Radiographic Inspection

By
Eng. Ibrahim
b hi Eldesoky
ld k
ASNT NDT Level III
 Basic Physics of Radiography
Elementary Particles
The Electron
The
Th electron
l t is
i an elementary
l t particle
ti l that
th t is
i presentt in
i all
ll atoms
t
in groupings called shells around the nucleus. When they detach
from the nucleus they are called free electrons. The antiparticle
of the electron is the positron. An antiparticle is a subatomic
particle that has the same mass number as another particle and
equal but opposite values of some other property or properties.
For example, the antiparticle of the electron is the positron,
which has a positive charge equal in magnitude to the electron's
negative charge.
The Proton
The proton is an elementary particle that is stable and bears a
positive charge equal in magnitude to that of the electron. The
proton occurs in all atomic nuclei (
p (the hydrogen
y g atom contains a
single proton).
The Neutron
The neutron is a neutral particle that is stable in the atomic
nucleus but decays into a proton and electron, and an
antineutrino with a mean life of 12 minutes outside the nucleus.
Neutrons occur in all atomic nuclei except normal hydrogen.
 Basic Physics of Radiography
Atomic Structure
An atom is the smallest part of an element that can exist and
consists of a small dense nucleus of protons and neutrons
surrounded by moving electrons. The number of electrons equals
the number of protons so the overall charge is 0. Electrons may
be thought of as moving in circular or elliptical orbits or, more
accurately, in regions of space around the nucleus. Electrons are
arranged in shells at various distances from the nucleus
according to how much energy they have. These shells are
identified by the letters K, L, M, N, O, P and Q with K being the
closest to the nucleus. Each shell can hold only a certain
maximum
i number
b off electrons;
l the
h K shell
h ll can hold
h ld no more
than 2, the L shell no more than 8, shell M no more than 18, shell
N no more than 32, shell O no more than 50, shell P no more
than 72 and shell Q no more than 98.
 Basic Physics of Radiography
Atomic Number
The atomic number is the number of protons in the nucleus of an
atom. The atomic number is equal to the number of electrons
orbiting the nucleus in a neutral atom. The symbol for atomic
number is Z.
Z
Mass Number
The mass number is the sum of the protons and neutrons in an
atom. Although all atoms of an element have the same number
off protons, they
h may h
have diff
different numbers
b off neutrons. Atoms
that have the same number of protons but different numbers of
neutrons are called isotopes.
Atomic Weight
g
The atomic weight is the weight of an atom expressed in atomic
mass units (amu
amu).). One atomic mass unit equals 1/12 the weight
of an atom of C-
C-12.
Isotope
An isotope is an atom with a specific atomic number and mass
number. Each atomic number element may exist with different
mass number and these are isotopes For example, hydrogen (1
proton, no neutrons), deuterium (1 proton, 1 neutron), and
tritium (1 proton, 2 neutrons) are isotopes of hydrogen. Some
isotopes are stable while others are unstable and change state
by radioactive decay.
 Basic Physics of Radiography
Electromagnetic Radiation
The Photon
Electromagnetic radiation occurs in the form of individual
packets of energy called photons.
photons When photons travel through
space, they appear as continuous electromagnetic waves.
However, when photons of radiation strike a substance, they
behave as if they were separate particles of energy instead of a
continuous
co t uous wave.
a e Each
ac photon
p oto hasas a certain
ce ta amount
a ou t of
o energy
e e gy
that is proportional to its frequency.
X-rays
X-rays are produced whenever high energy electrons suddenly
give up energy.
energy. This can be done either by accelerating electrons
to a high speed and then stopping them suddenly, or by these
high speed electrons striking others and knocking them out of
their normal positions. When these dislodged electrons fall back
into place, they give off X-
X-rays. The position of X-
X-rays in the
electromagnetic
l t ti spectrum
t is
i shown
h in
i Figure
Fi 1.
1
Gamma Rays
Gamma rays are similar to X- X-rays except that they have a much
shorter wavelength
g and differ in their origin.
g Gamma raysy are
emitted from the nucleus itself during the process of
radioactivity. The position of gamma rays in the electromagnetic
spectrum is shown in Figure 1.
Basic Physics of Radiography

Fig 1: The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Fig.
 Properties of X-
X-Rays and Gamma Rays
Both X-X-rays and gamma rays can be characterized by frequency,
wavelength, and velocity. However, they act somewhat like a
particle at times in that they occur as small "packets" of energy
and are referred to as "photons."
"photons " Due to their short wavelength
they have more energy to pass through matter than do the other
forms of energy in the electromagnetic spectrum. As they pass
through matter, they are scattered and absorbed and the degree
of penetration depends on the kind of matter and the energy of
the rays.
They are not detected by human senses (cannot be seen, heard,
felt, etc.).
They travel in straight lines at the speed of light.
Their paths cannot be changed by electrical or magnetic fields.
They can be diffracted to a small degree at interfaces between
two different materials.
They pass through matter until they have a chance encounter
with an atomic particle.
Their degree of penetration depends on their energy and the
matter they are traveling through.
They have enough energy to ionize matter and can damage or
destroy living cells
 X-Ray Radiation
d
X-rays are produced d iin packets
k off energy called
ll d photons,
h jjust
like light. There are two different atomic processes that can
produce X-X-ray photons. One is called Bremsstrahlung and is a
German term meaning "braking radiation." The other is called K- K-
shell emission.
emission
Bremsstrahlung Radiation
X-ray tubes produce x x--ray photons by accelerating a stream of
electrons to energies of several hundred kilovolts with velocities
of several hundred kilometers per hour and colliding them into a
heavy target material. The abrupt acceleration of the charged
electrons produces Bremsstrahlung photons. X- X-ray radiation
with a continuous spectrum of energies is produced ranging
from a few keV to a maximum of energy gy of the electron beam.
K-shell Emission Radiation
The K-
K-shell is the lowest energy state of an atom. An incoming
electron can give a K-K-shell electron enough energy to knock it
out of its energy
gy state. About 0.1% of the electrons p produce K- K-
shell vacancies; most produce heat. Then, a tungsten electron of
higher energy (from an outer shell) can fall into the K- K-shell. The
energy lost by the falling electron shows up in an emitted x- x-ray
photon. Meanwhile, higher energy electrons fall into the vacated
energy state in the outer shell,
shell and so on on. K-
K-shell emission
produces higher-
higher-intensity x-
x-rays than Bremsstrahlung, and the
x-ray photon comes out at a single wavelength. "characteristic
x-Ray"
 X-Ray Radiation

Fig.2 A: Bremsstrahlung Radiation Fig.2 B: K-shell Emission Radiation

 Gamma Radiation
Gamma rays are high- high-energy electromagnetic waves of
relatively short wavelength that are emitted during the
radioactive decay of both naturally occurring and artificially
produced unstable isotopes.
p p In all respects
p other than their
origin, γ-rays and x
x--rays are identical. Unlike the broad-
broad-spectrum
radiation produced by an x- x-ray tube, γ-ray sources emit one or
more discrete wavelengths of radiation, each having its own
characteristic photon energy.
Th two
The t mostt common radioactive
di ti isotopes
i t used
d in
i radiography
di h
are iridium-
iridium-192 and cobalt-
cobalt-60
60..
Alpha Particles
Certain radioactive materials of high
g atomic mass ( (Ra226,, U238,,
Pu239) decay by the emission of alpha particles. These alpha
particles are tightly bound units of two neutrons and two
protons each (He4 nucleus) and have a positive charge. Emission
of an alpha particle from the nucleus results in a decrease of two
units of atomic number (Z) and four units of mass number (A). (A)
Alpha particles are emitted with discrete energies characteristic
of the particular transformation from which they originate. All
alpha particles from a particular radioactive transformation will
have identical energies.
g
 Gamma Radiation
Beta Particles
A nucleus with an unstable ratio of neutrons to protons may
decayy through
g the emission of a high g speed
p electron called a
beta particle. This results in a net change of one unit of atomic
number (Z). Beta particles have a negative charge and the beta
particles emitted by a specific radionuclide will range in energy
from
o near
ea zero
e o up to a maximum
a u value,
a ue, which
c is
s characteristic
c a acte st c oof
the particular transformation.
Gamma--rays
Gamma

A nucleus
l which
hi h is
i in
i an excited
it d state
t t may emitit one or more
photons (packets of electromagnetic radiation) of discrete
energies.. The emission of gamma rays does not alter the number
energies
of protons or neutrons in the nucleus but instead has the effect
off moving
i th nucleus
the l f
from a higher
hi h t a lower
to l energy state
t t
(unstable to stable).
stable). Gamma ray emission frequently follows
beta decay, alpha decay, and other nuclear decay processes
processes..
1 alpha
1.
 Activity
Activity is the number of
atoms
t off a radioactive
di ti
substance that disintegrate
per unit time,
the specific activity is the
activity per unit mass of a
pure radioisotope.
The Becquerel ( (Bq
Bq),), the SI
unit of activity, represents
one spontaneous transition
per second.
Thus 1 Bq = 1 S-1. The former
unit, (Ci),
unit the curie (Ci ), is equal
Ci)
)
to 3.7xl010Bq.
 Isotope Decay Rate (Half
(Half--Life)
Each radioactive substance decays at its own unique rate which
cannot be altered by any chemical or physical process. A useful
measure of this rate is the half-
half-life of the substance. Half
Half--life is
defined as the time required for the activity of any particular
radioactive substance to decrease to one- one-half of its initial
value. Half
Half--life of two widely used industrial isotopes are 74
days for Iridium-
Iridium-192, and 5.3 years for Cobalt
Cobalt--60. More exacting
calculations
l l ti can be
b maded for
f the
th half-
half
h lf-life
lif off th
these materials,
t i l
however, these times are commonly used.

