the current
will flow through the inner cage which is having low resistance. Hence giving a good
efficiency.
When the double cage motor is running at normal speed, frequency of the rotor emf is
so low that the reactance of both cages is negligible. The two cages being connected in
parallel, the combined resistance is lower.
Synchronous Motor
Working of Synchronous Motor
The stator is wound for the similar number of poles as that of rotor, and fed with three phase AC
supply. The 3 phase AC supply produces rotating magnetic field in stator. The rotor winding is
fed with DC supply which magnetizes the rotor. Consider a two pole synchronous machine as

shown in figure below.

Now, the stator poles are revolving with synchronous speed (let’s say clockwise). If the rotor
position is such that, N pole of the rotor is near the N pole of the stator (as shown in first
schematic of above figure), then the poles of the stator and rotor will repel each other, and
the torque produced will be anticlockwise.
The stator poles are rotating with synchronous speed, and they rotate around very fast and
interchange their position. But at this very soon, rotor cannot rotate with the same angle (due to
inertia), and the next position will be likely the second schematic in above figure. In this case,
poles of the stator will attract the poles of rotor, and the torque produced will be clockwise.
Hence, the rotor will undergo to a rapidly reversing torque, and the motor will not start.
But, if the rotor is rotated up to the synchronous speed of the stator by means of an external
force (in the direction of revolving field of the stator), and the rotor field is excited near the
synchronous speed, the poles of stator will keep attracting the opposite poles of the rotor (as the
rotor is also, now, rotating with it and the position of the poles will be similar throughout the
cycle). Now, the rotor will undergo unidirectional torque. The opposite poles of the stator and
rotor will get locked with each other, and the rotor will rotate at the synchronous speed.

Characteristic Features of a Synchronous Motor

 Synchronous motor will run either at synchronous speed or will not run at all.
 The only way to change its speed is to change its supply frequency. (As Ns = 120f / P)
 Synchronous motors are not self-starting. They need some external force to bring them
near to the synchronous speed.
 They can operate under any power factor, lagging as well as leading. Hence,
synchronous motors can be used for power factor improvement.

Application of Synchronous Motor

 As synchronous motor is capable of operating under either leading or lagging power
factor, it can be used for power factor improvement. A synchronous motor under no-load
with leading power factor is connected in power system where static capacitors cannot be
used.
 It is used where high power at low speed is required. Such as rolling mills, chippers,
mixers, pumps, pumps, compressor etc.
 SAES-P-113 – MOTOR & GENERATOR

NEMA MG 1 Motors and Generators

IEC 60034 Rotating Electric Machines
 Motors shall be applied and sized based on their 1.0 service factor rating.
 Below 3750 kW (5000 hp) synchronous motors shall only be applied at operating speeds of
1200 rpm and below.
 Motors for exposed outdoor installation shall be of the totally enclosed type and rated in
accordance with NEMA MG 1 or IEC 60034-1 for a 50°C ambient and a Class B winding
temperature rise.
 Motors for indoor installation shall be totally enclosed or of the drip proof guarded type. The
insulation system shall be Class F minimum (Class F insulation and an 80°C rise)
 Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs)
High Temperature Alarm, 125°C, and High Temperature Trip, 140°C.

 Bearing Temperature Monitoring

Horizontal motors rated 370 kW (500 hp) and above and generators rated 500 kVA and above
shall have bearing temperature monitoring.
90°C for alarm and 95°C for trip.

Electrical Testing:

 Measure winding resistance phase to phase

 Perform megger test on windings checking the insulation resistance and determining the polarization
index. ( PI minimum value no less than 2.0) ( P to P & P to G ) PI = R10/R1
 Energize the motor and record no-load starting current and running current in each phase and the
voltage phase to phase.
 Measure and record motor speed.
 Measure and record vibration on drive end and non-drive end bearings.
 Test run the motor recording temperature rise, vibration, voltage and current.
INDUCTION MOTOR STARTING METHODS:

1. DOL Starter (Direct on line starter)

2. Star – Delta Starter
3. Auto transformer motor starting method
4. Rotor resistance starter

Star- Delta:

A three phase motor will give three times the power output when the stator windings are
connected in delta than if connected in star, but will take 1/3 of the current from the supply when
connected in star than when connected in delta. The starting torque developed in star is ½ that
when starting in delta.
A two-position switch (manual or automatic) is provided through a timing relay.
Starting in star reduces the starting current.
When the motor has accelerated up to speed and the current is reduced to its normal value, the
starter is moved to run position with the windings now connected in delta.
DOL

When the start push button is pressed, the contactor gets energized and it closes all the three
phases of the motor to the supply phases at a time. The stop push button de-energizes the
contactor and disconnects all the three phases to stop the motor.
In order to avoid excessive voltage drop in the supply line due to large starting current, a DOL starter
is generally used for motors that are rated below 5kW.

Auto Transformer starter: