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Determination of Concrete Setting Time Using Electrical Resistivity

Measurement

Article  in  Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering · May 2007

DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)0899-1561(2007)19:5(423)

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 Determination of Concrete Setting Time Using Electrical
Resistivity Measurement
Zongjin Li1; Lianzhen Xiao, Ph.D.2; and Xiaosheng Wei3

Abstract: The hydration process of fresh concretes with different proportions was studied using electrical resistivity measurement. The
minimum point 共Pm兲 and the transition point 共Pt兲 were identified on the electrical resistivity development curves. The time tm at which Pm
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occurred, represented the time when the curve dropped to a minimum and before increasing as a result of the onset of hydration. The time
tt at which Pt occurred, marked the time when the kinetics of hydration transition changed from the setting to the hardening stage. To
evaluate the significance of tm and tt in terms of the setting process, they were compared to the initial setting time 共ti兲 and final setting time
共t f 兲 measured with the traditional penetration resistance method. The quantitative relationships between the setting time of concrete and
the electrical resistivity critical points were developed. The equations can be used to estimate the setting times of concrete as an alternative
method.
DOI: 10.1061/共ASCE兲0899-1561共2007兲19:5共423兲
CE Database subject headings: Concrete; Penetration resistance; Measurement; Electrical resistivity.

Introduction
Concrete setting time is a crucial parameter for construction
progress and concrete quality control. When the setting time is
known, the times of mixing, transporting, casting and finishing
can be regulated and the effectiveness of various set-controlling
admixtures can be decided. Typically, the initial and final setting
time of concrete are measured by the penetration method that has
been standardized in ASTM C 403 共1995兲. ASTM C 403 defines
two points as the initial setting time and the final setting time,
corresponding approximately to the point at which the concrete
will no longer be plastic under compaction, and the concrete
strength has increased to a value gain of about 0.7 MPa, respec-
tively. The initial and final setting of concrete are determined by
the times at which the penetration resistance reaches 3.5 and
27.6 MPa, when a designated needle penetrates 25.4 mm into the
mortar, which has been sieved from the fresh concrete. It is hard
work to remove the mortar fraction through a 4.75 mm sieve from
fresh concrete, especially for concretes with poor fluidity. Addi-
tionally, for concrete having a retarder incorporated it probably
takes an operator more than 10 h to finish the test, working at
1 obtained from these alternative methods for the interpretation of
Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, The Hong Kong Univ. of
Science and Technology, Clear Water Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong.
E-mail: zongjin@ust.hk
2
Visiting Scholar, Dept. of Civil Engineering, The Hong Kong Univ.
of Science and Technology, Clear Water Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong.
E-mail: xiaolz@ust.hk
3
Associate Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Huazhong Univ. of
Science and Technology, 1037 Luoyu Rd., Wuhan, 430074, China.
E-mail: weixiaosheng@gmail.com
Note. Associate Editor: Carl Liu. Discussion open until October 1,
2007. Separate discussions must be submitted for individual papers. To
extend the closing date by one month, a written request must be filed with
the ASCE Managing Editor. The manuscript for this paper was submitted
for review and possible publication on September 13, 2005; approved on
March 28, 2006. This paper is part of the Journal of Materials in Civil
Engineering, Vol. 19, No. 5, May 1, 2007. ©ASCE, ISSN 0899-1561/
2007/5-423–427/$25.00.
regular intervals. Moreover, the test results can be largely affected
by the skill of operators. For these reasons, there have been at-
tempts to use alternative techniques, such as the impact-echo
method 共Pessiki and Carino 1988兲 and ultrasonic measurement
共Ozturk et al. 1999; Subramaniam et al. 2005; Lee et al. 2004;
Voigt et al. 2005兲 to determine the setting time for concretes. The
impact-echo method defines the setting time of concrete as the
condition when the wave velocity begins to increase. However, it
is hard to be applied to early age concrete and is thus not practi-
cal. The ultrasonic method is based on the generation, transmis-
sion and reflection of mechanical waves in concrete. Preliminary
studies have shown good correlation between the measured wave
reflection factor and the hydration process. Electrical resistivity
measurement is another nondestructive technique for monitoring
the setting and hardening process of fresh concrete 共McCarter et
al. 2003; Gu et al. 1994b; Gu and Beaudoin 1997; Tumidajski
2005; Li et al. 2003; Wei and Li 2005兲, and has the potential to
determine the setting time of concrete. The setting time of cement
was studied with electrodes as early as the 1930s 共Michelsen
1933兲. The retardation effect of setting due to the incorporation of
superplasticizers, using impedance spectros, was observed by Gu
and Torrents 共Gu et al. 1994a; Torrents et al. 1998兲. The results
the setting behavior mentioned above, were compared with the
conventional penetration method. However, no quantitative rela-
tionship between the ultrasonic response or electrical response
and conventional setting time was proposed.
In this paper, the noncontacting electrical resistivity response
is used to determine the setting time of concrete, based on mini-
mum point 共Pm兲 and the transition point 共Pt兲 of a resistivity curve.
Meanwhile, the penetration resistance is measured as specified in
ASTM C 403 as a parallel investigation. From comparison and
regression, quantified setting time equations are proposed as a
function of the critical points 共tm and tt兲 to determine the initial
setting time and final setting time of concrete.
In summary, the scope of the current investigation is: 共1兲 to
measure concrete electrical resistivity using a noncontacting elec-
trical resistivity device; 共2兲 to obtain the critical points on the