Inverse Square Law

Any point source which spreads its
influence equally in all directions
without a limit to its range will obey
the inverse square law. This comes
from strictly geometrical
considerations
 Attenuation of Electromagnetic Radiation
X-rays and γ-rays interact with any substance
substance, even gases such
as air, as the rays pass through the substance. It is this
interaction that enables parts to be inspected by differential
attenuation of radiation and that enables differences in the
intensityy of radiation to be detected and recorded.
recorded. Both these
effects are essential to the radiographic process. The
attenuation characteristics of materials vary with the type,
intensity, and energy of the radiation and with the density and
atomic structure of the material.
Th intensity
The i t it off radiation
di ti varies
i exponentially
ti ll with
ith the
th thickness
thi k
of homogeneous material through which it passes. This behavior
is expressed as:
I= Ioexp(
exp(--μt)
where
h I is
i the
th intensity
i t it off the
th emergentt radiation,
di ti Io is
i the
th initial
i iti l
intensity, t is the thickness of homogeneous material, and μ is a
characteristic of the material known as the linear absorption
coefficient
mass absorption coefficient is (μ/ρ (μ/ρ),
μ/ρ)
)
), where ρ is the density of
the material
Atomic absorption coefficient (μ (μa) or cross section, is equal to
the linear absorption coefficient divided by the number of atoms
per unit volume
volume. The cross section,
section usually expressed in barns (1
barn = 10 -24 cm ), indicates the probability .
2
 Attenuation of Electromagnetic Radiation
Usingg the transmitted intensity y equation
q above,, linear
attenuation coefficients can be used to make a number of
calculations. These include:
ƒ the intensity of the energy transmitted through a material when
th
the incident
i id t x- x-ray intensity,
i t it the
th material
t i l and
d the
th material
t i l
thickness are known.
ƒ the intensity of the incident x x--ray energy when the transmitted
x-ray intensity
intensity, material
material, and material thickness are known
known.
ƒ the thickness of the material when the incident and transmitted
intensity, and the material are known.
ƒ the material can be determined from the value of μ when the
incident and transmitted intensity, and the material thickness

are known.
 Attenuation of Electromagnetic Radiation
Atomic Attenuation Processes
Several interaction events are usually involved and the
total attenuation is the sum of the attenuation due to
diff
differentt ttypes off iinteractions.
t ti These
Th iinteractions
t ti
include the photoelectric effect, scattering, and pair
production. The figure below shows an approximation
off the
th total
t t l absorption
b ti coefficient,
ffi i t (µ),
( ) in
i red, d for
f iron
i
plotted as a function of radiation energy. The four
radiation matter interactions that contribute to the
total absorption are shown in black. black The four types of
interactions are: photoelectric (PE), Compton
scattering (C), pair production (PP), and Thomson or
Rayleigh scattering (R).
(R) Since most industrial
radiography is done in the 0.1 to 1.5 MeV range, it can
be seen from the plot that photoelectric and Compton
scattering account for the majority of attenuation
encountered.
 Attenuation of Electromagnetic Radiation

different mechanisms that cause attenuation of an incident x-ray beam

 Attenuation of Electromagnetic Radiation
Photoelectric (PE) absorption of x
x--rays
occurs when the x x--ray photon is
absorbed, resulting in the ejection of
electrons from the outer shell of the
atom, and hence the ionization of the
atom. Subsequently, the ionized atom
returns
t to
t the
th neutral
t l state
t t with
ith the
th
emission of an x
x--ray characteristic of the
atom. This subsequent emission of lower
energy photons is generally absorbed
and does not contribute to (or hinder)
the image making process.
Compton scattering (C) occurs when the
incident x- y p
x-ray photon is deflected from its
original path by an interaction with an
electron. The electron gains energy and is
ejected from its orbital position. The x- x-
ray photon looses energy due to the
interaction but continues to travel
through the material along an altered
path. Since the scattered x x--ray photon
has less energy, it, therefore, has a longer
wavelength than the incident photon.
 Attenuation of Electromagnetic Radiation
Pair production (PP) can occur when the x x--
ray photon energy is greater than 1.02 MeV,
but really only becomes significant at
energies around 10 MeV. Pair production
occurs when an electron and positron are
created with the annihilation of the x-x-ray
photon. Positrons are very short lived and
disappear (positron annihilation) with the
formation of two photons of 0.51 MeV
energy. Pair production is of particular
importance when high-
high-energy photons pass
through materials of a high atomic number.

Thomson scattering (R), also known as

Rayleigh, coherent, or classical scattering,
occurs when the x x--ray photon interacts with
the whole atom so that the photon is
scattered with no change in internal energy
to the scattering atom, nor to the x x--ray
photon..
photon The scattering occurs without the
loss of energy. Scattering is mainly in the
forward direction.
 Half--Value Layer
Half
The thickness of any given material where 50% of the incident
h
energy has b tt t d iis know
been attenuated k th half-
as the h lf-value
half l l
layer
(HVL). The HVL is expressed in units of distance (mm or cm).
Like the attenuation coefficient, it is photon energy dependant.
Increasing the penetrating energy of a stream of photons will
result in an increase in a material
material'ss HVL
HVL.
The HVL is inversely proportional to the attenuation coefficient..
I = Ioexp(
exp(--μt)
0.5=1 exp(
exp(--μt)
If x is
i the
h HVL then h m times
i HVL must equall 0 0.693
693 (since
( i the
h
number 0.693 is the exponent value that gives a value of 0.5).
Therefore, the HVL and μ are related as follows:
HVL=0.693/ μ
The HVL is often used in radiography
simply because it is easier to remember
values and perform simple calculations.
In a shielding calculation, such as
illustrated to the right, it can be seen
that if the thickness of one HVL is known,
it is possible to quickly determine how
much material is needed to reduce the
intensity to less than 1%.
 Radio Isotope (Gamma) Sources
Manmade radioactive sources are produced by introducing an extra
neutron to atoms of the source material. As the material rids itself of
the neutron, energy is released in the form of gamma rays. Two of
the more common industrial gamma- gamma-ray sources for industrial
radiography are iridium-
iridium-192 and cobalt-
cobalt-60. These isotopes emit
radiation in a few discreet wavelengths.
wavelengths Cobalt
Cobalt--60 will emit a 1
1.33
33
and a 1.17 MeV gamma ray, and iridium-
iridium-192 will emit 0.31, 0.47, and
0.60 MeV gamma rays.
rays. In comparison to an X-X-ray generator, cobalt
cobalt--
60 produces energies comparable to a 1.25 MeV X- X-ray system and
iridium
iridium--192 to a 460 keV XX--ray system.
system. These high energies make it
possible to penetrate thick materials with a relatively short exposure
time. This and the fact that sources are very portable are the main
reasons that gamma sources are widely used for field radiography.
Of course, the disadvantage of a radioactive source is that it can
b tturned
never be d off
ff and
d safely
f l managing
i th i a constant
the source is t t
responsibility.
Physical size of isotope materials varies
between manufacturers, but generally
an isotope material is a pellet that
measures 1.5 mm x 1.5 mm. Depending
on the level of activity desired, a pellet
or pellets are loaded into a stainless
steel capsule and sealed by welding. The
capsule is attached to short flexible
cable called a pigtail.
 Radio Isotope (Gamma) Sources
The source capsule
p and the p
pigtail
g is housed in a shielding
g device
referred to as an exposure device or camera. Depleted uranium
is often used as a shielding material for sources. The exposure
device for iridium-
iridium-192 and cobalt-
cobalt-60 sources will contain 45
pounds(20Kg)
p ( g) and 500 ppounds(226Kg)
( g) of shieldingg materials,,
respectively. Cobalt cameras are often fixed to a trailer and
transported to and from inspection sites. When the source is not
being used to make an exposure, it is locked inside the exposure
device.
 Radio Isotope (Gamma) Sources
To make a radiographic
g p exposure,
p a crank out mechanism and a
guide tube are attached to opposite ends of the exposure
device. The guide tube often has a collimator at the end to shield
the radiation except in the direction necessary to make the
exposure.
p The end of the gguide tube is secured in the location
where the radiation source needs to produce the radiograph. The
crank out cable is stretched as far as possible to put as much
distance as possible between the exposure device and the
radiographer.
g p To make the exposure,
p , the radiographer
g p q
quickly
y
cranks the source out of the exposure device and into position in
the collimator at the end of the guide tube. At the end of the
exposure time, the source is cranked back into the exposure
device. There is a series of safety y procedures,
p , which include
several radiation surveys, that must be accomplished when
making an exposure with a gamma source
 X-Rays
Production of X-
X-Rays
X-rays are produced when electrons, traveling at high speed,
collide with matter or change direction.
direction. In the usual type of xx--
ray tube, an incandescent filament supplies the electrons and
thus forms the cathode, electrode, of the tube
cathode or negative electrode tube. A
high voltage applied to the tube drives the electrons to the
anode, or target. The sudden stopping of these rapidly moving
electrons in the surface of the target results in the generation of
x-radiation.
X-Ray Tubes
X-ray tubes are electronic devices that convert electrical energy
into xx--rays. Typically, an xx--ray tube consists of a cathode
structure containing g a filament and an anode structure
containing a target all within an evacuated chamber or envelope
.A low
low--voltage power supply, usually controlled by a rheostat,
generates the electric current that heats, the filament to
incandescence. This incandescence of the filament produces an
electron cloud,
cloud which is directed to the anode by a focusing
system and accelerated to the anode by the high voltage applied
between the cathode and the anode.
 X-Rays
When the accelerated electrons impinge
on the target immediately beneath the
focal spot, the electrons are slowed and
absorbed, and both bremsstrahlung and
characteristic xx--rays
y are produced.
p Most
of the energy in the impinging electron
beam is transformed into heat, which
must be dissipated. Severe restrictions
are imposed on the design and selection
of materials for the anode and target to
ensure that structural damage from
overheating does not prematurely destroy
the target. Anode heating also limits the
size of the focal spot. p Because smaller
focal spots produce sharper radiographic
images, the design of the anode and
target represents a compromise between
maximum radiographic definition and
maximum target life. life In many x- x-ray
tubes, a long, narrow, actual focal spot is
projected as a roughly square effective
focal spot by inclining the anode face at a
small angle (usually about 20 20°°) to the
centerline of the xx--ray beam.
 X-Rays
Tube Design
g and Materials
The cathode structure in a conventional x- x-ray tube incorporates a
filament and a focusing cup, which surrounds the filament. The
focusing cup,
cup, usually made of pure iron or pure nickel, functions as
an electrostatic lens whose purpose is to direct the electron beam
to a d the anode.
toward anode The filament,
filament, usually
s all a coil of tungsten
t ngsten wire,
i e is
heated to incandescence by an electric current produced by a
relatively low voltage, similar to the operation of an ordinary
incandescent light bulb.
At incandescence,
incandescence, the filament emits electrons, electrons which are
accelerated across the evacuated space between the cathode and the
anode. The driving force for acceleration is a high electrical potential
(voltage) between anode and cathode, which is applied during
exposure.
p
The anode usually consists of a button of the target material
embedded in a mass of copper that absorbs much of the heat
generated by electron collisions with the target.
Tungsten
g is the p preferred material for traditional x-
x-ray
y tubes used in
radiography because its high atomic number makes it an efficient
emitter of x x--rays and because its high melting point enables it to
withstand the high temperatures of operation. Gold and platinum are
also used in x x--ray tubes for radiography, but targets made of these
metals must be more effectively cooler than targets made of
tungsten. Other materials are used, particularly at low energies, to
take advantage of their characteristic radiation. Most high- high-intensity
x-ray tubes have forced liquid cooling to dissipate the large amounts
of anode heat generated during operation.
 X-Rays
Tube envelopes are constructed of glass, ceramic materials or
