CE 111

Hydraulic Engineering

RESERVOIRS

Cornelio Q. Dizon
Associate Professor
Institute of Civil Engineering
University of the Philippines
 RESERVOIRS

Definition and Storage Allocation

 A reservoir is a manmade lake or structure used to store water.

 The main function of a reservoir is stabilize the flow of water,
either by regulating a varying supply in a natural stream or by
satisfying a varying demand by the ultimate consumers. Its storage
allocation depends on the purpose/function/use of the reservoir.

 Primary uses of reservoirs are:

1. Water Supply
2. Irrigation
3. Hydropower
4. Flood Control
5. Navigation
6. Aquaculture
7. Recreation
Figure: Ambuklao,
Binga, San Roque and
Lower Agno River Basins
Figure 1.
Ambuklao,
Binga, and
San Roque
reservoirs
Figure: San Roque Reservoir (Source: Google Earth)
Figure: San Roque Dam and Reservoir (Source: Google Earth)
Figure: San Roque Dam Downstream (Source: Herrera)
Figure: San Roque Spillway during Construction
(Source: Herrera)
Figure 6.
Angat
reservoir
Figure: Angat Reservoir at high water level
(Source: Herrera)
Figure. Angat Reservoir at low water level
(Source: Herrera)
Figure: Angat Spillway (Source: Herrera)
Types of reservoirs according to function are:
1. Storage or Conservation Reservoir - retain excess water
from periods of high flow for use during periods of drought.
- created by damming a stream
- uncontrolled inflow- largely controlled outflow
- natural and environmental factors very important in
design and operation
2. Distribution Reservoir – supplies water to varying rate of
demand of water to some cities.
- elevated tanks used in municipal water supply
- inflow to reservoir is completely controlled
- outflow is primarily dictated by consumers needs and
desires.
Figure: Municipal/Distribution Reservoir
Figure: Municipal/Distribution Reservoir (Maynilad)
Figure: Distribution Reservoir (Water Tank)
3. Flood Control Reservoir - protects the areas lying on its
downstream side from the damages due to flood.
- retarding reservoir : provided with spillways and sluiceways
which are ungated. The retarding reservoir stores a portion of the
flood when the flood is rising and releases it later when the flood
is receding.
- detention reservoir : stores excess water during floods and
releases it after the flood. It is similar to a storage reservoir but is
provided with large gated spillways and sluiceways to permit
flexibility of operation.
4. Multipurpose Reservoir – reservoirs that are constructed for more
than a single purpose like, for example, water supply, hydropower,
irrigation, and flood control.
- The Angat Reservoir in Bulacan provides water supply for Metro
Manila, irrigates farmlands in Bulacan, and generates electricity
for the Luzon grid.
Physical Characteristics of Reservoirs

Source: Linsley, Water Resources Engineering, 4th ed.

1. Storage Capacity
- Whatever may be the use of a reservoir, its most
important function is to store water during floods and to release it
later. The storage capacity of a reservoir is, therefore, its most
important characteristics.
- capacity on natural sites is determined from topographic
surveys
 Storage Capacity of Reservoirs
• The available storage capacity of a reservoir depends upon the
topography of the site and the height of dam.
• To determine the available storage capacity of a reservoir up to a
certain level of water, engineering surveys are usually conducted.
• The storage capacity and the water spread area at different
elevations can be determined from the contour map.
• (a) Elevation - Area Curve: From the contour plan, the water
spread area of the reservoir at any elevation is determined by
measuring the area enclosed by the corresponding contour. In the
past, a planimeter is used for measuring the area. An elevation-
area curve is then drawn between the surface area as abscissa
and the elevation as ordinate. At present, Geographic Information
Systems (GIS)/ digitizing softwares are used to determine the
area.
• (b) Elevation-Storage Curve: The storage capacity of the reservoir
at any elevation is determined from the water spread area at
various elevations. An elevation-storage volume is plotted
between the storage volume as abscissa and the elevation as
ordinate.
Elevation-Storage or Capacity Curve and Elevation-Area Curve
- It is the usual practice to plot both the elevation-area curve and
the elevation- storage curve on the same paper

Source: Linsley, Water Resources Engineering, 4th ed.

 Determining Storage

• Evaluate surface area at several different depths

• Use available topographic maps or GIS based DEM sources
(digital elevation map)
• Storage and area vary directly with depth of pond

Elev

Volume

Dam
The following methods are commonly used to determine the storage
capacity:

1. Trapezoidal formula: According to the trapezoidal formula, the

storage volume between two successive contours of areas A1 and
A2 is given by

where h is the contour interval. Therefore the total storage

volume V is

where n is the total number of areas.

2. Cone formula: According to the cone formula, the storage volume

between two successive contours of areas A1 and A2 is given by
3. Prismoidal Formula: According to the prismoidal formula, the
storage volume between three successive contours is given by

The prismoidal formula is applicable only when there are odd

numbers of areas (i.e. n should be an odd number).