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J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 2007.19:423-427.

 Li and W. Li, “Contactless, transformer-based measurment of the
resistivity of materials,” U.S. Patent No. 6,639,401 共2003兲兴, in
which the transformer principle was adopted. As shown in Fig. 1,
the generator produced an alternating current at a frequency of
1,000 Hz. When an input voltage was applied to the primary coil,
a toroidal voltage V was generated in the ring concrete sample
that acted as the secondary coil of the transformer. The toroidal
current, I could be measured by a leakage current meter. The
resistivity of the concrete was calculated through V and I based
on Ohm’s law. There were no electrodes in the apparatus such that
the contact resistance problems between the electrodes and the
concrete sample were eliminated.
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Setting Time
The setting time of concrete was obtained by means of penetra-
tion resistance measurements, in accordance with ASTM C 403.

Preparing the Mixes and Experimental Procedures

Fig. 1. Determination of the relationship for resistivity response and
setting time
measured electrical resistivity curves; 共3兲 to measure the initial
setting time and final setting by penetration resistance 共PR兲, and
共4兲 to develop a relation between the electrical resistivity critical
points and the setting times. The flowchart of the determination of
the relationship for the resistivity response and setting time is
shown in Fig. 1.
Type I Portland cement and fly ash cement were used in Mixes
1–10 and Mix 11, respectively, as the cementitious materials.
Table 1 shows the mix proportions of the eleven concretes used in
the experiments. The water to cement ratio 共W / C兲 ranged from
0.3 to 0.5, with Mixes 1–8 having a W / C of 0.3, Mix 9 with a
W / C of 0.5 and Mixes 10 and 11 having a W / C of 0.4. A
naphthalene-based superplasticizer 共sp1兲 was incorporated in
Mixes 2–4, and a polycarboxylate superplasticizer 共sp2兲 was used
in Mixes 5–7, CaCl2 was used in Mix 8 as an accelerator.
Each sample was mixed and cast in a mold to measure the
electrical resistivity with time. Measurements were taken at inter-
vals of 1 min for 24 h, under an ambient temperature of 20± 2 ° C.
The mixtures for measuring the setting time were prepared in the
same proportions as shown in Table 1, excluding the coarse
aggregate.
Experimental Results and Discussions

Test Method Minimum Point and Transition Point on the Bulk

Electrical Resistivity Apparatus and Principle
The electrical resistivity of concrete was measured by a noncon-
tacting electrical resistivity apparatus that has been patented 关Z.
Electrical Resistivity Curves
In the investigation, eleven mixes, involving concretes with dif-
ferent W / C’s, different cement types or containing admixtures,
have been tested. Three examples of the bulk electrical resistivity