metals, or combinations of these materials.
materials. Tube envelopes must
have good structural strength at high temperatures to withstand
the combined effect of forces imposed by atmospheric pressure
on the evacuated chamber and radiated heat from the anode.
The shape off the envelope varies with the cathode- cathode-anode
arrangement and with the maximum rated voltage of the tube.
Electrical connections for the anode and cathode are fused into
the walls of the envelope. Generally, these are made of metals or
alloys having thermal expansion properties that match those of
the envelope material.
X-ray tubes are inserted into metallic housings that contain an
insulating medium such as transformer oil or an insulating gas.
The main purpose of the insulated housing is to provide
protection from high-
high-voltage electrical shock.
shock. Housings usually
contain quick disconnects for electrical cables from the high- high-
voltage power supply or transformer. On self- self-contained units,
most of which are portable, both the x x--ray tube and the high-
high-
voltage
lt transformer
t f are contained
t i d in
i a single
i l housing,
h i and
d no
high--voltage cables are used.
high
 X-Rays
X-Ray Tube Operating Characteristics
There are three important electrical characteristics of x-
x-ray tubes:
ƒ The filament current,
current, which controls the filament temperature and
in turn the quantity of electrons that are emitted
ƒ The
Th tube
t b voltage,
voltage
lt , or anode-
anode
d -to
to-
t -cathode
th d potential,
t ti l which
hi h controls
t l the
th
energy of impinging electrons and therefore the energy or
penetrating power, of the x-x-ray beam
ƒ The tube current, which is directly related to filament temperature
and is usually referred to as the milliamperage of the tube
The strength, or radiation output, of the beam is approximately
proportional to milliamperage,
milliamperage, which is used as one of the variables
in exposure calculations. This radiation output, or R-output,
output, is
usually expressed in roentgens per minute (or hour) at 1 m
The R-
R-output
The R R--output of an x- x-ray tube varies with tube voltage
(accelerating potential), tube current (number of electrons
impinging on the target per unit time),
time) and physical features of the
individual equipment. Because of the last factor, the R-
R-output of an
individual source also varies with position in the radiation beam,
position usually being expressed as the angle relative to the central
axis of the beam.
 X-Rays
Effect of Tube Voltage.
Voltage.
The
Th effect
ff t off tube
t b voltage
lt on the
th
variation of intensity (R- (R-output) is
shown in Fig. The overall R- R-output
varies approximately as the square
root of tube voltage. The combined
effect of greater photon energy and
increased R-R-output produces, for film
radiography, a decrease in exposure
time of about 50% for a 10%
i
increase in
i tube
t b voltage.
lt The
Th effect
ff t is
i
similar with other permanent image
recording media, as in paper
radiography and xeroradiography.
Eff t off Tube
Effect T b Current.
C t
only the R-
R-output (intensity) varies.
Because tube current is a direct
measure of the number of electrons
impinging on the target per unit of
time, and therefore the number of
photons emitted per unit of time at
each value of photon energy, energy R- R-
output varies directly with tube
current.
 X-Rays
Heel Effect.
X-ray tubes exhibit a detrimental
feature known as the heel effect.
When the direction in which x- x-rays
are emitted from the target
approaches the anode heel plane, the
intensity of radiation at a given
distance
d sta ce from
o tthee focal
oca spot is s less
ess
than the intensity of the central beam
because of self-
self-absorption by the
target.
Radiographs of large-
large-area test pieces
that
h are made d at relatively
l i l short
h
source--to-
source to-detector distances will
exhibit less photographic density
(film) or less brightness (real(real--time)
in the region where the incident
radiation is less intense because of
the heel effect. This can lead to
errors in interpretation unless the
heel effect is recognized
g
 X-Rays
I h
Inherent t Filt
Filtration.
ti
In the radiography (film or real real--
time) of thin or lightweight
materials, which requires low- low-
energy radiation,
radiation filtration by the
glass walls of the x- x-ray tube
becomes a problem. Ninety- Ninety-five
percent of a 30- 30-kV x x--ray beam is
absorbed
o byy the glass
g walls of
o an
ordinary x x--ray tube. Consequently,
in a tube used to radiograph thin
or lightweight materials, a
beryllium window is fused into the
glass wall in the path of the x- x-ray
beam. Beryllium is one of the
lightest of metals and is more
transparent to x x--rays than any
other metal. The beryllium window
tube has a minimum of inherent
filtration and allows most of the
very low energy x x--rays to escape
from the tube
 X-Rays
High--Energy X-
High X-Ray Sources
Above about 400 kV, the conventional design of an x- x-ray tube and
it high-
its hi h-voltage
high lt i
iron
iron- t f
-core transformer b
becomes b
cumbersome d
and
large. Although x x--ray machines with iron-
iron-core transformers have
been built for 600 kV (maximum), there are no commercial versions
operating above 500 kV. For higher-
higher-energy xx--rays, other designs
are used.
used Some of the machine designs for the production of high- high-
energy xx--rays include:
ƒ Linear accelerators
ƒ Betatrons
ƒ Van de Graaff generators
ƒ X-ray tubes with a
resonant transformer
 Making a Radiograph
A radiograph
di h iis a photographic
h t hi record d
produced by the passage of x- x-rays or
gamma rays through an object onto a
film. See the figure. When film is
exposed to x x--rays, gamma rays, or
light, an invisible change called a
latent image is produced in the film
emulsion. The areas so exposed
become dark when the film is
immersed
i d in
i a developing
d l i solution,
l ti
the degree of darkening depending on
the amount of exposure.
exposure. After
development, the film is rinsed,
preferably in a special bath,
bath to stop
development. The film is next put into
a fixing bath, which dissolves the
undarkened portions of the sensitive
salt. It is then washed to remove the
fixer and dried so that it may be
handled, interpreted, and filed. The
developing, fixing, and washing of the
exposed film may be done either
manually or in automated processing
equipment.
 Geometric Principles
A radiograph is a shadow picture of an object that has been
placed in the path of an xx--ray or gamma
gamma--ray beam
beam,, between the
tube anode and the film or between the source of gamma
radiation and the film. It naturally follows, therefore, that the
appearance of an image thus recorded is materially influenced
by the relative positions of the object and the film and by the
direction of the beam. For these reasons, familiarity with the
elementary principles of shadow formation is important to those
making and interpreting radiographs.
x-rays and gamma rays obey the common laws of light, light their
shadow formation may be explained in a simple manner in terms
of light. It should be borne in mind that the analogy between
light and these radiations is not perfect since all objects are, to a
greater or lesser degree,
g g , transparent
p to x
x--rays
y and gamma
g rays
y
and since scattering presents greater problems in radiography
than in optics. However, the same geometric laws of shadow
formation hold for both light and penetrating radiation.
Suppose, as in Figure below, that there is light from a point L
falling
f lli on a white
hit cardd C C, andd that
th t an opaque objectbj t O isi
interposed between the light source and the card. A shadow of
the object will be formed on the surface of the card.
 Geometric Principles
Thi shadow
This h d castt by
b the
th object
bj t willill naturally
t ll show
h some
enlargement because the object is not in contact with the card;
the degree of enlargement will vary according to the relative
distances of the object from the card and from the light source.
The law governing the size of the shadow may be stated: The
diameter of the object is to the diameter of the shadow as the
distance of the light from the object is to the distance of the
light from the card. Mathematically, the degree of enlargement
may be calculated by use of the following equations:

