Regionalism: Art and Architecture of the Regional Styles 750 AD to

c.1200 (Deccan and south India)

Lesson: Regionalism: Art and Architecture of the Regional

Styles 750 AD to c.1200 (Deccan and south India)

Lesson Developer: Anisha Saxena and Niharika Sankrityayan

College/ Department: Lady Shri Ram College/Center For

Historical Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University

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 Regionalism: Art and Architecture of the Regional Styles 750 AD to
c.1200 (Deccan and south India)

Table of Contents

Chapter 20: Regionalism: Art and Architecture of the Regional Styles

750 AD to c.1200 (Deccan and South India and Deccan)

 Introduction
 20.1 Art and architecture of the Deccan I: Kailashnatha temple,
Ellora
 20.2 Art and architecture of the Deccan II: Chalukyan
Architecture
 20.3 Art and Architecture in South India I: Pallava Architecture
 20.4 Art and Architecture in South India II: Chola Architecture
20.4.1 Art and Architecture: Early Phase
20.4.2 Art ad Architecture: Second Phase
20.4.3 Art and Architecture: Third Phase
 20.5 Metal Sculpture
 20.6 Other Architectural Achievements
 20. 7Exercise
 Glossary
 Further Readings

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Introduction

The previous chapter (chapter 19) discussed in detail various schools

of architecture and sculpture that developed in northern India from
750 to 1200 CE. The chapter also discussed how temples in the early
medieval India were not merely spaces for religious activity, they were
important structures that legitimized political authority and regulated
economic life, sometimes even acting as banks providing loans to
traders. The present chapter in continuation with the previous chapter
will discuss the growth of architecture and sculpture in south India and
Deccan from 750 to 1200 CE.

The early beginnings of architecture and sculpture in south India and

Deccan under the patronage provided by the Pallavas and the
Chalukya rulers has already been discussed in great detail in chapter
10 (see chapter on cultural development). The foundations of the
Dravida or the south Indian style of architecture were laid under the
Pallava rulers, who ruled from the sixth to the ninth century CE. The
architecture of the Deccan or Vesara style was an amalgamation of the
Nagara and Dravida style of architecture and developed under the
Chalukyas.

Politically by the eighth century CE the Deccan and southern India

were experiencing changes in political environment. From the middle
of the sixth century to the thirteenth century, the Deccan region of
peninsular India came under the sway of a line of rulers. An important
dynasty was the Chalukyas of Badami ruling from their capital at
Badami or Vatapi. The Early Chalukyas achieved political unification of
much of the Deccan for almost 200 years, even though during this
period portions of their territories were temporarily lost to the Pallavas
from the Tamil country in southern India. Just after 750 CE the
Chalukyas of Badami succumbed to the Rashtrakuta invasion from
Maharashtra in the northern Deccan. From 757 CE for about two
centuries, the Rashtrakutas ruled over the Deccan. In 973 CE the
Rashtrakutas were ousted by Taila II, a scion of the Chalukya family,
who established his capital at Kalyani/Kalyana. The decedents of Taila

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ruled from there until 1161 CE, when the region was temporarily
occupied by the Kalachuris with their capital at Annigeri and was
afterwards shifted to Kalyani. The Chalukyas of Kalyani regained
power and ruled until 1189 CE. Due to the declining strength, the
southern part of their territory was occupied by the Hoysalas and the
northern by the Yadavas of Devagiri. The Yadavas ruled from 1187-
1310 CE. The Kakatiyas who were vassals of the Chalukyas of Kalyani
became independent after the defeat of the Chalukyas by the
Kalachuris. The Kakatiyas rose to power and ruled over a large part of
the Deccan for nearly three centuries. The Eastern Chalukyas has
established themselves in Vengi by the second half of the eighth
century and ruled till late tenth century, when they defeated by the
Cholas. The Pallavas of Kanchi continued to rule till the ninth century
coming constantly in conflict with the Chalukyas, Pandyas and
Rashtrakutas, their power slowly dwindling replaced by the Cholas.
The Cholas came to power at Tanjore under Vijayalaya, who defeated
the Muttaraiyar chiefs. In the beginning of their rule the Cholas
accepted Pallavas as their overlords, but by the end of the ninth
century, beginning of tenth the Cholas under the leadership of Aditya I
(871-907 CE) had become one of the strongest dynasty ruling from
south India. By mid twelfth century under the rule of the later Chola
kings the empire began to dwindle loosing territory to the western
chalukyas and the emerging Hoysalas, who ruled Karnataka from the
tenth to the fourteenth century. Each of the political dynasties that
ruled south India and Deccan created some of the exquisite examples
of art, both in terms of temple architecture and sculpture.

