Networking Besics

Topic 1 : Networking Basics
Operating System :
The Operating System called as O.S. is Defined as interpretation
Between User and Machine.
Some of the Different Operating Systems are :
O.S. Vender Platform

AIX Unix IBM IBM
HP Unix HP HP
Solaris Unix SUN ---------------
Sco Unix SCO Platform Independent
Netware NOVEL -------------
Macintosh APPLE Apple Mac
Linux RED HAT Platform Independent

OS/2 IBM IBM
OS/400 AS/400 -------------
Networking :
Networking can be defined as the interconnection Between two or more
Machines.
Components of the Network are :
1. Network : Sharing Resources

2. Transmission Media : Hardware.
3. Protocols : Communication Software.
Network : (Sharing Resources)
Types of Networking are :

1. LAN : (Local Area Networking)
Group of Computers connected in Room or Building.
2. MAN : (Metropolitan Area Networking)

Connecting two or more lanswithin city.
3. WAN : (Wild Area Networking)

Connection of lans between cities and countries
Transmission Media : (Hardware)
Transmission Media can be of two types :
1. Wired
2. Non Wired
Wired Transmission Media (Bus/Ring/Star Topology) :
A. Coaxial :
1. Thick Net - 10base5 (up to 500 mtrs.)
2. Thin Net – 10base2 (up to 200 mtrs.)
A. Twisted Pair : (10baseT)

1. STP – Shielded Twisted Pair
2. UTP – Unshielded Twisted Pair
B. Fiber Optics : (Back Bone)
Protocols : (Communication Software)
Some examples of Different types of Protocols are :
Protocols O.S. Vender

Netbuei Windows Microsoft
IPX/SPX Netware Novel
TCP/IP All ------------
Apple talk Macintosh Apple

Connectivity Devices
Defination :
Connectivity devices are those devices which are used in Networking.
Different Connectivity Devices are Listed below :
1. Repeaters :
They regenerate the signals.
2. HUBs :
These are devices used in star topology.
They are always Half Duplex. Providing10 MBPS Data
transmission Speed.
3. Bridges : (Works on MAC Address)
They filters the traffic. (Packets and Frames)
4. Switches : (Works on MAC Address)
They are multiport Bridges
Are always Full Duplex. Providing 100 MBPS Data Transmission
Speed.
5. Routers : (Works on IP Address)

Routes Data between multiple Networks.
6. Gateways :
A software installed on a computer. Used to communicate system
with different protocols
Networking Transmissions.
A. BroadCast :
In BroadCast one device sends packets to all devices in
Network.
B. MultiCast :
In MultiCast One Device sends packets to group of other
devices in Network
C. UniCast :
In UniCast One device sends packets to single device in
Network.
Topic 2 : Internetworking.
Defination :
Intercommunication Between two or more networks is called as
Internetworking.
LAN traffic conjection occurs due to following causes :
1. Too many hosts in Broadcast domain.

2. Multicasting.
3. Broadcast Storms.
4. Low Bandwidth.
To avoid such LAN traffic conjection different internetworking techniques are used.
Internetworking Basics.
Introduction :
In 1985 Network grew in large scale creating LAN traffic
conjection. Hence they needed to break up a large network into number of
smaller areas. The process called as Segmentation.
This is done by devices like Routers, Switches, Bridges ,Hubs.
Bridges create a single Broadcast domain but two Collision Domains.

HUBs create a single Broadcast domain and a single Collision Domain
Switches create a single Broadcast domain but many Collision Domains.
Two of the oldest Internetworking techniques were :
1. Dumb terminals :
In a Dumb terminal a machine with single CPU with UNIX
as O.S. is Connected by other terminal machines having
only Monitors & Keyboards, Through a RS232 Cables.
2. Diskless Nodes :
In this type all machines with CPU but without a hard disk
are connected to server via a coaxial cables. Hence they
share server disk while operating.
Booting :
It is a process of Loading system O.S. in computers
memory.
Topic 3 : O.S.I. (Open System Interconnection)
Introduction :
This model is called the layer architecture. It has 7 layers. The first
layers defines how the application with end station will communicate with
each other. The bottom 4 layers find how data is transmitted end to end.
Advantages of O.S.I. model :
1. It allows multiple vender development through a standardization of network

components.
2. Allows various types of network hardware and software to communicate.
3. Prevent changes in one layer from affecting the other layers.
Layers of O.S.I. models :
Application File , Print , Message
Presentation Data Encryption/Decryption
Session Dialogue Control
Transport End to End Communication
Routing
Network
Data link Framing
Physical Physical topology
O.S.I. layer description :
1. Application layer : (Data is in the form of DATA)