In the case of even number of areas, the volume up to the second

last area is determined by the prismoidal formula, and that of the
last segment is determined by the trapezoidal formula.
Physical Characteristics of Reservoirs

2. Normal Pool Level – operating water level

- maximum elevation to which the reservoir surface will rise
during ordinary operating conditions.
- for most reservoirs, normal pool is determined by the
elevation of the spillway crest or top of spillway gates.
3. Minimum Pool Level
- the lowest elevation to which pool is to drawn under
normal conditions.
 - fixed by the elevation of the lowest outlet in the dam or
by conditions of operating efficiency for turbines in the
case of hydroelectric reservoirs.
4. Useful Storage - active storage
- volume between the minimum and normal pool levels
- in multipurpose reservoirs the useful storage may be
subdivided into: (in accordance with the adopted plan of
operation)
4.1 Conservation Storage and
4.2 Flood Mitigation Storage
5. Dead Storage
- volume of water held below the minimum pool level
- equivalent to volume of sediment expected to be deposited
in the reservoir during the design life reservoir.
6. Surcharge Storage
- water level rise over normal pool level during floods
- normally uncontrolled, that is, it exists only while a flood is
occurring and cannot be retained for later use.
7. Bank Storage
- amount of water stored in the reservoir banks wherein
water enters the soil when the reservoir fills and drains
out as the water level is lowered.
- amount depends on the geologic conditions and may
amount to several percent of the reservoir volume.
8. Valley Storage
- water in a natural stream channel.

Effective storage for flood mitigation = useful + surcharge – valley

• In relatively shallow and narrow reservoirs, the water surface at

high flows may depart considerably from the assumption of
horizontal water surface.
• For short deep reservoirs, we can assume a level water surface.
• The wedge–shaped element of storage above a horizontal is
surcharge storage.
INFLOW –OUTFLOW ROUTING

• Reservoir Inflow – Outflow

routing is done to determine
the maximum storage needed
for reservoir sizing.

• Given an inflow hydrograph,

the outflow hydrograph is
computed.
Max Storage
• Area A represents filling the
reservoir and Area C is
drawing water from the
reservoir.

• Maximum reservoir storage

is reached at the peak of the
outflow hydrograph.
 Storage – Outflow Routing

2S1  2S2 
I1  I 2   Q1   Q2
 dt   dt 

1. LHS of Eqn is known

2. Know S as fcn of Q

3. Solve Eqn for RHS

Repeat each time step
4. Solve for Q2 from S2
Reservoir Yield

• The most important aspect of storage–reservoir design is an

analysis of the relation between yield and capacity.
• Yield is the amount of water that can be supplied from the
reservoir during a specified interval of time. It is dependent on
inflow and will vary from year to year.
• Safe or firm yield is the maximum quantity of water that can be
guaranteed during a critical dry period.
• The critical period is often taken as the period of lowest natural
flow on record for the stream.
• The maximum possible yield during a given time interval equals
the mean inflow less evaporation and seepage losses during that
interval.
• Given a target yield, selection of reservoir capacity is dependent
on the acceptable risk that the yield will not always be realized.
• Secondary yield is the water available in excess of safe yield
during high flow.
• Hydroelectric energy developed from secondary water may be
sold to large industries on a “when available” basis.
Selection of Distribution-Reservoir Capacity

• Project design often requires the determination of the reservoir

capacity required to meet a specific demand like in municipal water
supply or in irrigation.
• The determination of the capacity to supply a given yield is based
on the storage equation.
• In the long run , outflow must equal inflow less waste and
unavoidable losses.
• Reservoir does not make water but merely permits its distribution
with respect to time.
Example 1 (7.1
Linsley):
(Fixed inflow rate)
The water supply for a city
is pumped from wells to a
distribution reservoir. The
estimated hourly water
requirements for the
maximum day are as
follows. If the pumps are
to operate at a uniform
rate, what distribution
reservoir capacity is
required?
Example 1: (Fixed inflow rate)
Assignment 1:

The table below shows the average water demand for each hour of a
common day in Marikina City. The proposed water supply system is
composed of a pump which takes water from a well and delivers it to
a reservoir from which the water is supplied to the service area.
Based on the demand data, what pump capacity is needed and
reservoir volume (in m3) is required to operate continuously for the
24-hr period?

Time, hour 1 A.M. 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12N

Q, m3/min 3.0 3.0 3.4 3.8 4.5 5.4 7.2 8.3 7.6 6.0 6.1 6.4

Time, hour 1 P.M. 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12M

3
Q, m /min 5.7 4.9 5.3 6.1 6.8 8.7 6.8 5.7 4.5 0.4 3.4 3.0
Firm Yield for an Unregulated River

• The most commonly used method to determine the firm yield of

an unregulated river is to construct a flow-duration curve.

• The flow-duration curve is a graph of the discharge as a function

of the percent of time that the flow is equalled or exceeded.

• To develop the curve, arrange the flows in descending order with

the largest flow ranked as 1 and the smallest N. The percentage of
time flow is equalled or exceeded is computed by 100m/N where m
is the rank.

• The firm yield is the flow that is equalled or exceeded 100% of

the time for the historical sequence of flows.

