Mechanics Research Communications 41 (2012) 1–20

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Mechanics Research Communications

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/mechrescom

Review

Mechanics of composites: A historical review

Carl T. Herakovich
University of Virginia, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Available online 21 January 2012 This review is concerned with mechanics of continuous fiber composites. The earliest and most important
advancements in the field are emphasized. No doubt the coverage is limited to some extent by the
interests and experiences of the writer as well as time and space considerations. The advancements
in mechanics of composites have been influenced to a great extent by the development of advanced
composites through materials science. No attempt is made to discuss these developments. This review
emphasizes the use of theoretical and applied mechanics in the development of theories, confirmed by
experimentation, to predict the response of composite materials and structures. Citations have been
given for many published works, but certainly not all. Apologies to those not listed; numerous additional
references can be found in the works cited.
© 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Since the beginning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

2. The early years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3. Anisotropic, elastic constitutive equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
4. Micromechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
4.1. Micromechanics model comparisons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
5. Lamination theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
6. Environmental effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
6.1. Thermal effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
6.2. Moisture effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
7. Interlaminar stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
8. Unsymmetric laminates3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
9. Tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
10. Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
11. Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
11.1. Unidirectional lamina. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
11.2. Quadratic failure criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
12. Damage mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
13. Experimental methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
13.1. Tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
13.2. Compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
13.3. Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
13.4. Off-axis tensile test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
14. Nanocomposites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
15. University and government programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
16. Closure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
17. Books on mechanics of composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

E-mail address: herak@virginia.edu

3
This section was written by Mike Hyer, with a very few modifications provided
by the author.

0093-6413/$ – see front matter © 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.mechrescom.2012.01.006
2 C.T. Herakovich / Mechanics Research Communications 41 (2012) 1–20
“More important than any one new application is the new
‘materials’ concept itself. It marks a shift from concern with
substances to concern with structures, a shift from artisan to
scientist as man’s artificer, a shift from chemistry to physics as
the basic discipline, and a shift, above all, from the concrete
experience of the workshop to abstract mathematics, a shift
from starting with what nature provides to what man wants
to accomplish”.
Peter F. Drucker, The Age of Discontinuity, 1969
1. Since the beginning
A historical review of the mechanics of composites must first
consider the question “what initiated the study of these hetero-
geneous, anisotropic materials”? Composite materials have been
present since the beginning of time. Many objects such as plants
and animals are fibrous composite systems. This is very evident in
trees and their leaves, in the wings of birds and the fins of fish. The
human body is the most complex fibrous composite system. On one
level it consists of a musculoskeletal system of bones, muscles and
tendons. On a microscopic level these objects themselves are com-
posite systems consisting of a variety of components that give rise
to heterogeneous, anisotropic materials.
The first production and man-made use of a fibrous com-
posite material appears to be the papyrus paper made by the
Fig. 1. New testament on papyrus.
Egyptianscirca4000 B.C. They laid up strips from the fibrous
papyrus plant in two layers with one layer at right angles to the
other. In present day mechanics terminology, such a fabric would
be called an unsymmetric, cross-ply laminate. While it is possible
that the Egyptians used a symmetric laminate to eliminate curva-
ture, this author has found no indication that such was the case.
The development of papyrus paper was so important to the Egyp-
tians that they guarded the secret of how it was produced, thereby
creating a monopoly. Papyrus paper revolutionized the way peo-
ple saved valuable information. As a result, it was ancient Egypt’s
greatest export for many centuries.
Cuttings from the papyrus plant also were used in bundles by
early Egyptians to make boats, sails, baskets and ropes. Fig. 1 shows
an image of a passage from the New Testament written on papyrus
around the beginning of the 3rd century, some 1800 years ago. It
is referred to as the Bodmer Papyrus XIV-XV in the Vatican (2007).
Fig. 2 is an example of present-day Egyptian artwork on papyrus
paper.
Another early, but totally different, application of a man-made
fibrous composite was the use of straw to strengthen bricks made
from mud. According to the Book of Exodus (“do not give them
straw for their bricks, make them find their own straw”), this prac-
tice was used as early as1300 B.C.; it is still in use today. Fig. 3 is a
picture of such a brick that was taken in the Middle East in the mid-
20th century. Present-day mechanics would classify these bricks as
randomly reinforced, short fiber composites.
According to Hartman et al. (1996), ancient Egyptians also made
containers of coarse fibers drawn from heat softened glass, and the
French scientist Reaumur considered the potential of forming fine
glass fibers as early as the 18th century. It was not until 1939 that
continuous glass fibers were produced commercially (Knox, 1982).
These glass fibers were produced mainly for high temperature
electrical applications. Two more decades passed before the “so-
called” advanced fibers were produced, boron (Talley, 1959) carbon
Fig. 2. Artwork on papyrus.
 C.T. Herakovich / Mechanics Research Communications 41 (2012) 1–20 3

Table 1
Early activities, contributions and accomplishments in mechanics of composites.

Year Activity People Country

4000 BC Papyrus paper developed Egyptians Egypt

1660 Hooke’s Law Robert Hooke Great Britain
1780s Young’s modulus defined Thomas Young Great Britain
1821 Formulation of general equations of elasticity Claude-Louis Navier France
1822 Anisotropic equations of elasticity Augustin-Louis Cauchy France
1837 Strain energy density defined – 21 elastic constants George Green Great Britain
1887/1889 Uniform strain modulus prediction W. Voigt Germany
1892 Treatise on the Mathematical Theory of Elasticity A.E.H. Love Great Britain
1929 Uniform stress modulus prediction A. Reuss Germany
1935 Papers on anisotropic bodies S.G. Lekhnitshkii Russia
1938 Owens-Corning developed fiberglass Owens-Corning USA
1941 Air Force Materials Lab initiated composites activity Robert T. Schwartz USA
1941 Fiberglass fabrics available to market Owns-Corning and H. Goldsmith USA
1946 Mathematical Theory of Elasticity I.S. Sokolnikoff USA
1947 Anisotropic Plates S.G. Lekhnitshkii Russia
1950 Theory of Elasticity of an Anisotropic Elastic Body S.G. Lekhnitshkii Russia
1954 Japan Society of Reinforced Plastics formed Tsuyoshi Hayashi Japan
1954 Fabricated glass reinforced plastic glider Tsuyoshi Hayashi Japan
1961 Theory of Anisotropic Shells S.A. Ambartsumyan Russia
1965 Strength of Unidirectional Lamina A. Kelly and G.J. Davies Great Britain
1967 Modern Composite Materials L.J. Broutman and R.H. Krock USA
1967 Journal of Composite Materials Vol. 1 No. 1 Stephen W. Tsai USA
1968 Composite Materials Workshop Tsai, Halpin and Pagano USA
1969 The Analysis of Laminated Composite Structures Lee Calcote USA
1969 Primer on Composite Materials: Analysis Ashton, Halpin and Petit USA
1970 Theory of Laminated Plates J.E. Ashton and J.M. Whitney USA
1970 Theory of Anisotropic Plates S.A. Ambartsumyan Russia
1972 Theory of Fiber Reinforced Materials Zvi Hashin USA
1975 Mechanics of Composite Materials R.M. Jones USA
1979 Mechanics of Composite Materials R.M. Christensen USA

(Soltes, 1961) and aramid (Kwolek, 1964). The development of the
advanced fibers in the late 1950s and early 1960s spurred great
interest in the development of theoretical and applied mechanics
for applications to fibrous composite materials and structures.
From the earliest applications of fibrous composites by the Egyp-
tians to the introduction of advanced composites in the second half
of the 20th Century, roughly 6000 years have passed. The progress
in the use of fibrous composites in the most recent fifty years
was much greater than that during the preceding nearly six thou-
sand years. The Egyptians were artisans in that they undoubtedly
developed their products through trial and error. During the past
fifty years, theoretical and applied mechanics has been employed
in order to exploit the vast potential of man-made fibrous com-
posites. These advancements are exemplified dramatically by the
application of advanced fibrous composites in SpaceShipOne and its
launch vehicle White Knight, (Fig. 4, see http://www.scaled.com/).
SpaceShipOne is an all-composite, suborbital spaceplane launched
in 2003 by Scaled Composites.
2. The early years
Table 1 summarizes the early activities, contributions and
accomplishments related to advances in the mechanics of fibrous
composites. The remainder of this paper is organized according
to subject matter. Topics covered include constitutive equations,
micromechanics, laminates, thermal and moisture effects, damage
and failure, experimental methods, interlaminar stresses, tubes,
plates, nanocomposites, and university and government programs.
This leaves many related subjects still to be reviewed.
3. Anisotropic, elastic constitutive equations
Discussions on the advances in the development of constitu-
tive equations for elastic materials can be found in Love’s work
(1892–1927), Sokolnikoff (1946/1956) and Timoshenko’s History of
Strength of Materials (1953). The development of constitutive equa-
tions for homogeneous, elastic materials began with the work of
Hooke (1678) who stated that for an elastic body there is propor-
tionality between stress and strain. Navier (1821) generalized this

Fig. 3. Brick with straw fibers. Fig. 4. White knight and SpaceShipOne.
4 C.T. Herakovich / Mechanics Research Communications 41 (2012) 1–20

idea to arrive at differential equations describing elastic response; directions 1, 2, 3, Eq. (2) takes the form (3) when written in terms
however, his equations included only one elastic constant. Cauchy of engineering constants and reduced notation:
(1822), building on the work of Navier, developed equations of
⎧ ⎫ ⎡ 1 −21 ⁄E −31 ⁄E
⎤⎧ ⎫
⎪
⎪ ε1 ⎪
⎪ ⁄E1 2 3 0 0 0 ⎪
⎪ 1 ⎪⎪
elasticity for isotropic materials with two elastic constants.1 ⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪ ⎢ −12 ⁄E 1⁄E −32 ⁄E ⎥⎪⎪ ⎪ ⎪
Cauchy (1828) generalized his results for anisotropic (or
⎨ ⎬ ⎢ −13 1
ε2 2
−23 ⁄E 1⁄E
3 0 0 0
⎥ ⎨ 23 ⎬
ε3
=⎢
⁄E1 2 3 0 0 0 ⎥ (3)
aeolotropic) materials and found that there are, at most, twenty- ⎪ ε4 ⎪ ⎢ 0 0 0 1⁄G 0 0 ⎥ ⎪ 4 ⎪
⎪
⎪ ε5 ⎪
⎪ ⎣ 0
23
⎦⎪⎪ 5 ⎪⎪
one independent constants. However, he believed that only fifteen ⎪
⎩ ⎪ ⎭ 0 0 0 1 ⁄G
31 0 ⎪
⎩ 6 ⎪⎭
ε6 1⁄G
of these constants were “elastics constants”. Like Cauchy, Poisson 0 0 0 0 0 12

(1829) believed that there were only fifteen elastic constants.

The symmetry of the compliance matrix provides additional
These beliefs were based upon a molecular structure of solids and
relationships between the moduli and Poisson ratios.
intermolecular forces. During this period, there were two com-
The earliest publications employing anisotropic constitutive
peting theories as to the number of elastic constants, either 21
equations for the solution of real problems appear to be those of
or 15. The question was resolved when Green (1839) introduced
Lekhnitskii. During the years 1935–1942, he published papers on
the concept of strain energy and arrived at equations of elastic-
plane problems, cylindrical anisotropy, torsion and bending. Wood
ity from the principal of virtual work. The equations developed
was the primary material considered in his work. See the bibli-
using Green’s approach have 21 independent, elastic constants.
ography in Lekhnitskii’s Theory of Elasticity of an Anisotropic Body
Lord Kelvin (Thomson, 1855) used the First and Second Laws
(1950) for additional references. It is possible that Navier and co-
of Thermodynamics to argue for the existence of Green’s strain
workers used the equations that they had developed in their work
energy function. The existence of the strain energy function and the
on wood structures, but no references have been found by this
presence of 21 independent elastic constants in the most general
author.
anisotropic case is now the accepted theory.
The most general form of the anisotropic constitutive equations
for homogeneous, elastic, composite materials can be written2 :
⎧ ⎫ ⎧ ⎫ ⎡ ⎤⎧ ⎫ ⎧ ⎫
⎪
⎪
1 ⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪
xx ⎪
⎪
C11 C12 C13 C14 C15 C16 ⎪ εxx ⎪ ⎪ ε1 ⎪
⎪ε ⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎪ 2 ⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪ yy ⎪
⎪ ⎢ C12 C26 ⎥ ⎪
⎪ yy ⎪⎪ ⎪ ε2 ⎪
⎪
⎨ ⎬ ⎨ ⎬ ⎢ C13
C22 C23 C24 C25
⎥ ⎨ ⎬ ⎪ ⎨ ⎪ ⎬
=⎢
3 zz C23 C33 C34 C35 C36 ⎥ εzz ε3
≡ ≡
4 ⎪ ⎪ yz ⎪ ⎢ C14 C46 ⎥ ⎪ yz ⎪ ⎪ ε4 ⎪
(1)
⎪
⎪ 
⎪  C24 C34 C44 C45
⎪
⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ zx ⎪
⎪ ⎣ ⎦⎪ ⎪
C56 ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ε5 ⎪
⎪
⎩ 5⎪
 ⎭ ⎪ ⎩ ⎪
⎭ C15 C25 C35 C45 C55 ⎪ ⎭ ⎪
⎩ zx ⎪ ⎩ ⎪ ⎭
6 xy C16 C26 C36 C46 C56 C66 xy ε6
where  ij and  ij are normal and shear components of stress,
respectively, εij and  ij are the normal and shear components of
strain, respectively, and Cij is the symmetric stiffness matrix with 4. Micromechanics
21independent, elastic constants (or stiffness coefficients).(The sin-
gle subscript notation of stress and strain in (1) is common practice The study of composite materials at the fiber and matrix level
for analysis of composite materials.) These constitutive equations is referred to as micromechanics. It is desired to predict the overall
appear in the same form in Lekhnitskii (1947) Anisotropic Plates effective (or average) elastic properties and inelastic response of
book (p. 10, Eq. (2.1)). It is noted that the preface to the 1947 edition the composite based upon the known properties, arrangement and
actually was written in May 1944. volume fraction of the constituent phases. Examples of compos-
Lekhnitskii also shows that a monoclinic material (one plane of ites at the fiber and matrix level are shown in Fig. 5. Fig. 5a shows
symmetry) has 13 independent constants, an orthotropic material carbon fibers in an epoxy matrix and Fig. 5b is a photomicrograph
(three planes of symmetry) has 9 independent constants, a trans- of ceramic fiber (silicon carbide) in a titanium matrix. The silicon
versely isotropic material (isotropic properties in one of the planes carbide fiber has a tungsten core that is clearly visible in the figure.
of symmetry) has five independent constants, and an isotropic The carbon fibers are actually a collection (called tows) of numer-
material (properties independent of direction) has two indepen- ous carbon filaments (2000–30,000 or more). As indicated in these
dent constants. He also discussed the case of a material with figures, ceramic fibers typically have a much larger diameter than
cylindrical anisotropy. carbon fibers. The distribution of fibers is quite uniform in metal
Inversion of (1) gives expressions for the strains in terms of matrix composites, but is variable in resin matrix composites. This
stresses and compliance coefficients Sij : significant difference in the distribution of fibers requires that a
⎧ ⎫ ⎡ ⎤⎧ ⎫ larger region (number of fibers) be considered as the representative
⎪
⎪
εxx ⎪
⎪
S11 S12 S13 S14 S15 S16 ⎪ xx ⎪
⎪ ⎪ volume element (RVE) for micromechanics studies when the fiber
⎪
⎪ εyy ⎪ S26 ⎥ ⎪ ⎪
⎨ ⎪ ⎬ ⎢ S12
⎢ S13
S22 S23 S24 S25
⎥
⎪
⎨ yy ⎪⎬ distribution is nonuniform. When the fibers are uniformly spaced as
=⎢
εzz S23 S33 S34 S35 S36 ⎥ zz
(2) in Fig. 5b, it is reasonable to consider a single fiber and surrounding
⎪ yz ⎪ ⎢ S14 S24 S34 S44 S45 ⎥
S46 ⎪ yz ⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪ ⎣ S15 ⎦⎪ ⎪ matrix material as the RVE. In this latter case, symmetry arguments
⎪
⎩ zx ⎪
⎭ S25 S35 S45 S55 S56 ⎪ ⎪ ⎪
⎩ zx ⎪
⎭ often can be used to reduce the region under consideration even
xy S16 S26 S36 S46 S56 S66 xy
further.
The constitutive Eq. (2) can be written in terms of the engi- A wide variety of methods for predicting the effective thermo-
neering constants, elastic moduli Ei , Poisson ratios ij and shear elastic properties of composites have been offered (Table 2). The
moduli Gij . As an example, for an orthotropic material with principal earliest works are those of Voigt (1889) and Reuss (1929). While
these early studies were concerned primarily with polycrystals, the
theories can be applied to fibrous composites. Voigt assumed that
the strains were constant throughout the material under load. In
1
Dates given for Navier and Cauchy correspond to when they read their paper to contrast, Reuss assumed that the stresses were constant through-
the Paris Academy. Publication, if any, was at a later date.
2
Commonly used notations for composite mechanics and developments of many
out the material. Hill (1952) showed that the Voigt assumption
of the results presented in this article are described in detail in the author’s text results in upper bounds on effective elastic properties and the Reuss
(Herakovich, 1998). assumption results in lower bounds.
 C.T. Herakovich / Mechanics Research Communications 41 (2012) 1–20 5

Table 2
Developments in micromechanics.