Table 1. Mix Proportions of Concrete per Cubic Meter 共kg/ m3兲

Coarse
Mix number Name Water Cement Sand aggregate Sp1 Sp2 CaCl2
1 Control 165 550 602 1,070
2 Sp1-0.6 165 550 602 1,070 3.3
3 Sp1-0.8 165 550 602 1,070 4.4
4 Sp1-1 165 550 602 1,070 5.5
5 Sp2-0.15 165 550 602 1,070 0.825
6 Sp2-0.25 165 550 602 1,070 1.375
7 Sp2-0.35 165 550 602 1,070 1.925
8 Accelerator 165 550 602 1,070 11
9 WC-0.5 208 415 602 1,070
10 WC-0.4 190 475 602 1,070
11 WC-0.4 190 475 602 1,070
FA cement

424 / JOURNAL OF MATERIALS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING © ASCE / MAY 2007

J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 2007.19:423-427.

 Table 2. Times of Occurrence of Critical Points in the Resistivity
Response and the Setting Times of Concrete
Resistivity response Setting time 共ASTM C 403兲

Point Pm Point Pt Initial Final

Mix 共tm兲 共tt兲 共ti兲 共t f 兲
number Name 共h兲 共h兲 共h兲 共h兲
1 Control 0.33 5.08 3.5 4.73
2 Sp1-0.6 0.70 8.35 5.82 8.02
3 Sp1-0.8 0.93 11.77 8.4 11.77
4 Sp1-1 1.62 13.45 9.42 13.12
5 Sp2-0.15 1.02 11.58 7.22 11.4
6 Sp2-0.25 1.27 15.92 9.38 14.2
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7 Sp2-0.35 2.07 17.95 11.83 16.8

8 Accelerator 0.24 3.98 2.91 3.85
9 W-C0.5 0.90 10.90 4.58 10.23
10 W-C0.4 0.62 7.70 3.75 6.88
11 W-C0.4 0.73 8.03 3.83 7.83
FA cement