20.1 Art and architecture of the Deccan I:

Kailashnatha temple, Ellora

In Deccan the most fascinating traditions of rock-cut and structural

temples emerged from the sixth to the thirteenth centuries CE. The
religious monuments of the Chalukyas of Badami are of outstanding
interest for their transition from cutting into rock to free-standing
construction, as well as for their range of distinctive architectural
styles. Hardly anywhere else in India it is possible to find cave-temples
and structural temples of the same period beside each other at the
same site, as in Badami and Aihole; nor at other sites can temples be
seen next to each other built in contrasting Dravida and Nagara styles,
as at Mahakuta and Pattadakal.

One of the finest examples of rock cut architecture in Deccan is the

Kailasa temple at Ellora. It is one of the largest and the biggest

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monolithic temple in India. The temple was the result of the
munificence of Rashtrakuta king Krishna I (756-773 CE) and was
named after him as Krishnesvara. The style of carving for the main
complex is uniform. Its architectural and elevational impact is marred
by the fact that it is located as if in a huge pit or hollow of a rocky hill.
The plan of the temple has a square mandapa with sixteen columns,
three porches, sandhara plan of shrine and ambulatory passage
(pradakshina-patha). Its ambulatory passage is an open terrace. The
iconography of the south wall of its mandapa is rich with Ramayana
panels.

Kailasa temple, Elevation

Source: AIIS, Gurgaon

20.2 Art and architecture of the Deccan II: Chalukya

Architecture

In the first half of the 8th century, climax of the Dravida and Nagara
styles appeared, with emergence of other idioms and stylistic
intermingling. In the later years of Chalukya ruler Vijayaditya’s reign
(696-733 CE), and reigns of Vikramaditya II (733-44 CE) and
Kirttivarma II (744-57 CE) a number of temples were constructed.
Some of the temples are: Sangameshvara,Virupaksha and Mallikarjuna
temples at Pattadakal. The Bhutanatha group of temples at Badami,
Gaudargudi , Chikkigudi Hucchappayyamatha, Hucchappayyagudi and
Hucchimalligudi, Durga and Ladkhan, Galaganatha and Mallikarjuna

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temples at Aihole.

The largest of the Pattadakal temples and the most elaborately

planned and artistically embellished monument of the Chalukya period,
the Virupaksha stands at the southern perimeter of the site’s
landscaped compound. The temple is associated with Lokamahadevi,
queen of Vikramaditya II, and was original named after her as
Lokeshvara. That the temple must have been considered the
outstanding achievement of the era is borne out by two inscriptions on
the eastern gateway to the complex. These give the names of the
principal architects: Tribhuvan and Sarvasiddhi Acharyas, Master of
the Three Worlds and Master of the Abode of Good Qualities. Many of
the sculptors involved on the project also have their names engraved
beneath the carved panels that they worked on.

Virupaksha temple, Pattadakal

Source: Author

The Virupaksha temple is the focus of a symmetrically planned

complex, with a stone paved compound bounded by walls and sub-

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shrines, entered through gateways on the east and west. A Nandi
pavilion stands freely within the compound, between the temple and
the eastern gateway. The temple consists of a linga sanctuary
surrounded by a passageway on three sides, lit by windows on three
sides and preceded by a vestibule. This opens into a square mandapa
with sixteen free-standing columns creating five aisles running in both
directions, the central aisles being slightly wider.

The sculptures on the outer walls are among the greatest masterpieces
of Chalukya plastic art. Panels on the passageway walls are mostly
devoted to Shiva, which include icons of Bhikshatana, Bhairava,
Lakulisha holding a club, and Harihara. The central projection on the
north passageway walls has a formally posed eight-armed image of
Vishnu armed with disc, conch, sword, shield, bow and arrow, with a
dwarf at the feet. That this may be a replacement image is suggested
by Shiva and Parvati between exquisitely modelled makaras with open
jaws, riders and cascading tails on the walls above, and diminutive
Mahishasuramardini beneath. An image of Varaha occupies the
adjacent recess.