Year Development Author(s) Country

1837 Strain energy density defined – 21 elastic constants George Green Great Britain
1887/1889 Uniform strain modulus prediction W. Voigt Germany
1929 Uniform stress modulus prediction A. Reuss Germany
1957 Determination of the elastic field of an ellipsoidal inclusion and related problems Eshelby Great Britain
1960 Prediction of Elastic Constants of Multiphase Materials Paul USA
1962 The Elastic Moduli of Heterogeneous Materials Hashin USA
1963 Elastic Properties of Reinforced solids: some theoretical principles Hill Great Britain
1963 Variational Approach to the Theory of The Elastic Behavior of Multiphase Materials Hashin and Shtrikman USA and Israel
1964 Theory of Mechanical Behavior of Heterogeneous Media Hashin USA
1964 Theory of Mechanical Properties of Fiber-Strengthened Materials – I. Elastic Behaviour Hill USA
1964 The Elastic Moduli of Fiber-Reinforced Materials Hashin and Rosen USA
1965 The Principle of the Fiber Reinforcement of Metals Kelly and Davies Great Britain
1967 Modern Composite Materials Broutman and Krock USA
1968 Composite Materials Workshop Tsai, Halpin and Pagano USA
1972 Theory of Fiber Reinforced Materials Hashin USA
1972 On the Effective Moduli of Composite Materials: Slender Rigid Inclusions at Dilute Concentrations Russel and Acrivos USA
1975 A Theory of Elasticity with Microstructure for Directionally Reinforced Composites Achenbach USA
1979 Analysis of Properties of Fiber Composites with Anisotropic Constituents Hashin Israel
1991 Mechanics of Composite Materials: A Unified Micromechanical Approach Aboudi Israel
1993 Micromechanics: overall properties of heterogeneous materials Nemat-Nasser and Hori USA

The development of micromechanics models for predicting the
effective properties of composites experienced a flurry of activity
beginning in the late 1950s and extending through the 1960s and
into the 1970s. The earlier works were concerned with the pre-
diction of effective properties for materials (both solids and fluids)
consisting of inclusions in a carrier material (see Hashin, 1964).
Paul (1960) and Hill (1963) used energy approaches to obtain
upper and lower bounds on elastic moduli of heterogeneous mate-
rials consisting of inclusions in a matrix. In general, the inclusions
were of arbitrary shape, but both authors did make reference to
fiber-like inclusions. It is noteworthy that they both showed that
the Voigt and Reuss approximations are upper and lower bounds
on moduli. Hashin and Shtrikman (1963) presented a variational
approach to derive upper and lower bounds for the effective elas-
tic moduli of quasi-isotropic and quasi-homogeneous multiphase
materials of arbitrary phase geometry. Hill (1964) addressed the
elastic mechanical properties of fiber-strengthened materials. In
(1972) Russel and Acrivos considered the effective modulus of com-
posites with slender rigid inclusions at dilute concentrations.
Hashin and Rosen (1964) employed a concentric cylinder assem-
blage (CCA) model to develop upper and lower bounds as well
as specific expressions for (some of) the effective elastic mod-
uli of transversely isotropic composites. Their model consists of
an assemblage of concentric cylinders, each cylinder consisting
of a fiber core surrounded by a matrix annulus, such that the
size of the cylinders varies as needed to fill the entire volume of
material. The ratio of fiber radius to cylinder radius is held constant
throughout, thereby maintaining a constant fiber volume fraction
in each cylinder. Four of the necessary five effective properties for a
transversely isotropic composite can be determined using the CCA
model.
In the following from Christensen (1979), with subscripts f and
m indicating fiber and matrix respectively, V fiber volume fraction,
E axial modulus,  Poisson’s ratio,  shear modulus, k bulk modulus,
and the fiber and matrix are taken to be transversely isotropic, the
CCA model provides expressions for four of the effective properties
in terms of the phase properties and fiber volume fraction.
Effective axial modulus:
4Vf (1 − Vf )(vf − vm )2 m
E1∗ = Vf Ef + (1 − Vf )Em + (4)
((1 − Vf )m )/(kf + f /3) + Vf m
Effective axial Poisson’s ratio:
12 = (1 − Vf )m + Vf f
 
Vf (1 − Vf )(f − m ) m /(km + m /3) − m /(kf + f /3)
+
((1 − Vf )m )/(kf + f /3) + Vf m /(km + m /3) + 1
(5)

Fig. 5. Fiber and matrix photomicrographs.

6 C.T. Herakovich / Mechanics Research Communications 41 (2012) 1–20

Effective plane strain bulk modulus:

∗ m
K23 = km +
3
Vf
+ (6)
1/[kf − km + (f − m )/3] + (1 − Vf )/(km + 4m /3)

Effective axial shear modulus:

∗12 f (1 + Vf ) + m (1 − Vf )
= (7)
m f (1 − Vf ) + m (1 + Vf )

It is evident from Eqs. (4) and (5) that the first two terms cor-
respond to a rule of mixtures. The last term is typically very small
for most composites in use today. Thus, the rule of mixtures (i.e.
Voigt upper bound) is a very good predictor for the effective axial
modulus and effective axial Poisson’s ratio. This cannot be said for
the other two properties. Fig. 6. Axial modulus predictions for carbon/epoxy.
Chamis and Sendeckyj (1968) presented an extensive critique
of the theories known at the time for predicting the thermoelastic
4.1. Micromechanics model comparisons
properties of fibrous composites. The theories reviewed were clas-
sified as: netting analysis, mechanics of materials, self-consistent
Figs. 6–9 show comparisons of micromechanics predictions for
model, variational, exact, statistical, discrete element, semi empir-
the effective properties E1 , E2 , 12 , and G12 of unidirectional car-
ical methods, and theories accounting for microstructure. They
bon/epoxy (Lissenden and Herakovich, 1992) as a function of the
included comparisons of predictions by different theories for uni-
fiber volume fraction. The methods compared include: Voigt, Reuss,
directional glass-epoxy, boron-epoxy and graphite-epoxy.
concentric cylinder assemblage, self-consistent, method of cells,
Hashin (1972) gave an extensive theoretical treatment of
Mori-Tanaka and strength of materials.
micromechanics. He considered effective elastic, viscoelastic and
Several important features are evident from these comparisons.
thermoelastic properties, thermal and electrical conduction, and
For the effective axial modulus, E1∗ (Fig. 6) essentially all models give
electrostatics and magnetostatics behavior.
the same prediction, with the lower bound Reuse model being the
Achenbach (1974) and Achenbach (1975) considered wave
exception. Thus, a simple rule of mixtures (the Voigt upper bound),
propagation in fiber-reinforced composites with microstructure.
provides excellent predictions for the effective axial modulus.
The composite with microstructure is distinguished from a com-
Schapery (1967) has shown that the results for linear elastic
posite that is modeled as a homogeneous, anisotropic continuum
materials can be extended to linear viscoelastic materials in a sim-
using effective properties. The point is made that for dynamic
ple and accurate manner.
response such as wave propagation, the characteristic lengths of
the deformations may be small and the effective modulus theory
may not suffice. The proposed theory showed good comparison 5. Lamination theory
with ultrasonic data for fibrous composites and finite element pre-
dictions. Lectures on this subject were given at the International Possibly the most fundamental result for the application of
Centre for Mechanical Sciences (CISM) in Udine, Italy, in July 1973 fibrous composites in structural and devices is Classical Lamination
with publication of the (expanded) monograph in 1975. Theory. The theory follows the original works of Pister and Dong
Aboudi (1991) presented micromechanical analysis methods (1959), Reissner and Stavsky (1961) and Dong et al. (1962)
for composite materials and provided an in-depth analysis of the The theory considers an assemblage of layers bonded together
Method of Cells for thermo-elastic, viscoelastic, nonlinear behav- to form a laminate. The individual layers are taken to be homoge-
ior of resin matrix composites, initial yield surfaces and inelastic neous with properties that can range from isotropic to anisotropic.
behavior of metal matrix composites, and composites with imper- Typically, the layers are unidirectional fibrous composites with the
fect bonding. The method of cells consists of a periodic square
array of rectangular subcells, one representing the fiber and three
similar subcells representing the matrix. This model provides a
computationally efficient method for predicting inelastic response
of composites.
The effects of different types of fiber orthotropy on the effective
properties of composites were considered by Knott and Herakovich
(1991a). Nemat-Nasser and Hori (1993) presented a treatise on the
mechanics of solids with microdefects such as cavities, cracks, and
inclusions, including elastic composites.
Discrete element methods such as the finite element method
have been used to predict effective properties of unidirectional
composites. The earliest work using finite elements appears to
be that of Foye who studied effective elastic properties, inelastic
response, and stress distributions in unidirectional boron/epoxy.
Finite element studies can be valuable when the fiber distribution
is very regular as shown for the ceramic fiber in a titanium matrix
of Fig. 5b, but less so for random fiber distributions such as the
carbon/epoxy of Fig. 5a. Fig. 7. Transverse modulus predictions for carbon/epoxy.
 C.T. Herakovich / Mechanics Research Communications 41 (2012) 1–20 7

Fig. 10. Composite laminate.