where
e e SO is
s tthe
e size
s e of
o the
t e object; Si is
s tthe
e size
s e of
o the
t e shadow
s ado (or
(o the
t e
radiographic image); DO the distance from source of radiation to object;
and Di the distance from the source of radiation to the recording surface
(or radiographic film).
Figure A to F shows the effect of changing the size of the source
and of changing the relative positions of source, object, and card.
 Geometric Principles
From an examination of these drawings, it will be
seen that the following conditions must be fulfilled
to produce the sharpest, truest shadow of the
object:
1. The source of light should be small, that is, as
nearly a point as can be obtained. Compare Figure
11, A and C.
2.
2 The
Th source off light
li ht should
h ld be
b as far
f from
f the
th
object as practical. Compare Figure 11, B and C.
3. The recording surface should be as close to the
possible Compare Figure 11,B
object as possible. 11 B and D.
D
4. The light rays should be directed perpendicularly
to the recording surface. See Figure 11,A and E.
5.
5 The plane of the object and the plane of the
recording surface should be parallel. Compare
Figure 11, A and F.
Geometric Principles
 Geometric Unsharpness
Geometric unsharpness refers to the loss of definition that is the
result of geometric factors of the radiographic equipment and
setup. It occurs because the radiation does not originate from a
single point but rather over an area.
Codes and standards used in industrial radiography require that
geometric unsharpness be limited. In general, the allowable
amount is 1/100 of the material thickness up to a maximum of
0.040 inch. These values refer to the degree of penumbra
shadow in a radiographic image. Since the penumbra is not
nearly as well defined in the image, it is difficult to measure it in
a radiograph.
di h Th
Therefore
f it iis ttypically
i ll calculated.
l l t d ThThe source size
i
must be obtained from the equipment manufacturer or
measured. Then the unsharpness can be calculated using
measurements made of the setup.