20.3 Art and Architecture in south India I: Pallava

Architecture

A definite architectural and iconographical vocabulary had developed in

south India under the Pallavas by the seventh century CE. This is clear
indicated in the rock cut structures that the Pallavas created at
Mahabalipuram (Tamil Nadu). It was also under the Pallavas that the
first structural temples were created in south India. The Shore temple
at Mahabalipuram is considered the first structural temple built in
south India. The temple is constructed out of blocks of granite and was
constructed under the patronage of the Pallava king Narsimhavarman
II Rajasimha (700-728 CE).

The temple has an unusual plan with three distinct worship areas
constructed on a same platform; the primary worship area faces east
and is dedicated to Shiva. This worship area has the highest pyramidal
superstructure. The second, smaller shrine is also dedicated to Shiva
and consists of a smaller superstructure. The third shrine is located at
the western edge and is dedicated to Vishnu as Anantashayin and has
no superstructure. The figure of Anantashayin was carved out of
existing rock at situ.

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Shore temple, Mahabalipuram, Tamil Nadu

Notice the two rising pyramidal shaped shikaras
Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shore_Temple#mediaviewer/File:
Shore_temple,_mahabalipuram.jpg

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20.4 Art and Architecture of south India II: Chola

Architecture

20.4.1 Art and Architecture: Early Phase

The Cholas were the successors of the Pallava rulers in south India and
had established themselves firmly by the ninth century CE. Their
religious and artistic activity centered in and around Tanjore. Early
stages of temple architecture began under the reign of Aditya I (871-
907 CE) and Paratntaka I (907-955 CE).

The first phase of Chola artistic activity can be dated from the ninth to
the early half of the tenth century CE, the temples during this early
phase were generally constructed entirely in stone and were smaller in
size. The plan of the early temples consisted of a vimana and an
ardhmandapa. The entire complex was surrounded by a prakara and a
small gopuram was placed at the principal entrance, the
superstructure of which was constructed in brick.

One of the finest examples of the early Chola architecture is the

Brahmapurishvara temple at Pullamangai in Papanasam district,
twenty kilometers from Tanjore. The temple is dated to 910 CE and
was constructed under the reign of Parantaka I, dedicated to Shiva the
temple faces east and consists of a vimana and an ardhmandapa.

The outer walls of the temple contain images of various Brahmanical

gods and goddesses, these sculptures are some of the finest Chola
sculptures carved in stone and show extraordinary grace and delicacy.
The adhisthana of the temple has a beautifully carved frieze of yalis.
Sculptures of exceptionally beautifully carved ganas appear at various
places on the temple walls, they are carved with great skill and
delicacy and are represented in various moods and poses.

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Standing sculpture of Brahma, Brahmapurishvara temple, Tamil Nadu.

Source:https://www.flickr.com/photos/shanmugamsriraman/3688625
087/in/set-72157620836984165

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Images of ganas in various poses and moods, Brahmapurishvara

temple, Tamil Nadu.
Source: http://www.harekrsna.com/sun/features/01-
12/features2349.htm

The next impetus for the Chola architecture came under the patronage
of the Chola queen Sembiyan Mahadevi, wife of Chola king
Gandaraditya (949-957 CE). Though not many new temples were
constructed under her, she is said to have replaced a number of
existing brick temples with stone. The quality of Chola stone sculpture
became deteriorated, the sculpture became stiff marking a deviation
from the early graceful and delicate style. The Agastyeshvara temple
at Anangur, Tamil Nadu is said to be built by her in 979 CE.

20.4.2 Art and Architecture: Second Phase

The next phase of Chola architecture began with the accession of

Rajaraja I (985-1012 CE) and continued under the reign of his son
Rajendra Chola (1012-1044 CE). Under the rule of Rajaraja the Chola
empire reached its zenith, he conquered parts of Kerala, Coorg, lower
and eastern Karnataka. In 993 CE he also led naval expeditions to Sri
Lanka and Maldives. Rajaraja not only patronized Brahmanical temples
and deities, under his rule a number of Jaina and Buddhist religious
structures were also constructed.

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This phase of Chola architecture was marked by construction of large,
grand temples with multiple stories- Brihadishvara temples at
Thanjavur and at Gangaikondacholapuram are two examples of this
phase of Chola architecture.

The Brihadishvara temple at Tanjore during its time of construction

was one of the largest buildings to be constructed in the world. The
temple has a number of inscriptions and inform that the temple was
constructed between 1003 CE - 1010 CE. Dedicated to Shiva the
temple was originally surrounded by two prakara walls, the inner
prakara is 800 feet long (east-west) and 400 feet broad (north-south)
and has gopuram on the east entrance and three small torana on the
other three sides. The outer prakara is now completely lost, but the
gopuram attached to it still stands on the east.