Poisson ratio:
ε◦y a∗12
xy = − =− (11)
Fig. 8. Shear modulus predictions for carbon/epoxy. ε◦x a∗11

Shear modulus:
fibers in the kth layer oriented at an angle  k from a global x-axis
¯ xy 1
as depicted in Fig. 10. Gxy =
xy◦ = a∗ (12)
Analysis results in the fundamental equation relating the 66
inplane forces {N} and moments {M} acting on the laminate to Coefficient of mutual influence:
the midplane strains {ε◦ } and curvatures { } through coefficients ◦
xy a∗16
[A], [B] and [D] that are functions of the material properties, layers
xy,x = = (13)
thickness and stacking sequence of the layers. ε◦x a∗11
     The coefficient of mutual influence (13) quantifies the shear
N A B ε◦
= (8) strain associated with normal strain; it is non-zero when the lam-
M B D
inate compliance term a∗16 is non-zero.
The effective engineering properties of symmetric laminates can Specific examples of the range of engineering properties that can
be predicted from Eq. (8) through a series of thought experiments be affected through the choice of material and stacking sequence
where the laminate is subjected to a series of specified loadings. are presented in Figs. 11–13. These figures show the variation in
With the laminate compliance defined: axial modulus, Poisson ratio and shear modulus for T300/5208 car-
bon/epoxy.
[a∗ ] ≡ 2H[A]−1 (9) These three figures show that the effective engineering prop-
erties of angle-ply laminates are higher than those of the
The results of these thought experiments provide expressions corresponding laminae. Further, Poisson’s ratio of angle-play lam-
for the engineering properties of the laminate. Examples are: inates can exhibit values greater than 1.0, and the shear modulus
Axial modulus: of angle-ply laminates is largest at 45◦ .
¯ x 1 Another most interesting result for laminated composites
Ex = = ∗ (10)
ε◦x a11 (Fig. 14) is the fact that the through-the-thickness Poisson’s ratio

Fig. 9. Poisson’s ratio predictions for carbon/epoxy. Fig. 11. Axial modulus – unidirectional and angle-ply laminates.
8 C.T. Herakovich / Mechanics Research Communications 41 (2012) 1–20
Fig. 12. Poisson’s ratio – unidirectional and angle-ply laminates.
xz is negative over a significant range of fiber orientations for some
angle-ply laminates (Herakovich, 1984).
Another interesting feature of laminates is that, depending
on the stacking sequence of the layers, they can exhibit cou-
pling between inplane and bending effects. Laminates that are
unsymmetric about the laminate midplane have a non-zero [B]
matrix resulting in coupling between inplane and out-of-plane
responses (see Eq. (8)). Unsymmetric laminates exhibit curvature
when subjected to pure inplane loading. Likewise, unsymmetric
laminates exhibit inplane strains when subjected to pure bending
moments. More on unsymmetric laminates is provided in a later
section.
6. Environmental effects
6.1. Thermal effects
Environmental effects often play a critical role in the choice
of material for many applications in devices and structures.
Fig. 13. Shear modulus – unidirectional and angle-ply laminates.
Fig. 14. Through-the-thickness Poisson’s ratio.
Composites often are the material of choice where thermal stresses
or thermal expansion are important. The coefficient of thermal
expansion in the fiber direction of unidirectional composites is
often near zero and can be slightly negative. This has huge
consequences when designing laminates for low, or matching, coef-
ficients of thermal expansion. Thermal stresses can be extremely
important for the application of fibrous composite materials as
essentially all composite materials are fabricated at an elevated
temperature. The constituent phases become bonded at an elevated
temperature resulting in residual thermal stresses in the composite
after it has cooled to room temperature.
Fundamental problems at the micromechanics level are predic-
tion of the residual stresses and the effective thermal properties of
unidirectional composites. At the laminate level, it is necessary to
predict the residual stresses and the laminate effective coefficient
of thermal expansion (CTE). This latter property is very important
as it is one of the unique aspects of laminated composite materi-
als: composite laminates can exhibit CTE values over a wide range
including zero, positive and negative.
The earliest papers dealing with thermal effects in anisotropic
materials appear to be those by Ambartsumyan (1952) who consid-
ered thermal stresses in anisotropic, laminated plates, and Hayashi
(1956) who considered thermal stresses in orthotropic plates.
The earliest works at the micromechanics level appears to be
that of Van Fo Fy (1965) who considered thermal effects in com-
posites consisting of periodic arrays of continuous, circular glass
fibers. He used stress analysis to determine exact thermal coef-
ficients for specific phase geometries. Levin (1967) presented an
approach for determining the effective coefficients of thermal
expansion for two phase composites with isotropic phases. The
work used an extension Hill’s approach and included bounds on
the expansion coefficients of transversely isotropic, unidirectional,
fiber-reinforced composites. Rosen (1968) investigated thermal
expansion coefficients for composite materials. Much of this work
is incorporated in the later paper by Rosen and Hashin (1970) on
expansion coefficients.
Schapery (1968) derived upper and lower bounds as well as
specific approximations for thermal expansion coefficients of lin-
ear elastic and viscoelastic composite materials. He extended the
previous work of Levin and Van Fo Fy for an arbitrary number
of constituents and phase geometries, for isotropic phases. The
approach provided upper and lower bounds using the principles
of complementary and potential energy. Approximate expressions
 C.T. Herakovich / Mechanics Research Communications 41 (2012) 1–20 9

Fig. 16. Finite width coupon under axial load.

Fig. 15. CTE – unidirectional and angle-ply laminates.

6.2. Moisture effects

for the axial and transverse thermal coefficients of expansion for The analysis of moisture effects in organic matrix composites is
unidirectional, fiber-reinforced composites were presented. Hashin analogous to that for thermal effects at both the micromechanics
(1979) extended Schapery’s elastic results for composites with and laminate levels. Much of this work is detailed in three volumes
transversely isotropic phases. The final forms of the predictions for edited by Springer (1981), Springer (1984), and Springer (1988a).
the axial and transverse thermo-elastic coefficients of expansion Volume 3, Chapter 1 (Springer, 1988b) provides a broad review of
(as presented by Daniel and Ishai, 1994) are: the effects of temperature and moisture on organic matrix com-
posites. In general, moisture effects are not nearly as significant as
Ef ˛f Vf + Em ˛m Vm (E˛)1 thermal effects.
˛1 = = (14)
Ef Vf + Em Vm E1
7. Interlaminar stresses
for the coefficient in the fiber direction, and
   
The first publication concerned with interlaminar stresses in
˛1f ˛1m laminated composites appears to be that of Hayashi (1967) who
˛2 = ˛2f Vf 1 + 12f + ˛2m Vm 1 + 12m
˛2f ˛2m investigated interlaminar shear stresses in an idealized laminate
consisting of orthotropic layers separated by isotropic shear lay-
(E˛)1 ers. Other important early works include those by Bogy (1968)
− (12f Vf + 12m Vm ) (15)
E1 who investigated the singular behavior of stresses at the inter-
section of a boundary and bonded dissimilar isotropic materials,
for the coefficient in the transverse direction. In the above, f and and the first three-dimensional (numerical) analysis of inter-
m refer to fiber and matrix, respectively, V is volume fraction, E laminar stresses in laminated composites by Pipes and Pagano
is modulus, ˛ is coefficient of thermal expansion and  is Pois- (1970).
son’s ratio, (E˛)1 = Ef ˛f Vf + Em ˛m Vm and E1 is the rule of mixture Pipes and Pagano provided the first complete analysis of the
composite modulus in the fiber direction. problem of an axially loaded, laminated coupon with free edges
Additional works on thermal effects in composites include the (Fig. 16). They formulated a reduced system of elasticity equa-
review article by Tauchert (1986) and that by Herakovich and tions governing the laminate behavior by assuming independence
Aboudi (1999). of the stress and strain state on the axial coordinate and then
The first presentation of the thermal-elastic formulation for solved the system of equations using the finite difference method.
composite laminates was by Tsai (1968). An early textbook presen- Their results showed the existence of all three interlaminar stress
tation of the formulation is that by Calcote (1969). A most important components in the boundary layer regions along the free edges
result of the formulation is an expression for the effective coeffi- of finite width laminated coupons under inplane tensile load-
cient of thermal expansion {˛} ¯ for a symmetric N-layered laminate, ing. They presented results for a variety of fiber orientations and
namely: laminate stacking sequences and showed that the width of the
boundary layer is approximately equal to the thickness of the lam-

N
k inate, that the interlaminar normal stress  z and the interlaminar
¯ = [A]−1
{˛} [Q̄ ] {˛}k tk (16) shear stress  zx can exhibit singular behavior as the free edge is
k=1 approached, and that the sign and magnitude of the interlami-
nar stresses are functions of the laminate configuration including
Ashton et al., 1969 presented results for the varia- material type, fiber orientations, layer thicknesses and stacking
tion of thermal strains as a function of fiber orientation sequence.
for unidirectional and angle play laminates. Fig. 15 The free edge problem has been studied on a continuing basis
shows that rather large, negative coefficients of ther- ever since the original work in the late 1960s. The finite dif-
mal expansion are possible for a typical carbon/epoxy ference solution of Pipes and Pagano was followed quickly by a
material (T300/5208 in Fig. 15) over a range of fiber orientations three-dimensional finite element solution by Rybicki (1971). Later,
for angel-ply laminates. it was recognized that the tensile coupon problem also could be
10 C.T. Herakovich / Mechanics Research Communications 41 (2012) 1–20

Fig. 17. Free edge deformations – quasi-isotropic laminates.