Fig. 2. Electrical resistivity response of concretes: 共a兲 minimum
point Pm and three development periods on curves ␳ – t; 共b兲 transition
point Pt on curves ␳ – t 共log scale兲
development with time 共␳ – t兲 for the control concrete 共Mix 1兲, the
concrete containing a superplasticizer 共Mix 3兲 and concrete with a
higher water cement ratio 共Mix 10兲 are plotted in Figs. 2共a and b兲.
Fig. 2共a兲 shows the resistivity ␳ change with time up to 400 min
and the critical points, Pm, are marked as solid dots on the curves.
Fig. 2共b兲 shows the resistivity ␳ change up to 1,440 min on a
logarithmic scale and the second critical points Pt, are identified
on the curves.
As shown in Fig. 2共a兲, the electrical resistivity response 共␳ – t兲
exhibits a minimum point, Pm, in the first stage after mixing. Pm
represents a maximum conducting point corresponding to each
mix, indicating the solution in the hydration system reaches satu-
ration with dissolution progress, suggesting the onset of hydra-
tion. The occurrence times of the minimum point 共tm兲 for Mixes
1, 3, and 10 were 20 min 共0.33 h兲, 56 min 共0.93 h兲, and 37 min
共0.62 h兲, respectively. As compared to Mix 1, the higher W / C of
Mix 10 leads to a longer time to reach saturation, which agrees to
the results observed by Li et al. 共2003兲. Moreover, an obviously
delayed Pm in Mix 3 shows the effect of the incorporation of a
superplasticizer.
As shown in Fig. 2共b兲, the ␳ – t 共log scale兲 relationship of each
mix exhibits a similar distinctive feature, dividing the curve into
three parts. The first part, at earlier ages, has a linear pattern with
a very slight upward slope, and is followed by a transition region
in which the slope starts to increase in a curved manner. The
curve then becomes linear again with a much steeper slope than
that of the first part. There is a transition point 共Pt兲 for each mix
located at the maximum curvature of the transition region, de-
scribing the transition of fresh concrete from conditions of setting
to hardening, and indicating a gain in strength of the concrete.
The times of occurrence of transition point 共tt兲 for Mixes 1, 3, and
10 were 305 min 共5.08 h兲, 706 min 共11.77 h兲 and 462 min
共7.70 h兲 after mixing. Comparing Mixes 1 and 10, the higher
W / C ratio 共Mix 10兲 shows a later transition time, corresponding
to a later start of solidification. And comparing Mixes 1 and 3, the
incorporation of superplasticizer in Mix 3 leads to the longest
time to reach its transition point.
The values of tm and tt of the all 11 mixes, are given in Table
2. It can be seen that tm and tt are obviously related to the different
setting processes caused by W / C, incorporated admixtures or ce-
ment type. The experimentally observed changes in the electrical
response can be further analyzed. The electrical resistivity re-
sponse of concrete can be divided into three different develop-
ment periods based on Pm and Pt, as shown Fig. 2共a兲, and the
characteristics of each period are described as follows.
The dissolving period 共I兲 occurs from the start of mixing to
point Pm. Bulk resistivity ␳共t兲 deceases largely due to the increase
of ions in the liquid phase during this period. After water is added
to the cement, the dissolution of ions from the cement takes place
and mobile ions, such as potassium 共K+兲, sodium 共Na+兲, calcium
共Ca2+兲, hydroxyl ions 共OH−兲, sulfate 共SO2− 4 兲 are released. These
free mobile ions favor the conductivity of the matrix solution. The
variable admixtures, the W / C, or the cement type can cause
changes in the ion concentration or composition of the liquid
phase 共Li et al. 2003; Torrents et al. 1998; Wei and Li 2005兲. The
time to reach the saturation point for each mix is therefore af-
fected by the W / C, the type and dosage of the admixture, and the
cement type.
The setting period 共II兲 is from point Pm to the transition point
Pt. In this period, the electrical resistivity gradually increases with
time, indicating a decrease in porosity and increase in tortuosity.
The hydrate nuclei form from the saturated solution, consuming
the ions in the solution and at the same time reducing the porosity.
The hydration progress results in a percolation of the matrix, and
the fluid concrete then transits to a rigid state. From point Pm to a
time of about 2 h, for the control sample, the change in resistivity

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J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 2007.19:423-427.

 is approximately only 0.1 ⍀ m, indicating that the concrete is
relatively inactive and remains in a plastic state. Afterwards, the
rapid hydration leads to significant increase in the resistivity. At
the time of occurrence of the transition point, the early hardening
stage begins. Mixes 3 and 10 follow similar trends.
The accelerator in Mix 8 is principally to influence the rate of
hydration of the alite phase of the cement, resulting in an increase
in CSH gel formation at early ages, thereby shortening the setting
time 共Hewlett 1998兲. The various factors involving higher poros-
ity in the concretes with higher W / C, of reactivity retardation by
the superplasticizers and of the slower reaction rate in fly ash
cement, have increased the time at which the transition point Pt
occurs as compared with the control sample, suggesting that the
mixes stay fluid or in a semifluid state for a longer time after
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mixing.
Hardening period 共III兲: This period commences from point Pt
onwards, which indicates a change in the rate of increase of ␳共t兲.
The hydration progress leads to the matrix having more tortuosity
and the resistivity continually increases with time. The reaction
rate decreases, controlled by ion-diffusion when the thicker hy-
drates on the cement particle surface form 共Mindess et al. 2003兲.