Seen in the photograph are the two entrance gopuram to the

Brihadishvara temple, notice the barrel valuted roof that finishes the
shikhara of the gopuram.
Brihadishvara temple, Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brihadeeswarar_Temple

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Both the gopurams are same in design though the outer gopuram is
taller and has five tiers and inner gopuram has three tiers. In front of
the temple rests an enormous stone image of Nandi, which is sixteen
feet long and thirteen feet high.

The main temple itself is constructed out of granite and is one hundred
and eighty feet in length and consists of a mukhamandapa,
ardhmandapa, an antarala, a garbhagriha and a pradakshinapath. The
niches on outer walls of the temple contain images of various forms of
Shiva. The Vimana of the temple is two hundred and sixteen feet high
and consists of sixteen stories

Brihadishvara temple, Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu

Source:
http://undiscoveredindiantreasures.blogspot.in/2011/06/brihadeeswar
a-temple-in.html

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Similar to the architectural style of Brihadesvara at Tanjore, Rajaraja

I’s son Rajendra I constructed another temple with same name at his
new capital city of Gangaikindacholapuarm. Constructed in about 1023
CE, the temple marked his victory over Pala king Mahipala. The temple
has only one prakara wall with an all-stone gopuram on the east.

Brihadesvara temple, Gangaikondacholapuram, Tamil Nadu

Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gangaikonda_Cholapuram#media
viewer/File:GangaiKonda_Cholapuram(Front_View).JPG

20.4.3 Art and Architecture: Third Phase

The last phase of architecture under the Chola patronage began in

1070 CE and lasted till 1279 CE. During this phase the Chola rulers
focused on restoration of the old temples and made additions to the
existing temples than undertaking new temple projects. Vikrama Chola
(1118-1135 CE) added a Nrittya mandapa and covered the roof of the
Tirumalikai temple. Kulotunga III (1178-1218) added a Nrittya
mandapa at the Chidambaram temple. Both these rulers also added a
prakara wall and a gopuram to the already existing goddess shrine at

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Chidambara.

Another feature that became common during this time was

construction of separate shrine for the female goddesses, which came
to be known as the Amman shrines. The addition of free standing
mandapas that are popularly called the ‘thousand pillared halls’ also
became popular’ the mandapas of the temple became more ornate and
started receiving special attention; one of the architectural feature
peculiar to this phase of Chola architecture was the shape of the
mandapas which imitated form of a chariot. The number and size of
gopurams increased, they also became more ornate than before.

20.5 Metal Sculpture

The Cholas created some of the most exquisite metal sculptures known
to humankind. Their bronze sculptures are world famous for their
exquisite quality, beauty, grace and precision. Pratapaditya Pal rightly
notes that the Chola sculptors found an ideal balance between form
and ornamentation. Although the figures are idealized, they appear to
be naturalistically modeled. Chola bronzes have found their way in all
major museums in the world.

Before the Cholas, even the Pallavas were aware of the knowledge of
bronze casting, but only few examples of Pallava bronze sculpture
survive. The technique used to create the bronze sculpture by the
Cholas is called cire perdue or the lost wax process. According to this
process a wax model of the image created was made with all complete
details of jewellery, clothes etc, then this image was coated with three
layers of clay. This clay-encased wax image was heated, the wax
melted out leaving a hollow cavity within the clay image. The molted
bronze was then carefully poured inside the hollow clay image and was
allowed to cool. Once the metal was called and set the clay was broken
revealing a bronze image. Details were reworked and image was given
its final shape. Out of all the images created by Chola sculptors the
image of Shiva as Nataraja is their best-known creation, they are best
known for their high aesthetic quality.

These bronze images unlike the stone sculptures that were sculpted on
the temple walls, were movable images. These images were regularly
taken out of the temple during religious festivals.

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Shiva as Nataraja, Chola eleventh century Bronze

Dallas Museum of Art, Texas, U.S.A

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Bronze image of Chola queen Sembiyan Mahadevi as Parvati

Chola bronze, 990 CE
Freer Gallery, Washington D.C, U.S.A
Photograph: Author

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20.6 Other Architectural Achievements

It was during the early medieval period that Shravana Belagola in

Karnataka, became an important Jaina pilgrimage site. The famous
17.5 meter standing stone image of Bahubali or Gommata, the son of
the first tirthankara Rishabhnath or Adinatha was erected under the
patronage of Chamunda Raya, minister of the Ganga king Rachamalla
(974-984 CE).