formulated as a two-dimensional finite element problem because

of the independence of the stress and strain states on the axial coor-
dinate. The finite element formulation for cross-ply laminates as a
two-dimensional problem was presented by Foye and Baker (1971),
and the two-dimensional finite element formulation for laminates
including off-axis layers, thermal stresses and non-linear response
was presented by Herakovich et al. (1976).
Noteworthy approximate analytical solutions include a pertur-
bation solution by Tang (1975), a variational approach by Pagano
(1978), a solution employing complex stress potentials and eigen-
function series by Wang and Choi (1982), and solutions based upon
statically admissible stress states (Kassapoglou and Lagace, 1986;
Rose and Herakovich, 1993). The free edge problem has also been
investigated experimentally, e.g., Pipes and Daniel (1971), Oplinger
et al. (1974), and Herakovich et al. (1984). The experimental inves-
tigations provided physical evidence of a boundary layer with large
strain gradients near free edges. All of the above studies have clearly
shown interlaminar stresses are the result of the mismatch in Pois-
son’s ratios and coefficients of mutual influence and the presence
of a stress free boundary. The laminate stacking sequence plays
an important role in the magnitude and sign of the interlaminar
stresses.
Fig. 17 shows examples of the deformations of two-dimensional
finite element grids of the generic cross-section near the free edge
of carbon/epoxy laminates under axial loading (Buczek et al., 1983).
Results are presented for two different stacking sequences of quasi-
isotropic laminates with the ±45◦ always adjacent to one another.
It is evident from this figure that the displacements (and related
stresses and strains) are a strong function of the stacking sequence
with the interlaminar normal stresses being positive or negative
depending upon the stacking sequence. Figs. 17 and 18 combined
provide a complete picture of the possible edge effects on the three
generic planes (top face, free edge and transverse cross-section) of
a finite width coupon under axial load.
Fig. 18 (Herakovich et al., 1984) shows Moiré fringe patterns for Fig. 18. Moiré fringe patterns – angle-ply laminates.
the axial displacements on the face and free edge of angle-ply, car-
bon/epoxy laminates subjected to axial loading. On the coupon face
8. Unsymmetric laminates3
it is evident that the width of the edge effect is approximately equal
to the thickness of the laminate. On the edge, the shear strains  zx
As noted previously in the section on lamination theory,
are proportional to the gradient of the fringe lines and are max-
unsymmetric laminates exhibit coupling between inplane and
ima at the interfaces between the layers; the 10◦ and 30◦ laminates
out-of-plane responses. Hyer (1988) reviewed many features of
exhibit much higher shear strain (and stress) than the 45◦ lami-
nate. Analytical studies are in agreement with the fiber orientation
dependence which is directly related to the mismatch in layer prop-
erties. It is also evident from the figure that the displacements on 3
This section was written by Mike Hyer, with a very few modifications provided
the face and on the edge are uniform along the length by the author.
 C.T. Herakovich / Mechanics Research Communications 41 (2012) 1–20
Fig. 19. Possible shapes of anti-symmetric cross-ply laminates.
unsymmetric laminates including curing and out-of-plane shapes,
stability considerations, and effects of materials properties, lami-
nate thickness, laminate aspect ratio, and stacking sequence.
When a flat, unsymmetric, fiber-reinforced laminate layup is
cured in a press or autoclave at an elevated temperature, it will
develop curvature when cooled to room temperature and released
from all constraints of the curing process. The laminates will often
have two shapes at room temperature, and the laminate can be
changed from one shape to the other by a simple snap-through
action in the form of a moment applied to the edges of the laminate.
The developed curvatures are due to a mismatch in the thermal
expansion behavior of the layers within the laminate. The exact
shape of the cooled laminate, and whether it has multiple shapes
or just a single shape, depends on layer material properties, the
geometry of the laminate, and the temperature change from the
cure temperature to room temperature.
Considering a square unsymmetrical cross-ply laminate, for
example, and considering a simplified description, when two
shapes occur, one shape is near-cylindrical with the cylinder gener-
ator parallel to one set of opposite edges of the laminate. The second
shape is also near-cylindrical, but with a curvature of opposite sign
and with the cylinder generator direction perpendicular to that of
the first shape, namely, parallel to the other set of opposite edges.
In terms of principal curvatures, the principle curvatures of the two
shapes are of opposite sign and the major principal curvature direc-
tion of one shape is perpendicular to the major principal direction of
the other shape. Furthermore, the major principal curvature direc-
tion in each case is parallel to an edge of the laminate. When a
single shape occurs, that shape is a saddle with its principal curva-
tures aligned with the laminate edges. When this behavior was first
observed it was nothing more than a curiosity. However, the behav-
ior has attracted continuing attention since the initial work by Hyer
(1981a) to empirically study the phenomenon. Representations of
these different shapes are shown in Fig. 19.
Continuing with a cross-ply laminate as an example, classical
lamination theory, with its linear strain-displacement relations,
predicts the shape of all unsymmetric laminates to be a saddle,
and since classical lamination theory is a linear theory, that is
the only shape predicted. However, when cooling a thin lami-
nate of any reasonable size, e.g., 4-, 8-, or 16-layers, 0.5 m square,
from its cure temperature to room temperature, the out-of-plane
deformations are many times the laminate thickness. Deforma-
tions of this magnitude bring into question the validity of using
the linear strain-displacement relations. Therefore, considering
cross-ply laminates, Hyer (1981b) and Hyer (1982) and Hamamoto
11
and Hyer (1987) employed the geometrically nonlinear von Kár-
mán strain-displacement relations, an energy approach, and the
Rayleigh–Ritz technique wherein approximate displacement func-
tions were used to develop a semi-closed form solution to the
problem that explained how the existence of two cylindrical shapes
or a single saddle shape depended on the laminate geometry and
the temperature change relative to the cure temperature. Obvi-
ously, the thermo-elastic properties of the laminate material were
important too.
Interestingly, the developed theory predicted a saddle shape
for all laminate geometries, but for laminates with large side-
lengths, the saddle shape was predicted to be statically unstable,
and therefore never to be observed, while the two cylindri-
cal shapes predicted were predicted to be stable. For laminates
with small side-lengths, the saddle shape was predicted to be
stable and the only shape predicted to exist, i.e., the same as
the prediction of classical lamination theory based on the lin-
ear strain-displacement relations. Data from a limited number of
laminates correlated reasonably well with the predictions of the
theory.
In later work Jun and Hong (1990) questioned the assumption
made by Hyer (1981a) of ignoring any in-plane residual shear strain
caused by cooling the laminate. As was shown in their extension
of the semi-closed solution form developed by Hyer, the shape
predictions and the dependence on laminate geometry are influ-
enced by the assumption and the influence was quantified. Jun and
Hong (1992) were also the first to consider laminates with fiber
angles other than 0 or 90◦ . A further extension of their semi-closed
form earlier work (1990) was developed to include the possibility
of twist curvature, while taking into consideration the need to have
a tractable set of equations.
Using the Rayleigh–Ritz approach, Peeters et al. (1996) also
investigated laminates with fiber orientations other than 0 and
90◦ . They erroneously assumed that for all unsymmetric lami-
nates the principal curvature direction was oriented at 45◦ relative
to the laminate edge and they treated the laminate as if it was
square in the principal curvature coordinate system. Experimental
results from only a single + 30◦ angle-ply laminate were presented
to compare with the theoretical model. The comparison between
experiment and predictions was reasonable, but the authors went
on to explain how manufacturing problems, material property
uncertainties, and material inhomogeneity could have influenced
their experimental results.
To explore the predictive capabilities of the Rayleigh–Ritz
approach beyond shape predictions, Dano and Hyer (1996) inves-
tigated the snap-through event of a cross-ply laminate. Using a
force-control set-up, based on dead weights, the magnitude of
a concentrated force necessary to cause the laminate to snap
from one cylindrical configuration to the other was measured.
The motivation for this experiment was as follows: With unsym-
metric laminates having multiple shapes, there was the potential
for developing morphing structures, in this case, structures that
changed shape on command. This required knowledge of the level
of actuation necessary to achieve the snap through. So, the origi-
nally developed energy-based Rayleigh–Ritz analysis was modified
to include an applied concentrated force, the simplest form of an
actuation force. The deformations of the laminate as the force was
applied resulted in complex expressions for the work done by the
force, but the snapping force magnitude measured in the exper-
iments correlated well with the predicted level. Later, as will be
discussed, considerable work was done by a number of investiga-
tors in the area of morphing.
While the initial work based on developing semi-closed
form solutions was very helpful in explaining the fundamental
mechanics of the multiple-shape phenomenon, the application of
finite-element approaches opened new opportunities to study the
12 C.T. Herakovich / Mechanics Research Communications 41 (2012) 1–20
problem, particularly for very general unsymmetric laminates. One
of the difficulties of using finite-element analysis was the existence
of multiple solutions at room temperature. Finite-element analysis
had to be coaxed into converging to the various solutions by know-