It is responsible for identifying and establishing the ability of the
communication partner.
Example :
www (world wide web) – a service which run on web server it uses http
(hyper text transfer protocol) protocol
E-mail Gateways – email application uses SMTP (simple mail transfer
protocol)
2. Presentation Layer : (Data is in the form of DATA)
It is essentially a translation and provides coding and
conversion function. It handles data compression ,decompression ,
Encryption ,De encryption.
Examples :
Image Presentation
PICT : Picture file used by mac

TIFF : Tagged image file format
JPEG : Joint photographic expert group
Sound
MIDI : Musical instrumental digital interface
Video
MPEG : Moving picture expert group (Standard for compression and

coding of motion video)
QuickTime : Used by mac program Audio/Video Applicaion
3. Session Layer : (Data is in the form of DATA)

It is responsible for setting up managing them tearing down
(Disconnecting) session between presentation layer and Transport layer. It
provides dialogue controls. It handles communication by offering 3 types
of nodes.
1. Simplex :
Only one way communication (e.g. TV ,Radio)
2. Half Duplex :
Two way communication but not at same time. (e.g. Walky talky)
3. Full Duplex :
Two way communication at same time. (e.g. Telephone ,Mobile)
Examples :
NFS (Network file system) : (Unix & Linux third party Software) A
software used for data access between TCP/IP host.
SQL (Structure query language) : For Database.
RPC (Remote procedure call)
X Window : mainly used in UNIX & LINUX computers.

4. Transfer layer : (Data is in the form of SEGMENT)
Responsible to segment and reassemble data into data
streams provided end to end data transport service.
There are two types of Transfer layer :
1. Connection Oriented :
In communication oriented system
Acknowledgement is done.
Example :
2. Connection Less :
In Communication Less systems Acknowledgement
is not done.
Flow Control :
This concept prevents a sending host of one side of connection
from overloading buffer in receiving host.
Steps :
1. The segment delivered are acknowledged back to sender upon their reception.
2. Any segment that is not acknowledge is retransmitted.
3. Segments are sequenced back into their proper order upon arrival on their
destination
4. A manageable data flow is maintained to avoid conjection overloading and data
loss
Example :
Windowing :
The quantity of data segment (in bytes) that transmitting
machine is allowed to send without receiving acknowledgement for them
is called windowing.
Example :
Acknowledgement :
In connection oriented communication when sender sends
segment to receiver .The receiver machine will send an acknowledgement
for next segment if it is received properly. If any of the segment is not
transmitted to receiver the receiver machine will ask for acknowledgement
for segment it did not received.
Example :
5. Network layer : (Data is in the form of PACKETS)
Data is in the form of packets/Datagrams. This layer
manages device addressing ,tracks. The location of device on network
and determines best way to move data. Router devices are specified at
Network layer (Layer 3) providing a router services within an
internetwork. There are two types of packets used at network layer.
1. Data Packets :
When a machine communicates with a machine through
router or any other device called as Data Packets.
Protocols are called as Routed Protocols (e.g. TCP/IP)
2. Route Update packet :

When router communicates with other router called Route
Update Packets.
Protocols are called as Routing Protocols. (e.g. RIP ,OSPF)
Example :
6. Datalink Layer : (Data is in the form of FRAMES)
This layer formats messages into pieces each called as
dataframe. This layer provides physical transmission of data and handles
error notification network topology & flow of control.
Datalink layer & IEEE Specification :
1. MAC (Media Access Controller) (802.3) :

This layer defines how packets are placed on media. This layer
manages line ,Discipline ,error notification ,order delivery of frames &
optional flow control.
2. LLC (Logical Link Control) (802.2) :

It is responsible for identifying network layer protocols and
encapsulating them it provide flow control and sequence of frame.
Datalink layer is called layer 2.
Example :
Switches & Bridges work on Layer 2
7. Physical Layer : (Data is in the form of BITS)

It handles the physical connections. This layer specifies the
Electrical ,Mechanical ,Procedural & Functional Requirement for
Activating ,maintaining and deactivating physical layer between the
system.
Example :
Modem ,HUB ,Repeater etc.
Topic 4 : Ethernet Networking
Types of Ethernet :
1. ARCNET
2. ETHERNET
3. FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface)
All Ethernet uses CSMA/CD. i.e : Carriers self multiple access/Collision Detect.
CSMA/CD :
CSMA/CD Helps device to share bandwidth evenly without having two
devices transmitting at same time on network. It was mainly created to overcome
the problem of collision which occurs when packets are sent simultaneously from
the host.
The effect of having CSMA/CD Network is to overcome heavy collisions
Like:
1. Delay
2. Low Thoughpot
3. Conjection
Networking Types :
1. Half Duplex : (Data rate 10 Mbps)

It is defined with 802.3 ethernet standard. Uses 10baseT (Twisted Pair)
cables.
2. Full Duplex : (Data rate 100 Mbps)

It uses 2 pairs of wire. It uses point to point connection between sending &
receiving devices.
An ideal full duplex network can be obtained with the following conditions only :
1. Host connected to Switch