The rulers of the Hoysala dynasty also created some of the most
exquisite temples during this period. The Hoysala for,ed a small
kingdom in region around Belur and Halebid in eleventh century, in the
begening they were feudatories of the Chalukyas of Kalyan, but by the
twelfth century they were becoming powerful defeating and acquiring
territories both from the Cholas and the Chalukyas. Tht Hoysala
temple consists of several connected parts and consisted of a porch, a
vestibule, a hall and a sanctum sanctorum. The Hoysala temple plans
are one of the most complex temple plans and their sculpture are
much celebrated for their intricate detailed carvings.

20. 7 Exercise

Explain the following architectural elements

1. Prakara
2. Vimana
3. Gopuram

Ans.

1. Prakara- outer wall in south Indian temple architecture

2. Vimana- The main temple consisting of garbhagriha and Shikhara
3. Gopuram- Large entrance gateways, peculiar to south Indian or
Dravida architecture

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Match the following

Pallava rock cut temples Rahtrakuta

Earliest structural temple in south India Chola queen
Lost wax process Mahabalipuram
Sembiyan Mahadevi Shore temple
Kailashnath temple, Ellora Parantaka I
Brahmapurishvara temple Chola Bronzes

Answer

Pallava rock cut temples Mahabalipuram

Earliest structural temple in south India Shore temple
Lost wax process Chola Bronzes
Sembiyan Mahadevi Chola queen
Brahmapurishvara temple Parantaka I
Kailshnath temple, Ellora Rashtrakuta

Describe the Lost wax process

Ans. According to the lost wax process or cire perdue a wax model of
the image created was made with all complete details of jewellery,
clothes etc, then this image was coated with three layers of clay. This
clay-encased wax image was heated, the wax melted out leaving a
hollow cavity within the clay image. The molted bronze was then
carefully poured inside the hollow clay image and was allowed to cool.
Once the metal was called and set the clay was broken revealing a
bronze image. Details were reworked and image was given its final
shape.

What were the important landmarks of Chola architecture in

third phase of architecture?

Ans.

1. The last phase of architecture under the Chola patronage began

in 1070 CE and lasted till 1279 CE
2. During this phase the Chola rulers focused on restoration of the
old temples and made additions to the existing temples than
undertaking new temple projects.
3. Construction of separate shrine for the female goddesses, which

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 Regionalism: Art and Architecture of the Regional Styles 750 AD to
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came to be known as the Amman shrines became popular.
4. The addition of free standing mandapas, popularly called the
‘thousand pillared halls’ became popular. The so called Nrittya
mandapa imitated chariots.
5. The number and size of gopurams increased, they also became
more ornate than before

Glossary

Adhisthana-platform
Antarala-vestibule
Ardhmandapa-intermediary space between the sanctum and the
temple exterior.
Dravida-Form of south Indian architecture
Ganas-pot bellied attendants of Shiva
Garbhagriha- womb house, sanctum
Gopuram-gateway
Mukhamandapa-the front hall or porch of the temple
Nrittyamandapa-dancing hall
Pradakshinapath-circumambulatory path
Prakara-outer wall
Torana- gateway , archiform gateway pattern
Vesara-Form of architecture in Deccan
Vimana-the main temple, including garbhagriha and shikhara

Further Readings

Champakalakshmi, R. Trade, Ideologyand Urbanization: South India

30 BC to AD 1300, Oxford University Press, 1996.

Foekema, Gerard. A Complete Guide to Hoysala Temples, Abhinav

Publications, 1996.

Hardy, Adam. Indian Temple Architecture: Form and Transform,

IGNCA, 1995.

Huntington, Susan L. The Art of Ancient India: Buddhist, Hindu, Jain,

University of Michigan, 1985.

Meister, Michael W., M.A. Dhaky, and Krishna Deva (ed.).

Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple Architecture, South India. Lower
Dravidadesa 200 B.C.-A.D.1324, American Institute of Indian Studies,

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1988.

Pal, Pratapaditya. Indian Sculpture, Vol.2, 700-1800, Los Angeles

County Museum of Art, 1988.

Soundararajan, K. V. Early Temple Architecture of Karnataka and its

Ramifications, Dharwar, 1969.

Srinivasan, K. R. Temples of South India, New Delhi, 1971.

Yazdani, G., ed., The Early History of the Deccan, Oxford, 1960.

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