ing something about each of the multiple shapes the laminate could
attain, using a small force or moment to ‘move’ the convergence
of the finite element solution toward a particular shape, and then
removing the small force or moment so only thermal effects were
causing the computed deformations.
Some finite-element codes would provide information about the
stability of various solutions computed. Schlecht et al. (1995) used a
finite element approach to compare with the earlier Rayleigh–Ritz
results of Hyer (1981a) for cross-ply laminates. The comparisons
between the results for the cross-ply laminates from the two dif-
ferent approaches were good. Laminates with 45◦ ply orientation
were also considered, but there was no comparison with results
from other approaches. Schlecht and Schulte (1999) considered
the effect of temperature-dependent properties and the finite ele-
ment approach to study the cooled shape and snap-through forces
and displacements for square cross-ply and [02 /2 ]T laminates.
The principal curvature directions of the latter laminates were also
computed as a function of , as was the response of circular unsym-
metric laminates.
Dano and Hyer (1998) extended the Rayleigh–Ritz approach
to study much more general laminates by using more complex
approximate displacement functions. Shape predictions for more
general laminates using this extended Rayleigh–Ritz approach
were compared with predictions from finite element analyses and
experiments. The correlations among the two predicted shapes and
the experimentally measured ones were quite good. Going one step
further, Dano and Hyer (2002) used the extended Rayleigh–Ritz
approach to predict the forces required for snap through of general
unsymmetric laminates and conducted force-control experiments
to measure these forces. The measured and predicted snap-through
forces were in good agreement.
Hufenbach and Gude (2002) used a genetic algorithm and a
Rayleigh–Ritz solution to find families of laminates with desired
curvature characteristics. Cross-ply and angle-ply laminates were
considered, though details of the approximate in-plane displace-
ment response assumed in the analysis were not given. Hufenbach
et al. (2002) repeated some of the work discussed in (2002) and
presented additional empirical results. A concept for producing
snap through on command was also outlined. Ren et al. (2003) pre-
sented an interesting alternative to the concept of multiple cooled
shapes by presenting predicted results for unsymmetric laminates
following the original approach by Hyer (1981b), but assuming
the laminate was cured on a cylindrical tool rather than in a flat
state before it was cooled. The initial cylindrical shape had a sig-
nificant effect on the role of laminate dimensions on the stability
characteristics.
A number of investigators continued to study unsymmetric lam-
inates. The influence of laminate aspect ratio, defined as the ratio
of laminate length to laminate width, on the stability character-
istics of cross-ply laminates, and therefore the existence or lack
thereof of cylindrical shapes, was investigated by Gigliotti et al.
(2004) using the original formulation of Hyer (1981a) and finite
element analysis. The conclusion was that long, narrow cross-ply
laminates did not exhibit multiple shapes, rather they cooled to
a unique shape with a dominate curvature in the long direction.
The lack of multiple shapes was associated with the loss of bifur-
cation behavior, i.e., the solution for laminate shape did not yield
two solutions, rather just one. It was also concluded that the orig-
inal formulation of Hyer (1981a) was incapable of predicting the
behavior of long, narrow laminates. Potter et al. (2007) measured
the load vs. displacement relations for a two-layer cross-ply lami-
nate and observed the deformation behavior. The load was applied
at the center of the plate and normal to the surface of the curved
laminate. The laminate exhibited complex local snap-through
behavior that was not predicted.
Tawfik et al. (2007) used finite element analysis to study square
cross-ply laminates. The shape predictions were compared with
results using the original theory of Hyer (1981a) and the finite ele-
ment analysis was extended to compute the force, applied at the
center of the laminate and normal to the curved surface, to produce
snap through. Also, calculations were made to determine the crit-
ical laminate aspect ratio and it was concluded that snap through
will not occur if the laminate is too narrow. Pirrera et al. (2010)
used more sophisticated approximate displacement functions and
the Rayleigh–Ritz approach, considered cross-ply laminates, and
provided detailed predictions of shapes and the forces to cause
snap through, where again, the force was applied in the center
of the laminate and normal to the curved surface. Mattioni et al.
(2008) considered unsymmetric laminates with piecewise varia-
tions of the fiber angle within a layer and concluded that multiple
shapes were still possible. Betts et al. (2010) used the approach
developed by Dano and Hyer (1998), relabeling the nomenclature,
and a three-camera system with markers on the laminate to mea-
sure laminate shape. This measurement arrangement was unique
and provided high-resolution data. The comparison between the
predicted and measured shapes was good.
A potential advantage of using the multiple shapes of unsym-
metric laminates for morphing structures was that actuators would
only have to provide the forces to snap the laminate from one shape
to the other. Actuator energy would not be required to hold the lam-
inate in a particular shape. Actuator energy would only be required
for transforming the shape. This could be a significant advantage,
assuming the shapes developed by the unsymmetric laminate were
desirable shapes, and environmental or other influences did not
impact the shape, or the transforming of the shape. Dano and Hyer
(2003) investigated use of shape memory alloy wires, stretched
between short struts, or posts, that were mounted normal to the
surface of an unsymmetric laminate. When electric current was
passed through the shape memory alloy wires, their temperature
would increase and through the martensitic-austenitic transforma-
tion, the wires would contract and produce a tensile force between
the struts. The tensile force acting through the length of the strut
produced a moment on the laminate that, if sufficient, would cause
the laminate to snap through. A similar shape memory alloy wire
and strut arrangement on the opposite side of the laminate would
reverse snap the laminate. The laminate, strut, and shape mem-
ory alloy wire arrangement was modeled using the Rayleigh–Ritz
approach, and the wire temperature to produced snapping was
predicted. Of course, strut length and the number and diameter
of shape memory alloy wires were design variables. Experiments
were developed, with care taken to electrically insulate all com-
ponents, and snap through measurements made. The correlation
between the predicted and measured snap-though temperature
was good.
Using an alternative concept, Schultz and Hyer (2003) used
piezoelectric actuators, bonded to the surface of an unsymmetric
laminate, to produce snap through. The design variables were the
area of the actuator, the strain-voltage capabilities of the actuator,
the maximum voltage that could be applied to the actuator, and the
method of bonding the actuator to the laminate. Interestingly, for
thin laminates the stiffness of the actuator could alter the cooled
shape of the unsymmetric laminate, if not globally, then certainly
in the neighborhood of the actuator. A model was developed to
consider all these issues, the model being based on a multi-step
Rayleigh–Ritz approach, where the steps were (1) laminate cur-
ing, (2) bonding the actuator to the laminate, and (3) application of
voltage to the actuator. Reasonably good correlation between the
predicted and measured voltage to produce snapping was achieved.
 C.T. Herakovich / Mechanics Research Communications 41 (2012) 1–20
Fig. 20. Laminated tube – axial independent loading.
Other investigators considered the same basic approach of using
piezoceramic actuators. Gude and Hufenbach (2006) used a finite
element approach to model the actuators and laminate. Bowen et al.
(2007) considered using mechanical loads to augment the effect of
the actuators. Portela et al. (2008) concluded that the actuator prop-
erties must be matched to the laminate. Failure to do this matching
results in either the multiple shape characteristics of the laminate
being eliminated, or the actuator not being powerful enough to
snap the laminate.
9. Tubes
The laminated circular tube (Fig. 20) is one of a very few compos-
ite structural configurations for which an exact elasticity solution
is available. The analytical solution for axisymmetric, mechanical
loading is based upon the works of Lekhnitskii (1950a), Scherrer
(1967), Reissner (1970), Pagano (1971), and Reissner and Tsai
(1974). Thermal stresses were included by Hyer and Cooper (1986)
and several follow-on works by Hyer and co-workers Wilson and
Orgill (1986) included material and geometric nonlinearities. The
availability of an analytical solution permits direct and efficient
in-depth study of the problem parameters. For an N-layer compos-
ite tube under x-independent, axisymmetric, thermo-mechanical
loading, the displacements in the kth layer can be written:
u(k) (x, r) = ε◦x x
(k) ◦
v (x, r) =  xr
13
exhibit coupling between axial and shear response. This is due
to the fact that the individual layers are not at the same radius
from the axis. In addition, the response of tubes is a function of
the tube aspect ratio RI /h where RI is the inner radius and h is
the laminate thickness. Fig. 21 demonstrates the effect of aspect
ratio for the radial coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) of a car-
bon/epoxy. Results are presented for unidirectional and angle-ply
laminates. The unidirectional laminae exhibit negative CTE only
over a very small range of fiber orientation near 90◦ . In contrast,
the angle-ply laminates exhibit negative CTE over a large range of
fiber orientation; the range of negative values and magnitude are
very dependent on the tube aspect ratio. For angle-ply tubes, the
inner radius of the tube actually shrinks when subjected to heat-
ing; this effect is more pronounced as the aspect ratio decreases
(i.e., the tube is thicker).
The solution for layered tubes can be extended to the case of
a layered, solid cylinder by using the fact that singular displace-
ments are not permissible at r = 0. This condition is used to eliminate
(17)
(18)