2. Host connected to Host
3. Switch connected to Switch
(Wherever we use HUBs network falls down to Half Duplex.)
Ethernet at Datalink Layer :

At Datalink layer Ethernet is responsible for MAC
addresses & is also responsible for framing packets received from network layer. Four
types of Ethernet frames are :
1. 802.3
2. 802.2
3. Ethernet_II
4. SNAP
Example :
Ethernet_II
FCS
Preamble Destination Host Type Data (Frame
Address Address Check
Sequence)
802.3
FCS
Preamble Destination Host Length Data (Frame
Address Address Check
Sequence)
Description :
A. Preamble :
It provides clocking at the start of each packet. This allows
received device to lock packets.
B. Destination Address :
Address of Destination Computer.
C. Host Address :
Address of Host Computer.
D. Type & Length :

802.3 uses length while Ethernet_II uses type.
The type field identifies the network layer protocols. 802.3 cannot
identify Network layer protocols.
E. Data :
Amount of data packet layer sent from upper layer.
F. F.C.S :
It is the field at end of each frame. Which checks the error.
Ethernet at Physical Layer :

IEEE 1st created 802.3 comity standard which
supported 10 Mbps speed. Further they extended it with 2 new comities.
1. 802.3u (fast Ethernet) : 100 Mbps

2. 802.3z (Gigabyte Ethernet) : 1000 Mbps
EIA/TIA :
(Electronic Industry association / Telecommunication Industry association)
It is a standard body that creates physical layer special. It specifically uses RJ

(registered jack) connectors with 4 to 5 wire sequence.
Types of Cables :
IEEE 802.3 comity
10base2 : Coaxial upto 200 mtrs

10base5 : Coaxial upto 500 mtrs
10baseT : Twisted Pair
Expanded 802.3 standard
100base TX
100base FX
1000base CX
1000base +
1000base SX
1000base LX
Topic 5 : Ethernet Cabling.
There are 3 types of Ethernet Cabling :
1. Straight Through :
This type of cabling can be done under following
conditions. Only 2 pairs of wires are used.
i. A Host is connecting to a HUB/Switch.
ii. A Router is connecting to a HUB/Switch.
2. Cross Over Cable :

This type of cabling can be done under following
conditions. Only 2 pairs of wires are used.
i. A Host is connecting to a Host.
ii. A Switch is connecring to a Switch.
iii. A Router is connecting to a Router.
3. Rolled Over Cable :
This Cable is used to connect PC’s Serial Port (Host’s
Serial Port) to the Router’s Console port.
Data Encapsulation :
Encapsulation works in following manner.
1. DATA :
User information is converted to Data for transmission on the
Network.
2. SEGMENT :
Data is converted to Segments & a reliable connection is set up
between Transmitter & Receiver.
3. PACKETS/DATAGRAMS :
Segments are converted to Packets/Datagrams & Logical address is
placed in header of each packet that can be routed through an
InterNetwork.
4. FRAMES :
Packets/Datagrams are converted to Frames for transmission on
local network, hardware address are used to uniquely identify host
on local Network.
5. BITS :
Frames are converted to Bits & a digital encoding & Clocking is
done.
Topic 6 : Internet Protocols.
Introduction :
Internet Protocols were 1st invented in end of 1960’s by
ARPANET. At that time they were called as N.C.P. (Network Communication
Protocols). In 1981 the real Internet Protocol was Invented. Before that only few
Companies were using Communication Protocols , Like :
AT&T was using Telnet.

IEEE was using TCP.
Bell Labs were using FTP.
In starting of 1980’s ARPANET was divided into 2 parts called as

INTERNIC & ICAN. Further in1982 TCP/IP was invented. In1992 HTTP was invented.
And at last in 2004 IP v.6 is invented. SNMP, SMTP , PPTP/L2TP were invented
intermediately.The latest Internet Protocol available is IP v.6 but we are currently using
IP v.4.
The current O.S.I model is based upon older D.O.D model(called

as Department of Defence). TCP/IP is a combination of meny protocols. But all TCP/IP
applications are based on a single CLIENT/SERVER Base.i.e. Whenever there is a
client or a Host machine is available a Server Machine must always Exist.
Below are 2 simple UNIX based machines. One is a server and

other is a client. The protocols they uses are also listed below. The only difference is that
the Server Machine uses a Daemon command (suffix ‘d’).
A simple DOD model as compared to O.S.I. model is given Below :
O.S.I D.O.D
Application
Presentation Application Layer TELNET, FTP,

HTTP, SMTP, SNTP
Session
Transport Host to Host Layer TCP UDP
Network Internet Layer IP ICMP ARP
Datalink
Network Layer LAN/WAN
Technologies.
Physical
Description Each DOD Layer :
1. Application Layer : [Application/Presentation/Session]
a. TELNET :
It is a terminal emulation it allows user on a remote
client machine called as telnet client to access resources
of other machine. It is text based application.
b. FTP :
It is a protocol that actually do transfer (uploading
and Downloading) of files. This protocol service requires
Username & Password.
c. TFTP :
It is Trivial File Transfer Protocol. Smaller version
of FTP which does not give any functionality like FTP. It
does not have directory browsing ability, also do not
support authentication.
d. SMTP :
It is Simple mail Transfer Protocol. It is mainly
Used in mail applications. e.g. Exchange, Lotus Notes
etc. it is used to send mails. POP 3 called as post office
protocol v3 is used to download mails along with SMTP.
e. SNMP :
It is Simple Network Management Protocol. It
collects Network information from SNMP Client. SNMP
Server requests information from agents (Clients).
2. Host to Host Layer : [Transport]
a. TCP :
It is a connection oriented protocol. It is full duplex
reliable and accurate protocol. It takes large Block of
information from application layer & breaks them into
segments. It numbers and sequence each segment so that
destination TCP protocol can rearrange it. It also wait for
acknowledge from receiving end. It is costly in terms of
network overhead.
TCP segment :
It s 20 bytes long sequence number puts data back into
correct order. Acknowledgement number defines which
TCP octet is expected next.
Code Bit :
It controls function used to setup & terminate a session.
Bit 0 Bit 15 | Bit 16 Bit 21
Source Port Destination Port
Sequence Number
20 Bytes Long
Acknowledgement
Header Length Reserved Code Bit Windowing
Checksum Urgent
Option
Data
b. UDP :
It is a User Datagram Protocol. It is a
connectionless protocol , which is non reliable,
does not support sequence segment, does not uses
acknowledgement and is faster than TCP.
Bit 0 Bit 15 | Bit 16 Bit 20
Source Port Destination Port
Length Checksum
Data
Port Number :
TCP & UDP uses port number to communicate with upper layer.
The different port numbers that are used are.
a. Numbers below 1024 are called as well known port numbers.
b. Number 1024 & above upto 65565 are called as dynamic port numbers.
3. Internet Layer :
These are Connection less protocols. It looks at each packet
address (internet address) every time.
a. IP :
It identifies the address to find ID. IP receives
segment from host to host layer. & fragments them into
packets vice versa.
b. ICMP :
It is internet control messaging protocol. It is a
managing protocol & provides messaging services to IP.
c. ARP :
It is address resolution protocol. It finds hardware
address of host from unknown IP address. ARP resolves
IP address to more addresses.
4. Network Layer :
a. LAN :
These are hardware configuration types called as
Local Area Network. Only used for internetworking
within a local limit.
b. WAN :
This hardware configuration is called as Wild area
Networking. And is used for internetworking worldwide.
Topic 7 : IP Addressing.
Introduction :
IP address is a 32 bit logical address. It has 4 divisions. Each
containing an 8 bit binary number.
e.g. : _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ . _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ . _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ . _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Classes of IP Address :
Class A : 1 to 126
Class B : 128 to 191
Class C : 192 to 223
---------------------------------------------------
Class D : 224 to 239 (Multicast addresses)
Class E : 240 to 254 (For Future addresses)
Very 1st octet represents the class of complete IP address.

e.g. in IP address 172.16.12.9, 172 represents that this IP address belongs to Class B
IP addresses starting with 127._ _ _ . _ _ _ . _ _ _ represents the result for

loopback called as local host. And is reserved for Local hosts.
IP address consists of 2 portions :
1. Network ID
2. Host ID
Both are clarified upon the subnet mask given to IP address.
Subnet Mask :
It is a 32 bit logical address used to identify Network ID & Host ID
in an IP address. It contains value up to 255 which is used for Network ID, & 0 which is
used for host ID.
The Default subnet masks for different classes are :
Class A N H H H
Subnet Mask 255 0 0 0
Class B N N H H
Class C N N N H
The maximum number of hosts can be added in different classes are :
For Class A :
N . H . H . H => N . 255 . 255 . 255 => 255 x 255 x 255 = 16 millions approx.
For Class B :
N . N . H . H => N . N . 255 . 255 => 255 x 255 = 65,000 approx.
For Class C :
N . N . N . H => N . N . N . 255 => 255 approx.
For a single network “Network Number” must be identical.
Converting Binary to Decimal :

Steps :
1. Write the binary number

2. Directly under the binary number write 1,2,4,8,16,…. Working from right to left.
3. If digit is zero, cross out the decimal weight corresponding to that position.
4. Add the remaining weight to obtain the decimal equivalent of the binary number
e.g.
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
128 64 x x x x x x = 192
1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1
128 64 x x 8 4 2 1 = 207
Converting Decimal to Binary :

Steps :
1. Write the Decimal number in the form of summation of the 1,2,4,8,16,…form

right to left.
2. Directly under the number write 1 if the number is added otherwise write 0.
3. The combined digital number indicates corresponding binary number.
e.g.
172 :
128 x 32 x 8 4 x x
1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 = Binary.
12 :
x x x x 8 4 x x
0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 = Binary.
Topic 8 : SubNeting.
Introduction :
Subneting is a process of dividing a single logical network in to
multiple sub networks.
For subneting we need to borrow a bit from host area.
# Bits are borrowed depending upon number of subnet.

# The subnet network will have different subnet masks & not the default one.
The possible number of bits to borrow from different Classes are :
1st 2nd 3rd 4th Maximum

Class Division Division Division Division bits to
(8 Bits) (8 Bits) (8 Bits) (8 Bits) borrow
A N H H H 24
B N N H H 16
C N N N H 8
Subneting Types :
Type 1 . Calculate new subnet mask for subnet.
Steps :
1. read the value of number of subnets to create.

2. Find the value of X (No. of Bits Borrowed), where (2X – 2 > number of subnets.)
3. Take bits to borrow = X
4. Use table 2 to find out value related to X
5. Write the correct subnet mask according to class of the IP address specified.
Table 1 for calculating number of bits to Borrow :
No. of 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
Subnets (27) (26) (25) (24) (23) (22) (21) (20)
Bits to 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Borrow
Table 2 for finding value of Bits borrowed :
Borrowed Value.
Bits Example : 1
1 128 Class “C”
Given number of subnets = 22
2 192 Find subnet mask ?
Number of bits to borrow = 5
3 224
Value of 5 bits = 248
4 240 Hence the subnet mask = 255.255.255.248
5 248 Example : 2
Class “B”
6 252
Given number of subnets = 68
7 254 Find subnet mask ?
8 255 Value of 7 bits = 254
Hence the Subnet mask = 255.255.254.0
Type 2 . Calculate subnet mask for subnet & number of hosts for each subnet.
Steps :
1. Find the class of specified IP address.

2. Write maximum number of bits that can be borrowed from that class
i.e. Class A : 24 , Class B : 16 , Class C : 8
3. Find real number of bits to borrow from given number of subnets as shown in
Type 1.
4. Calculate remaining number of bits with proper negation.
i.e. number of the remaining Bits = Step 2 – Step 3
5. Calculate value of 2Y – 2 , where Y is the number of the remaining Bits.
6. The final outcome is the maximum number of hosts per subnet.
Example 1:
Ip Address = 192.68.14.2
Number of subnets = 32
Find number of hosts per subnet ?
Class of the IP = Class “C”
Maximum number of bits that can be borrowed =8
Remaining number of bits = 8-6 = 2
Number of hosts per subnet = 22 – 2 = 2
Example 2:
Ip Address = 10.68.14.2
Number of subnets = 82
Find number of hosts per subnet ?
Class of the IP = Class “A”
Maximum number of bits that can be borrowed =24
Remaining number of bits = 24-7 = 17
Number of hosts per subnet = 217 – 2 = 1,31,070
Type 3: Calculate subnet mask for the subnet , number of hosts in each subnet , & valid
host range for each subnet.
Steps :
1. Find the class of IP address.

2. Find the subnet mask from Type 1
3. Find the number of hosts per subnet from Type 2
4. For valid Host Range Calculate Host range validity number which is
(256 – significant Subnet mask number)
i.e. if subnet mask is 255.255.224.0 then significant subnet mask number is 224
if subnet mask is 255.255.255.128 then significant subnet mask number is 128
Example 1 :
IP address is 172.12.58.10
Number if subnets = 6
Find valid Host range ?
Class of the IP address = Class “B”
Subnet mask = 255.255.224.0
Number of Hosts per subnet = 8190
Host range validity number = 256-224 = 32
Therefore Valid host range will be :
Subnets Network IDs Broadcast IDs

Subnet 01 172.12.32.0 172.12.63.254
Subnet 02 172.12.64.0 172.12.95.254
Subnet 03 172.12.96.0 172.12.127.254
Subnet 04 172.12.128.0 172.12.159.254
Subnet 05 172.12.160.0 172.12.191.254
Subnet 06 172.12.192.0 172.12.223.254
The given IP address lies in the 1st subnet.
The 1st IP address in each subnet is called as Network ID.
While The Last IP address in each subnet is called as Broadcast ID.

Type 4 . Sometimes subnet mask is denoted as (IPadsress/X) instead of writing the full
subnet mask. Where X is the number of ‘ON’ Bits in subnet mask.
i.e. 172.54.68.48/22
here 22 denotes the number of ‘ON’ bits in a subnet mask starting from left.
e.g. 11111111.11111111.11111100.00000000 = Binary

255 . 255 . 252 . 0 = Decimal
Examples :
1. 154.45.69.56/28
11111111.11111111.11111111.11110000 = 255.255.255.240
2. 45.12.2.5/8
11111111.00000000.00000000.00000000 = 255.0.0.0
Type 5. Calculate new subnet mask and number of subnets from given number of hosts
per subnet & IP address.
Steps :
1. Find the Class of IP address.

2. write the maximum number of bits that can be borrowed.
3. calculate value of X where (2X – 2 > number of hosts)
4. X = number of bits borrowed.
5. Find number of remaining bits from (Step 2 – Step 4) = Y
6. Significant subnet mask number = value of Y bit (Refer Topic 2/Page 2/Table 2)
7. Calculate 2Y -2 Which is number of subnets Done.
Example :
IP address = 176.15.12.45
Number of Hosts per Subnet = 600
Find Subnet mask & Number of Subnets ?
Class of IP address = Class ‘B’
Maximum number of bits that can be borrowed = 16
Number of bits Borrowed = 10
Remaining bits = 16-10 = 6
Subnet mask = 255.255.252.0
Number of Subnets = 2Y – 2 = 26 – 2 = 62
Topic 9 : Introduction to CISCO Routers
Cisco Invented a Router in 1982. A router is a device which routes packets

between two networks either having different classes of IP addresses or having different
Subnets.
There are two types of Routers
1. Physical
2. Logical
Cisco provides a physical router. Some more companies that provides Routers are :
1. Nortel
2. 3 Com
3. Intel
Working with the Cisco Routers :
• IOS : (Internetwork Operating System)
Cisco’s IOS is a kernel of Cisco Router & most of the switches.

IOS was created to deliver network services & enable network
applications.
IOS manages :
1. It carries network protocols & functions

2. Connects high speed traffic between devices
3. Adds security to control access & stops unauthorized network use
4. Supply network reliability
5.
A typical CISCO Router.

We can connect router by using Console port , Auxiliary Port , Ethernet Port.
While configuring router very 1st time Console Port is used. The console cable connects
from the PC COM Port to router Console port. One can connect to Router through
Auxiliary port using modem. We can connect to router Serial and Ethernet port through
network from a Host with a software of telnet.
• Bringing up the router :
1. Router start with P.O.S.T (Power on self test).

2. Router looks & load CISCO IOS from flash ROM (EEPROM – Electrical
erasable programmable ROM)
3. IOS gets loaded and then Looks for valid configuration (Startup). It is stored
by default in Non Volatile RAM.(NVRAM)
• Procedure while starting router :
1. Bootstrap
2. POST
3. CISCO IOS (Flash)
4. Startup Config
5. Prompt (DRAM)
Router Configuration :
If there is no configuration on Router i.e. NVRAM

Router goes into setup mode.Setup mode is a step by step
process to help configuring Router.
Setup mode Configuration :
There are two types of configuration.
1. Basic – Brief
2. Extended – In Details.
At the end of setup mode three options are available
1. Go to C.L.I (Command Line Interface).

2. Go to Setup Mode again.
3. Save.
Basic Commands Used in Routers :
Input Command Output Description

Router> User mode
Router>enable Router# Privilege mode
Router#logout Router> Logout
Router#exit Switch to console window
Router#configure ? 1. Terminal Used to change current
configuration called as
Running Configuration
2. Network Option used to change
router configuration stored
on TFTP server
3. Memory This option is used to
change configuration in
NVRAM.
Router#configure terminal Router(config)# Enter Global configuration
mode
Router(config)#int e0 Router(Config-if)# Enter interface mode on
Ethernet port
Router(config)#int s0 Router(Config-if)# Enter interface mode on
Serial port
Router(config)#int e0.1 Router(Config-subif)# Enter sub interface mode
on Virtual Ethernet port
Router(config)#line ? 1. AUX Used to configure auxiliary
port
2. Console Used to configure console
port
3. VTY Used to configure telnet
Router(config)#line _____ Router(Config-line)# Enter one of the Line
configuration mode
Router(config)#router ? 1. RIP Uses RIP Protocol
2. IGRP Uses IGRP Protocol
3. EIGRP Uses EIGRP Protocol
4. OSPF Uses OSPF Protocol
Router(config)#router ____ Router(Config-router)# Enter one of the routing
prompt
Line Editing Commands : (Short cut Keys)
Command Description
Ctrl + A Move curser to beginning of line
Ctrl + E Move Curser to End of Line
Ctrl + F Move Forward one character
Ctrl + D Delete a single character from curser
Ctrl + R Redisplay last line
Ctrl + V Delete full line
Ctrl + W Erase word
Ctrl + Z End any mode and return to privilege

mode
Esc + B Move back One word
Esc + F Move curser forward one word
Backspace Delete character one by one from

backside
Tab Finish typing a command

If you reach end of right margin
$ e.g. 80 columns command line
automatically moves 11 space to left
Help Command :
1. “?” command Displays all commands of that prompt.