Correlation of the Setting Time Measured by ASTM

C 403 and the Time of Critical Points Occurring on
the Resistivity Response

To correlate the setting time of concrete with the critical points on

the resistivity response, setting times of concrete have been mea-
sured by the ASTM C 403 procedure mentioned earlier. The set-
ting time results are listed in Table 2. It can be seen in Table 2 that
the initial set and final set occur between tm and tt, and the chang-
ing trends in the setting time 共ti, t f 兲 are the same as those observed
in the resistivity response 共tm, tt兲 caused by the incorporation of an
admixture or variable W / C compared with the control. The retar-
dation increases with increase in the superplasticizer dosage or
W / C; a longer time also appears in Mix 11 having fly ash cement,
when compared with Mix 10. On the other hand, the time points
of Mix 8 are shifted to the earliest time due to an accelerator
being used, which indicates that the electrical resistivity response
is directly related to the setting behavior of the concrete. Thus, the
resistivity measurement monitors changes in the setting behavior
introduced by admixtures or variable W / C or the cement type,
with a high level of sensitivity.
Initial setting time measured by the penetration needle is used
to control the schedule of handling and placing. It is assumed that
at the initial setting the mixture starts to lose plasticity due to
hydrates being formed. The initial setting time is quantified in
terms of the time of onset of hydration 共tm兲 and time at which the
transition point 共tt兲 occurs. Based on the current study, ti can be
expressed as the following equation and the correlation is shown
in Fig. 3共a兲:
ti = 1.8807tm + 0.4429tt, R2 = 0.8950 共1兲
where ti = initial setting time 共h兲; tm and tt = times of occurrence of
the minimum point and transition point 共h兲, from the resistivity
response.
It can also be seen in Table 2 that the value of tt is close to the
final setting time. The relationship between tt and t f are schemati-
cally shown in Fig. 3共b兲, and a good linear correlation can be
observed. The four mixes from Mixes 1, 2, 8, and Mix 10, as
examples, are highlighted in Fig. 3共b兲, presenting the effect of the
Fig. 3. Correlation of ti, t f measured with penetration resistance and
tm, tt on the electrical resistivity response: 共a兲 correlation of ti and
tm , tt; 共b兲 correlation of t f and tt
accelerator, higher W / C and the superplasticizer on setting
behavior.
Final setting time is when fresh concrete starts to gain
strength. Based on the physical meaning of the final setting time
and the fact that tt is close to t f , a quantitative relationship is
obtained as
t f = 0.9202tt + 0.2129, R2 = 0.9895 共2兲
where t f = final setting time 共h兲.
In the previous analysis, the electrical resistivity response ␳共t兲
provides an indication of setting behavior. The relationships 关Eqs.
共1兲 and 共2兲兴 have been developed based on the critical points on
the resistivity response. By plotting the measured 共ti, t f 兲 and cal-
culated 共ti, t f 兲 with the line of equality, it indicated that a good
correlation can be established as shown in Fig. 4.
The electrical resistivity method provides practical advantages
over the conventional penetration resistance method because it
can continuously measure the data immediately after mixing and
can be used directly on concrete rather than on sieved mortar. The
electrical resistivity measurement 共ERM兲 only needs about
0.0016 m3 of fresh concrete, but the penetration method needs at
least 0.01 m3 of mortar sieved from fresh concrete. The ERM has

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J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 2007.19:423-427.


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Fig. 4. Variation of setting time in the measured and calculated
values
considerable applications to assess the setting time and strength
development trend and provide in situ information to determine
the demolding time and control quality.
Conclusions
The following conclusions may be drawn from this study.
1. Two critical points, Pm and Pt, are found on the electrical
resistivity curve of fresh concrete.
2. The physical meaning of Pm is that it is the onset of hydra-
tion; and that of Pt is the gain of notable strength. The time
of occurrence of point Pt is linearly proportional to the final
setting time.
3. The following two equations have been developed and can
be used to estimate the initial setting time and the final set-
ting time for concrete mixes, respectively, ti = 1.8807tm
+ 0.4429tt and t f = 0.9202tt + 0.2129.
Acknowledgments
The support from the Grants of HKUST 6272/03E and
NSFC50578142 is gratefully acknowledged.
JOURNAL OF MATERIALS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING © ASCE / MAY 2007 / 427
View publication stats J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 2007.19:423-427.
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