Ug = f* b/a
Ug= Geometric unsharpness
f = source focal-spot size.
a = distance from x-ray source to
front surface of material/object
b = distance from the front surface
of the object to the detector
 Definition
Radiographic definition is the
abruptness of change in going from
one area of a given radiographic
density to another. Geometric factors
of the equipment and the
radiographic setup, and film and
screen factors both have an effect on
definition. Geometric factors include
the size of the area of origin of the
radiation, the source-
source-to-
to-detector
(film) distance
distance, the specimen
specimen--to
to--
detector (film) distance, movement
of the source, specimen or detector
during exposure, the angle between
the source and some feature and the
abruptness of change in specimen
thickness or density.

It can be seen that the details, particularly the

small circle, are much easier to see in the high
definition radiograph. It can be said that the
detail portrayed in the radiograph is equivalent
to the physical change present in the step
wedge
 Definition
Geometric Factors
to produce the highest level of definition, the focal
focal--spot or
source size should be as close to a point source as possible, the
source--to-
source to-detector distance should be a great as practical, and
the specimen
specimen--to-
to-detector distance should be a small as
practical. This is shown graphically in the images below.
 Definition
The angle between the radiation and some features will also
have an effect on definition. If the radiation is parallel to an
edge or linear discontinuity, a sharp distinct boundary will be
seen in the image. However, if the radiation is not parallel with
the discontinuity, the feature will appear distorted, out of
position and less defined in the image.

Abrupt changes in thickness and/or

density
d i will
ill appear more defined
d fi d ini a
radiograph than will areas of gradual
change.
Lastly, any movement of the specimen,
source or detector during the exposure
will reduce definition. Similar to
photography, any movement will result
in
i blurring
bl i off the
th image.
i Vibration
Vib ti from
f
nearby equipment may be an issue in
some inspection situations.
 Definition
Film and Screen Factors
The last set of factors concern the film and the use of fluorescent
screens. A fine grain film is capable of producing an image with a
higher level of definition than is a coarse grain film. Wavelength
of the radiation will influence apparent graininess.
graininess As the
wavelength shortens and penetration increases, the apparent
graininess of the film will increase. Also, increased development
of the film will increase the apparent graininess of the
radiograph.
The use of fluorescent screens also results in lower definition.
This occurs for a couple of different reasons. The reason that
fluorescent screens are sometimes used is because incident
radiation causes them to give off light that helps to expose the
film.
film However
However, the light they produce spreads in all directions,
directions
exposing the film in adjacent areas, as well as in the areas which
are in direct contact with the incident radiation. Fluorescent
screens also produce screen mottle on radiographs. Screen mottle
is associated with the statistical variation in the numbers of
photons that interact with the screen from one area to the next.
 Radiographic Contrast
Radiographic
g contrast is the
d
degree off d i
density diff
difference
between two areas on a
radiograph. Contrast makes it
easier to distinguish features of
interest,
interest such as defects,
defects from the
surrounding area. The contrast
between different parts of the
image is what forms the image
and the g greater the contrast,, the
more visible features become.
Radiographic contrast has two
main contributors: subject
contrast and detector (film)
contrast.
contrast

The image to the right shows two radiographs

of the same step wedge. The upper radiograph
has a high level of contrast and the lower
radiograph has a lower level of contrast
 Radiographic Contrast
Subject Contrast
Subject contrast is the ratio of radiation intensities transmitted
through different areas of the component being evaluated. It is
dependant on the absorption differences in the component, the
wavelength
g of the p primary
y radiation, and intensity y and
distribution off secondary radiation due to scattering.
It should be no surprise that absorption differences within the
subject will affect the level of contrast in a radiograph. The
larger the difference in thickness or density between two areas
of the subject,
s bject the larger
la ge the difference
diffe ence in radiographic density
adiog aphic densit
or contrast. However, it is also possible to radiograph a
particular subject and produce two radiographs having entirely
different contrast levels.
Generating X-X-rays using a low kilovoltage
will generally result in a radiograph with
high contrast. This occurs because low
energy radiation is more easily attenuated.
Th
Therefore,
f the
th ratioti off photons
h t that
th t are
transmitted through a thick and thin area
will be greater with low energy radiation.
This in turn will expose the film to a greater
and lesser degree in the two areas.
 Radiographic Contrast
Film Contrast
Film contrast refers to density differences that result due
to the type of film used, how it was exposed, and how it
was processed. Since there are other detectors besides
film, this could be called detector contrast, but the focus
here will be on film.
Exposing the film to produce higher film densities will
generally increase the contrast. In other words, darker
areas will increase in density faster than lighter areas
because in any given period of time more x- x-rays are
reaching the darker areas. Therefore, the highest density
that can be conveniently viewed or digitized will have the
highest contrast and contain the most information.
information
Lead screens in the thickness range of 0.004 to 0.015 inch
typically reduce scatter radiation at energy levels below
150,000 volts. Above this point they will emit electrons to
provide more exposure of the film to ionizing radiation,
radiation
thus increasing the density and contrast of the
radiograph. Fluorescent screens produce visible light
when exposed to radiation and this light further exposes
the film and increases contrast.
contrast
 Radiographic Density
Photographic, radiographic or film density is a measure of the
degree of film darkening. Technically it should be called
"transmitted density" when associated with transparent-
transparent-base
film since it is a measure of the light transmitted through the
film. Density is a logarithmic unit that describes a ratio of two
measurements Specifically,
measurements. Specifically it is the log of the intensity of light
incident on the film (I0) to the intensity of light transmitted
through the film (It).