2. “Space bar” is used for display commands page by page.
3. “Enter” is used to display Commands Line by Line.
4. “C ?” command displays all commands starting with Letter C
5. Example :
Show Command :
These commands only work at privilege mode

Setting a password :
There are 5 types of password. The first two passwords are used to
set the enable password. “Enable secret” is always used if we configure both passwords.
Other three passwords are Console password , auxiliary password , Telnet password.
Use Tacacs tells router to authenticate through Tacacs server.
1. Normal password : (enable password)

Protect Privilege mode entry point with normal encryption
system.
2. Secret password : (enable secret)

Protect Privilege mode entry point with more Secured
encryption system.
3. Console password : (console)

Protect Console pert entry point with Secured encryption
system.
4. Auxiliary password : (aux)
Protect Auxiliary port entry point with Secured encryption
system.
5. Telnet password: (vty)

Protect Telnet mode entry points with Secured encryption
system.
To encrypt all passwords command is :
Router>enable
Router#configure terminal
Router(config)# service password-encryption
Data in NVRAM is called as Startup-config

Data in DRAM is called as Running-config
To save configuration status of a router permanently, command is :
Router#copy running-config startup-config or

Router#copy run start
Router Interfaces :
There are two types of interfaces
1. Serial interface
2. Ethernet interface.
The command
Router(config)#interface Ethernet ?
Shows number of Ethernet ports available
The command
Router(config)#interface serial ?
Shows number of serial ports available
In some new Routers Like 2600,1700,3600,4500 fast Ethernet interface is

available which is full duplex in behavior.
The Command
Router(config)#interface fastethernet X/Y
Is used to connect to specific interface. Where X denotes the slot number on which Y
numbered Ethernet port is available.
To add IP address to a port use command as follows :
Router(config)#int e0
Router(config)#ip address 172.16.10.1 255.255.255.0
This will set IP address 172.16.10.1 to Ethernet port 0.
Router(config)#int s0
Router(config)#ip address 172.16.10.1 255.255.255.0
This will set IP address 172.16.10.1 to Serial port 0.

A Network is Divided into two parts :
1. DTE : It is called as Data Terminal Equipment. i.e. Different companies

2. DCE : It is called as Data Communication Equipment. i.e. Different ISP’s
A Router in a Data Communication Equipment system is always configured with

a clock rate as next.
Router(config)#ip address xxx.xxx.xxx.xxx yyy.yyy.yyy.yyy
Router(config)#clock rate 64000
Router(config)#no shutdown
Where 64000 is default value of clock rate in bytes.(or any from 300 to 4000000)
A no shutdown command is given to the interface for opening.

A shutdown command can be given to Close the interface.
If we are using Routing Protocol (i.e. Router communicate with router)

Then bandwidth command can be given
Router(config)#ip address xxx.xxx.xxx.xxx yyy.yyy.yyy.yyy
Router(config)#bandwidth 64
Router(config)#no shutdown
Where 64 is default value of bandwidth in Kilo Bytes. (or any from 1 to 10000000)
Changing the name of Router :
Router(config)#hostname pune
Pune(config)#
Deleting the RAM :
Router(config)#erase startup-config - Erases NVRAM

Router(config)#erase running-config - Erases DRAM
Verifying Commands :
1. Ping – Checks connectivity

2. Telnet – Terminal Emulation.
3. Show int – Displays information about interfaces.
e.g. Router#show int e0
Ethernet 0 is up , Line Protocol is down.
Ethernet comes under Physical layer. While Line Protocol comes under Datalink Layer.
Examples and Explanations :
S0 up line protocol is down - Problem in clocking

S0 down Line protocol is down - Problem in Interface or Cable.
S0 is administratively down Line Protocol is Down - Administrator has shutdown from
command line.
Topic 10 : IP Routing.
Router routes packets sent from one network device to another network
device in internetwork.
There are 3 types of Routing :
1. Static Routing :
Route addresses are added manually.
2. Default Routing.
Route addresses are added so as any host is connected to
any network through any line.
3. Dynamic Routing :
Route addresses are configured automatically by Routers.
Under Dynamic Routing 3 subtypes appears.
i. Hybrid : Uses EIGRP Protocol
ii. Link State : Uses OSPF Protocol
iii. Distance Vector : Uses RIP,RIP v2,IGRP Protocols

Fig A : Below is the Network which will be considered as a default Network for all
Routing Protocols in this Topic.
1. Static Routing
Command :
Router>enable
Router(config)#ip route [destination NW address] [destination prefix mask] [forwarding
routers address]
Example : Refer Fig A
Router A
Router(config)#ip route 172.16.30.0 255.255.255.0 172.16.20.2
Router B
Router C
2. Default Routing :
Command :
Router>enable
Router(config)#ip route [0.0.0.0] [0.0.0.0] [forwarding routers address]
Router A
Router B
Router C
3. Dynamic Routing :
#Using RIP routing protocol
Command :
Router>enable
Router(config)#router rip
Router(config-router)#network [Own Network numbers]
Router A
Router(config-router)#network 172.16.10.0
Router B
Router C
#Using IGRP routing protocol
Autonomous number must be identical on all networks
Command :
Router>enable
Router(config)#router igrp [<1-65535 > Autonomous system number]
Router A
Router B
Router C
#Using EIGRP routing protocol