w(k) (r) = A1 r  + A2 r − + (k) ε◦x r + ˝(k)  ◦ r 2 +  (k) r T

(k) (k)
(19)

In the above, ε◦x and  ◦ are the axial strain and angle of twist per
unit length, (k) , ˝(k) and  (k) are known functions of the layer
(k)
material properties, T is the uniform temperature change, A1
(k)
and A2 are unknown layer constants to be determined from inter-
facial displacement and stress continuity equations and external
boundary conditions.
There are two interesting facets for the response of laminated,
composites tubes. Axisymmetric tubes of a [± ] configuration Fig. 21. Radial CTE for tubes.
14 C.T. Herakovich / Mechanics Research Communications 41 (2012) 1–20

Fig. 22. Plate in cylindrical bending.

one of the unknowns in the solution. Hashin and Rosen used the
solid cylinder approach in their (1964) paper on the concentric
cylinder assemblage model for micromechanics of composites with
isotropic fiber and matrix. Avery and Herakovich (1986) used the Fig. 23. Off-axis tensile coupon failure comparisons.
solid cylinder approach to study the effect of fiber anisotropy on
thermal stresses, and Knott and Herakovich (1991b) used it to study
the effects of various fiber morphologies on effective composite ultimate stress fult , the composite failure stress cult can be written
in terms of the stress in the matrix at this strain level m  and the
properties.
fiber and matrix volume fractions as:
10. Plates 
cult = fult Vf + m (1 − Vf ) (20)
The first publication concerned with anisotropic plates appears They also presented a relationship specifying the critical fiber
to be that of Huber (in Polish) in (1921). The English translation of volume fraction required for the composite strength to be greater
the title to his work is “The theory of anisotropic rectangular plates, than the bulk matrix strength.
with special consideration of reinforced concrete slabs, iron, etc.”
Another early publication on anisotropic plates is that by Hayashi
11.2. Quadratic failure criteria
(1941). See the Anniversary Volume of collected Papers of Tsuyoshi
Hayashi (1973) for this publication and other related works by
Several quadratic failure criteria have been presented to predict
Hayashi, including his 1947 doctoral thesis that contains his work
failure of a unidirectional composite in a state of combined load-
dating from pre-World War II. Lekhnitskii’s Anisotropic Plates first
ing. They represent attempts to provide better correlation between
appeared in 1944 with a second edition in (1957). Ambartsumyan’s
theory and experiment by inclusion of all components of stress in
Theory of Anisotropic Plates appeared in (1967) and the transla-
an equation representing the failure criterion. The quadratic crite-
tion from Russian in 1970. Whitney’s book on Structural Analysis
ria are based upon the mathematical premise that a second order
of Laminated Anisotropic Plates was published in (1987). Reddy’s
curve has more parameters with which to fit experimental data
book entitled Mechanics of laminated composite plates: theory and
than does a straight line. These criteria generally are not based upon
analysis was published in (1997) with a second edition in (2004).
the physics of the failure mechanisms. While they may provide bet-
Most solutions for laminated plate problems involve some level
ter correlation between theory and experiment in some situations
of approximation. Finite element and other approximate solutions
they are limited in that the sign of the normal stress components
are common. However, there is one problem for which an analytic,
must be known a priori if the positive and negative strengths are
elasticity solution is available. It is the cylindrical bending problem
different (which is often the case with composites).
(Fig. 22) presented in a series of papers by Pagano (1969), Pagano
Failure criteria based upon polynomials of strength tensors
(1970), and Pagano and Wang (1971). The plate is composed of N
represent an attempt to mathematically overcome one of the
orthotropic or angle-ply layers, simply supported along its edges
shortcomings of the quadratic criteria, namely, to account for the
x = 0 and x = L, and subjected to transverse loading q(x) over the
differences in tensile and compressive strengths. They have the
entire the top surface, z = H. For cylindrical bending, all displace-
additional advantage of being scalar equations of tensor quantities.
ments, stresses and strains are independent of axial coordinate y.
Hence they are invariant and transformations between coordinate
Thus the solution to the problem corresponds to the solution for
systems can be affected using the tensor transformation laws.
a generic x-z plane; it shows that, in contrast to classical plate
Tensor polynomial failure criteria were first considered by
theory, the results are a function of the plate length to thickness
Gol’denblat and Kopnov (1965) and Ashkenazi (1965). The criterion
aspect ratio. The classical plate theory predictions converge to the
most often employed over the years is the second order tensor poly-
elasticity solution for large aspect ratios.
nomial criterion proposed by Tsai and Wu (1971). It is a complete
quadratic, tensor polynomial with linear terms included. The crite-
11. Failure
rion assumes that there exists a scalar function f( i ) that describes
the failure surface in stress space. For failure to occur, f( i ) must
11.1. Unidirectional lamina
satisfy the condition:
The axial tensile strength of a unidirectional lamina is typically f (i ) = Fi i + Fij i j ≥ 1 (21)
controlled by the fiber ultimate strain (or stress). Kelly and Davies
(1965) provided a method for predicting axial tensile strength as a In (21), Fi and Fij are tensor quantities of strength parameters
function of fiber and matrix strengths, and the constituent volume that can, at least in theory, be determined from a series of tests on
fractions. For a composite that fails when the fibers attains the fiber the composite.
 C.T. Herakovich / Mechanics Research Communications 41 (2012) 1–20 15

A damage theory for composites that has received considerable

attention is the mesoscale composite damage theory proposed by
Ladeveze (1983, 1986). This theory has been shown to be robust
for predicting the damaged response of composite materials and
structures under a wide variety of conditions. It is based upon
the method of local state expressed in terms of state variables
and the associated thermodynamic forces. The theory is called the
mesoscale composite damage theory because it is based upon the
assumption that the damage is uniform through the thickness of
individual layers of the composite. Mesoscale is a term indicating
that the scale of the analysis is between micromechanics (i.e., the
level of the fiber and the matrix) and laminate analysis. The theory
is based upon the mean value of the stress in each layer and allows
the damage state to vary from layer to layer in a laminate. When
delamination is of interest, damage between layers is introduced
through consideration of damage to the idealized interfacial layer
(Ladeveze et al., 1990; Allix and Ladeveze, 1992).
Additional developments of the model were concerned with the
computation of the intensities of the different damage mechanisms
up to ultimate fracture (Ladeveze, 1992) and bridging the model to
the micromechanics scale, Ladeveze and Lubineau (2002). Appli-
cation of the model to the development of damage in a stiffened
Fig. 24. Failed angle-ply laminates. composite panel was given by Flesher and Herakovich (2006).
The foundation of the model is the expression for the strain
energy density of a damaged layer written in terms of the
Fig. 23 shows a comparison of strength predictions using the mean, effective layer stresses.
tensor polynomial criterion and three maximum stress criteria with  2◦
1 11 2
+ 11 2
− 22 2
+ 22 2
−
experimental results for two resin matrix, unidirectional, off-axis ED = 2 E ◦ (1−d1 )
+ E◦
− 12
E◦
11 22 + E ◦ (1−d2 )
+ E◦
1 1 1 2 2
tensile tests. The tensor polynomial gives the best predictions over
2

the full range of fiber orientations. 12
+ ◦ (1 − d ) (22)
The fiber orientation and stacking sequence of a laminated com- G12 6
posite has a strong influence on the strength and mode of failure.
This is particularly true if free edges are present. Fig. 24 shows the The di in (22) are damage variables and the   ± notation indi-
significant effects of stacking sequence for tensile tests on angle- cates a non-zero contribution depending upon the sign of the stress.
ply laminates with different stacking sequences. When the + and The associated thermodynamic forces are then:
− layers are stacked in an alternating fashion, the mode of fail-
2 
11
ure is primarily due to fiber breakage. In contrast, when the + +
Y1 =
and − layers are grouped together, edge effects and interlaminar 2E1◦ (1 − d1 )
2

shear stresses dominate; the specimen fails due to delamination 2 

at a much lower axial stress. Alternating the layers of the [± 30]S
specimen resulted in a 48% increase in strength.
12. Damage mechanics
Failure is often an ill-defined term when referring to com-
posite materials and composite structures. These heterogeneous,
laminated materials typically exhibit many local failures prior to
rupture into two or more distinct pieces. Local damage in the form
of matrix cracks, fiber breakage or fiber buckling, and fiber/matrix
debonding may initiate and grow (accumulate) throughout the
structure prior to rupture. The local failures are referred to as
“damage” and the development of additional local failures with
increasing load or time is called “damage evolution or damage
accumulation”. The term “damage mechanics” has been coined to
describe the study of the initiation and evolution of damage up to
and including rupture.
The earliest published works on damage mechanics appear
to be those by Kachanov (1958) and Robotnov (1968) on the
application of a continuous damage variable for creep failure of
metals. The concept was generalized, within the framework of
irreversible thermodynamics, for isotropic materials under mul-
tiaxial loads by Lemaitre and Chaboche (1974), Hult (1974), Leckie
(1978) and Murakami (1983). Books on damage mechanics include
those by Lemaitre and Chaboche (1985), Bazant and Cedolin (1991),
Krajcinovic (1996) and Voyiadjis and Kattan (1999).
22 +
Y2 = 2
(23)
2E2◦ 1 − d2 
2
12
Y6 = 2
◦ (1 − d )
2G12 6
The model has demonstrated good comparison between theory
and experiment for a variety of materials and loading conditions.
13. Experimental methods
Testing composite materials has proven to be much more diffi-
cult than testing homogeneous, isotropic materials. The difficulties
are associated primarily with load introduction, development of a
specified, uniform state of stress in a desired region of the test spec-
imen, obtaining stress–strain results into the nonlinear range, and
controlling the type and location of failure. In addition, the funda-
mental tests of tension, compression and shear must be extended to
include consideration of material anisotropy. Unidirectional, con-
tinuous fibers in a polymeric matrix present the most difficult
case.
An early discussion of test methods for fibrous composites was
given by Waddoups (1968). His work was largely based on two Air
Force Contractor Reports by Rogers (1965, 1966). The experimental
work reported on had been conducted at three organizations, Gen-
eral Dynamics Fort Worth Division, Illinois Institute of Technology
Research Institute (IITRI), and Texaco Experiment Inc. Waddoups
discussed the advantages and disadvantages of methods for
16 C.T. Herakovich / Mechanics Research Communications 41 (2012) 1–20