From this table

table, it can be seen that a density reading of 2
2.0
0
is the result of only one percent of the incident light making
it through the film. At a density of 4.0 only 0.01% of
transmitted light reaches the far side of the film. Industrial
codes and standards typically require a radiograph to have
a density between 2.0 and 4.0 for acceptable viewing with
common film viewers. Above 4.0, extremely bright viewing
lights is necessary for evaluation. Contrast within a film
increases with increasing density, so in general the higher
the density the better. When radiographs will be digitized,
densities above 4.0 are often used since digitization
systems can capture and redisplay for easy viewing
information from densities up to 6.0.
 Radiographic Film
X-ray films for general radiography consist of an emulsion
emulsion--
gelatin containing radiation sensitive silver halide crystals,
crystals
such as silver bromide or silver chloride, and a flexible,
transparent, blue-
blue-tinted base. The emulsion is different
from those used in other types of photography films to
account for the distinct characteristics of gamma rays and
x-rays,
rays but X X--ray films are sensitive to light.
light Usually,
Usually the
emulsion is coated on both sides of the base in layers about
0.0005 inch thick.

Putting
P tti emulsion
l i on both
b th sides
id off the
th base
b doubles
d bl the
th amountt off
radiation--sensitive silver halide, and thus increases the film speed. The
radiation
emulsion layers are thin enough so developing, fixing, and drying can
be accomplished in a reasonable time. A few of the films used for
radiography only have emulsion on one side which produces the
greatest detail in the image
When x x--rays, gamma rays, or light strike the grains of the sensitive silver
halide in the emulsion, some of the Br-Br- ions are liberated and captured by the
Ag+ ions. This change is of such a small nature that it cannot be detected by
ordinary physical methods and is called a "latent (hidden) image." However,
the exposed grains are now more sensitive to the reduction process when
exposed to a chemical solution (developer),
(developer) and the reaction results in the
formation of black, metallic silver. It is this silver, suspended in the gelatin on
both sides of the base, that creates an image.
 Radiographic Film
Film Selection
The selection of a film when radiographing
any particular component depends on a
number of different factors. Listed below are
some of the factors that must be considered
when selecting a film and developing a
radiographic technique.
Composition, shape, and size of the part
beingg examined and,, in some cases,, its
weight and location.
Type of radiation used, whether x-x-rays from
an xx--ray generator or gamma rays from a
radioactive source.
Kilovoltages available with the x-ray
x-
equipment or the intensity of the gamma
radiation.
Relative importance of high radiographic
d t il or quick
detail i k and
d economical
i l results.
lt
Selecting the proper film and developing the optimal radiographic technique
usually involves arriving at a balance between a number of opposing factors.
For example, l iff high
h h resolution
l andd contrast sensitivity is off overall
ll
importance, a slower and finer grained film should be used in place of a
faster film.
 Radiographic
g p Film
Film Handling
X-ray film should always be handled carefully to avoid physical
strains, such as pressure, creasing, buckling, friction, etc.
Whenever
h films are lloaded
fil d d iin semi-
semii-flexible
fl ibl holders
h ld and
d externall
clamping devices are used, care should be taken to be sure
pressure is uniform. If a film holder bears against a few high
spots, such as on an un-
un-ground weld, the pressure may be great
enough to produce desensitized areas in the radiograph.
radiograph This
precaution is particularly important when using envelope- envelope-
packed films.
Marks resulting from contact with fingers that are moist or
contaminated with processing chemicals, as well as crimp
marks, are avoided if large films are always grasped by the
edges and allowed to hang free. A supply of clean towels should
be kept close at hand as an incentive to dry the hands often and
well. Use of envelope-
envelope-packed films avoids many of these
problems
bl until
til th
the envelope
l is
i opened d for
f processing.
i
Another important precaution is to avoid drawing film rapidly
from cartons, exposure holders, or cassettes. Such care will help
to eliminate circular or treelike black markings in the radiograph
discharges
that sometimes result due to static electric discharges.
Radiographic Screens