Autonomous number must be identical on all networks
Command :
Router>enable
Router(config)#router igrp [<1-65535 > Autonomous system number]
Router A
Router B
Router C
#Using OSPF routing protocol
Process ID can be different for any network
Command :
Router>enable
Router(config)#router ospf [<1-65535 > Process ID]
Router(config-router)#network [Own Network numbers] [OSPF wildcard bits] [OSPF
area id]
Router A
Router(config-router)#network 172.16.10.0 0.0.0.255 area 0
Router B
Router C
Characteristics of Different Routing Protocols
Routing Protocol Administrating Distance
Nonconnected interface 0
Static Route 1
RIP 120
IGRP 100
EIGRP 90
OSPF 110
External EIGRP 170
Blocked 255
Significance of Different Routing Protocols:
1. RIP : [Routing Information Protocol]

a. Rip supports maximum 15 HOP counts
b. All subnet mask must be same if we want to use RIP protocol
c. Such network is called as “Classfull” network
d. Rip takes 60 seconds to intercommunicate with neighbouring Router
2. IGRP : [Interior Gateway Routing Protocol]

a. IGRP supports maximum 255 HOPs
b. It takes 30 seconds to intercommunicate with neighbouring Router
c. The Autonomous system number must be same for all HOPs
3. EIGRP : [Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol]

a. It only belongs to CISCO
b. It uses Distance vector as well as Link state
c. It supports 255 HOP Counts
d. Support Classfull & Classless Routing
e. Protocol dependent module (PDM). Support all protocols
f. Neighbouring discovery keeps three routing tables
g. Uses Autonomous system number (AS)
h. Uses Reliable transfer Protocol (RTP)
i. Uses variable length subnet mask (VLSM)
4. OSPF : [Open Shortest Path First]

a. It is a standard protocol can be used in any router
b. It supports unlimited HOP counts
c. Uses variable length subnet mask (VLSM) & Classless Routing
d. Tree structure support
e. Used in very large network
f. Uses SFT sequence i.e. It finds the cost to connect to other network. And
follows lowest cost
g. Structure is as Follows

Networking Besics

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Topic 1 : Networking Basics

Some of the Different Operating Systems are :

O.S. Vender Platform

Solaris Unix SUN ---------------

Sco Unix SCO Platform Independent

Netware NOVEL -------------

Macintosh APPLE Apple Mac

Linux RED HAT Platform Independent

OS/400 AS/400 -------------

Components of the Network are :

1. Network : Sharing Resources

Types of Networking are :

2. MAN : (Metropolitan Area Networking)

3. WAN : (Wild Area Networking)

Transmission Media : (Hardware)

Transmission Media can be of two types :

Wired Transmission Media (Bus/Ring/Star Topology) :

A. Twisted Pair : (10baseT)

B. Fiber Optics : (Back Bone)

Protocols : (Communication Software)

Some examples of Different types of Protocols are :

Protocols O.S. Vender

IPX/SPX Netware Novel

TCP/IP All ------------

Apple talk Macintosh Apple

Different Connectivity Devices are Listed below :

5. Routers : (Works on IP Address)

LAN traffic conjection occurs due to following causes :

1. Too many hosts in Broadcast domain.

Bridges create a single Broadcast domain but two Collision Domains.

Advantages of O.S.I. model :

1. It allows multiple vender development through a standardization of network

Layers of O.S.I. models :

Application File , Print , Message

Presentation Data Encryption/Decryption

Session Dialogue Control

Transport End to End Communication

Data link Framing

Physical Physical topology

O.S.I. layer description :

1. Application layer : (Data is in the form of DATA)

PICT : Picture file used by mac

MIDI : Musical instrumental digital interface

MPEG : Moving picture expert group (Standard for compression and

3. Session Layer : (Data is in the form of DATA)

SQL (Structure query language) : For Database.

RPC (Remote procedure call)

X Window : mainly used in UNIX & LINUX computers.

There are two types of Transfer layer :

2. Route Update packet :

Datalink layer & IEEE Specification :

1. MAC (Media Access Controller) (802.3) :

2. LLC (Logical Link Control) (802.2) :

7. Physical Layer : (Data is in the form of BITS)

1. Half Duplex : (Data rate 10 Mbps)

2. Full Duplex : (Data rate 100 Mbps)

1. Host connected to Switch

Ethernet at Datalink Layer :

D. Type & Length :

Ethernet at Physical Layer :

1. 802.3u (fast Ethernet) : 100 Mbps

It is a standard body that creates physical layer special. It specifically uses RJ

IEEE 802.3 comity

10base2 : Coaxial upto 200 mtrs