Fig. 25. IITRI style tensile coupon.

tension, compression and shear testing of unidirectional and lam-

inated boron/epoxy. Three tensile specimens were considered:
dogbone, straight sided coupon and sandwich beam. Two com-
pression specimens were considered: short column coupon and
sandwich beam. For shear tests, a sandwich cross beam configu-
ration was used. Linear and nonlinear response, failure, and cyclic
loading and unloading were considered.
The American Society for Testing and Materials played a key role
in the development and acceptance of suitable test methods. ASTM
Subcommittee on Composites, D-30, formed in 1964, led this work.
Between 1966 and 2005 ASTM published sixty-six Special techni-
cal Publications (STPs) related to testing and design of composite
materials. More recently, e.g., Adams (2011) has reviewed tests
methods for composites in a series of articles in high Performance Fig. 26. IITRI compression fixture.
Composites.

stress ¯ x , and the axial and transverse strains, εx and εy , respec-

13.1. Tension tively, as:

As a result of the above noted work and many later investiga- ¯ x

tions, the standard specimen for tensile testing of unidirectional G12 = (24)
2(εx − εy )
and laminated fibrous composites is the IITRI tensile coupon. An
example is shown in Fig. 25. The Iosipescu specimen (1967) was originally designed as a
The specimen is a straight-side coupon with fiber-glass tabs round specimen with a V-notch groove for shear tests on metals. It
bonded at the ends for load introduction. was proposed for flat composites by Herakovich and Bergner et al.
(1977). Advantages of the Iosipescu specimen are that it is not lim-
ited to linear elastic response (as is the [± 45]S tensile coupon) and
13.2. Compression
can be used for out-of-plane response (i.e., G23 ) as well as inplane
response. The specimen can provide shear response well into the
Compression testing proved to be more difficult than tensile
nonlinear range for some laminate configurations. Fig. 27 shows
testing because of issues associated with specimen alignment, fiber
a typical test fixture arrangement used for Iosipescu tests of flat
kinking, and local splitting and crushing of the specimen at the
laminates.
ends where load is introduced. The standard compression speci-
men is a short coupon under combined axial and shear loading.
While a short gage length is required in order to negate the pos-
sibility of fiber kinking, the specimen must be sufficiently long to
eliminate load introduction end effects. The IITRI Compression Fix-
ture was introduced in 1977. A sketch from Adams (2011) is shown
in Fig. 26. Numerous versions of this fixture have been introduced
over the years. In (1988), Lin and Pindera presented an IITRI-like
fixture that can be used for cyclic, tension-compression loading of
flat specimens.

13.3. Shear

A wide variety of specimens have been employed to obtain

the shear stress-strain response of fibrous composites. Early work
included sandwich cross beam, picture frame and rail shear. Three
specimens that are now accepted as providing good results for
shear properties are: the [± 45]S tensile coupon, the Iosipescu V-
notched specimen and the off-axis tensile specimen.
The [± 45]S tensile coupon was proposed by Rosen (1972) as a
simple test for determining the in-plane shear modulus G12 of uni-
directional lamina. He showed that for linear elastic response, the
shear modulus can be expresses simply in terms of the average axial Fig. 27. Iosipescu shear specimen and fixture.
 C.T. Herakovich / Mechanics Research Communications 41 (2012) 1–20
13.4. Off-axis tensile test
Tensile tests on unidirectional off-axis lamina have been used
to measure the shear modulus G12 . The results are dependent on
the fiber orientation angle and the specimen length/width aspect
ratio. It has been shown that for polymeric matric composites, an
angle of 45◦ and aspect ratio of 10–20 are recommended (Pindera
and Herakovich, 1986).
14. Nanocomposites
The term nanotechnology first appeared in (1974) in a paper
presented by Taniguchi in Tokyo, Japan. Nano denotes a scale of
10−9 and nanotechnology refers to the properties of atoms and
molecules measuring roughly 0.1–1000 nanometers. The first arti-
cle on materials at the nano scale was by Kroto et al. (1985) who
published the results of their work on the development of a sta-
ble, cage-like molecule of 60 carbon atoms arranged in the shape
of a soccer-ball or geodesic dome. They called the molecules buck-
erminsterfullerenes or buckyballsafter Richard Buckminster Fuller
of the geodesic dome fame. Richard Smalleyat Rice University was
actually the one who discovered the arrangement of atoms that
provided the correct stable shape (see Smalley, 1991). The devel-
opment of buckyballs was followed by the development of carbon
nanotubes by Iijima (1991). Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are cage-like,
cylindrical fullerenes, roughly 1.5 nanometers in diameter and a
few hundred nanometers to microns long. They exhibit exceptional
specific stiffness and strength and are highly elastic. They can be
formed coaxially, one nanotube inside another, to form multiwall
CNTs.
Because of their high specific modulus and strength combined
with their exceptional elasticity, carbon nanotubes are of great
interest to the composites community. The goal is to disperse car-
bon nanotubes in the matrix of a fibrous composite with the hope
of improving the mechanical properties of the composite. The work
to date has been largely associated with fabrication issues. Much
of this work is reviewed in four articles published by Chou and
co-authors with the most recent by Chou et al. (2010). Sun and co-
workers reported improved compressive properties of glass and
carbon fiber composites using nanoparticle infused matrix materi-
als. These works are summarized by Uddin and Sun (2009).
All things considered, it may be said that, as of this writing,
additional research is required before major advancements in the
mechanical properties of fibrous composites are realized through
the use of nanoparticle enhanced materials.
15. University and government programs
The first significant government research activity on fibrous
composites in the United States appears to be that at the Air Force
Materials Laboratory at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base in the early
1960s. The history of the activity at AFML was detailed by Tsai
in (2005). Soon after the initiation of work at AFML, NASA Lang-
ley Research Center joined the activity in composites promoting
their use in commercial aircraft. Virtually all government labora-
tories now have very active programs in mechanics of composites.
And, of course, the National Science Foundation has played a very
strong role in the funding of research in mechanics of compos-
ites.
Educational and research activities in mechanics of compos-
ites first appeared at universities in the United States in the late
1960s. The first course in composites was taught by Jack Vinson
at the University of Delaware in 1969. That same year, a Depart-
ment of Defense research grant was funded at Virginia Tech under
the leadership of Dan Frederick. Formal programs were established
17
at both of these universities in 1974. At Delaware, a Center for
Composite Materials was formed with Jack Vinson, Tsu-Wei Chou,
Roy McCullough and Byron Pipes providing the leadership. The
Delaware Center has maintained a strong relationship with indus-
try. At Virginia Tech, the NASA-Virginia Tech Composites Program
was established under the leadership of the author and John Davis
at NASA Langley Research Center. Under this cooperative pro-
gram, students completed a research residency of six to twelve
months at NASA’s Langley working with NASA engineers. The first
course in mechanics of composites at Virginia Tech was taught by
the author in 1974. Courses in mechanics of composites are now
taught in many universities in the United States and around the
world.
16. Closure
During the process of writing this invited article it became clear
that there was too much material to be discussed, at the depth
desired by the author, and in the time frame and space available,
if all aspects of composites mechanics were to be covered. Thus,
the time came when it was necessary to say that’s enough for now.
Hopefully, there will be time in the future to add additional top-
ics. Apologies to those who have made significant contributions in
areas not covered. You are many!
17. Books on mechanics of composites
Following is a partial listing of books on mechanics of compos-
ites.
• Aboudi, J., 1991. Mechanics of Composite Materials: A Unified
Micromechanical Approach. Elsevier.
• Achenbach, J.D., 1975. A Theory of Elasticity with Microstruc-
ture for Directionally Reinforced Composites, CISM Courses and
Lectures No. 167. Springer-Verlag, New York.
• Ambartsumyan, S.A., 1970. Theory of Anisotropic Plates. Tech-
nomic Publishing Co. Inc. Stamford, CT.
• Ashton, J.E., Halpin, J.C., Petit, P.H., 1969. Primer on Composite
Materials: Analysis. Technomic.
• Ashton, J.E., Whitney, J.M., 1970. Theory of Laminated Plates.
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Acknowledgments
Fig. 2 is a picture of artwork on papyrus given to the author by
Eman Siragy, a graduate student at the University of Virginia. The
artwork was purchased in Egypt in 1996.
Fig. 3 is a picture given to the author by Zvi Hashin. The picture
was taken by a friend of Hashin.
The photomicrographs in Fig. 5 are courtesy of Joseph M. Kunze,
University of Virginia.
Special thanks to Mike Hyer for writing the section on unsym-
metric laminates.
Thanks are due to Tsu-Wei Chou who provided copies of review
papers on nanocomposites and background on the Center for Com-
posites at the University of Delaware.
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