Example 2 (11.7.1, Mays) : Use the monthly flow data given in

Table 11.7.1 to develop the flow-duration curve and determine the
firm/safe yield for this site.
Figure 11.7.2 Flow-duration Curve
Selection of River Reservoir Capacity

• The determination of required capacity for a river reservoir is

usually called an operation study.
• Operation study is essentially a simulation of the reservoir
operation for a period of time in accord with an adopted set of rules.
• An operation study may analyze:
1) Selected critical period of very low flow - define only the
capacity required during the selected drought.
2) long synthetic record - it is possible to estimate the
reliability of reservoirs of various capacities.
• An operation study may be performed with annual, monthly, or
daily time intervals.
• Monthly data are most common but for large reservoirs, annual
intervals may be satisfactory.
• For small reservoirs, the sequence of flow within a month may be
important and a weekly or daily interval should be used.
Sequent-Peak Algorithm:

• Sequent-peak algorithm is commonly used when lengthy

synthetic data are to be analyzed.
• Values of the cumulative sum of inflow minus withdrawals
(includes average evaporation and seepage) are calculated.
• The first peak (local maximum of cumulative net inflow) and the
sequent peak (next following peak that is greater than the first
peak) are identified.
• The required storage for the interval is the difference between the
initial peak and the lowest trough in the interval.
• The process is repeated for all cases in the period under study
and the largest value of required storage can be found.

Mass Curve Analysis:

• Mass curve or Rippl diagram is a cumulative plotting of net

reservoir inflow.
• The slope of the mass curve at any time is a measure of the
inflow at that time.
• Demand curves representing a uniform rate of demand are
straight lines.
• Demand lines drawn tangent to the high points of the mass curve
(A and B in Figure 7.6) represent rates of withdrawal from the
reservoir.
• Assuming the reservoir to be full wherever a demand line
intersects the mass curve, the maximum departure between the
demand line and the mass curve represents the reservoir capacity
required to satisfy the demand.
• The vertical distance between successive tangents represents
water wasted over the spillway.
• If the demand is not uniform, the demand line becomes curve but
the analysis is the same.

Example 3 (7.2, Linsley): Given the yield or demand, determine

capacity using Mass Curve Analysis
Determine the reservoir capacity required to assure a yield of
75,000 acre-ft/yr for the inflows shown in Figure 7.6.
Solution Notes to Example 3:
 Tangents to the mass curve at A and B have slopes equal
to the demand of 75,000 acre-ft/yr.
 The maximum departure occurs at C and is 56,000 acre-
ft. This is the required capacity.
 Such a reservoir would be full at A, depleted to 34,000
acre-ft of storage at D and full again at E.
 Between E and B, the reservoir would remain full and all
inflow in excess of the demand would be wasted
downstream.
 At C the reservoir would be empty and at F it would be
full again.
 In this example, the storage must carry over 2 years.

• Mass curves may also be used to determine the yield that may be
expected with a given reservoir capacity.
• In this case, tangents are drawn to the high points of the mass
curve (A and B in Figure 7.7) in such a manner that their maximum
departure from the mass curve does not exceed the specified
reservoir capacity.
• The slopes of the resulting lines indicate the yields that can be
attained in each year with a specified storage capacity.
• The slope of each demand line is the yield for the period.
• A demand line must intersect the mass curve when extended
forward. If it does not, the reservoir will not refill.

Example 4 (7.3, Linsley) : Given the capacity, determine the safe

yield
Determine the yield that would be available if a reservoir of 30,000
acre-ft capacity is provided at the site which the mass curve of
Figure 7.7 applies.

Solution Notes to Example 4:

Tangents to the mass curve are drawn so that their

maximum departure from the mass curve is 30,000 acre-ft.
 The tangent from B has the least slope, 60,000 acre-ft/yr,
and this is the minimum yield.
 The tangent at A indicates possible yield of 95,000 acre-
ft/yr in that year, but this demand could not be satisfied
between points B and C.
Example 5 (11.7.2, Mays): Given the yield or demand, determine
capacity using Mass Curve Analysis
Using the monthly data in Table 11.7.1, construct the cumulative
mass curve over the five-year period and determine the required
active storage capacity to produce a firm yield of 2000 acre-ft/month.
 A1, A2, A3, and A4 are
the beginning of the
low flow periods, while
points B1, B2, B3, and
B4 define the end of
the low flow periods.

The line representing

the yield of 2000 acre-
ft/month is placed
tangent to points Ai.

The largest vertical

distance from Bi to the
tangent lines is
identified.

The largest vertical

distance is at B1 and
the value is 7200 ac-ft
Figure 11.7.5 Mass Curve Analysis which is the required
storage.
Example 6 (11.7.4, Mays): Given the yield or demand, determine
capacity using Sequent-Peak Analysis
Using the monthly data in Table 11.7.1, the following monthly
evaporation loss and precipitation data and use the sequent-peak
method to determine the required active storage capacity to produce
a firm yield of 2000 acre-ft/month. Seepage losses are negligible.

Month EV (ac-ft) PP (ac-ft)

10 270 3
11 275 5
12 280 5
1 350 10
2 470 30
3 450 50
4 400 100
5 350 150
6 370 70
7 330 10
8 300 2
9 290 3
Solution Notes to Example 6: Graphical Solution

The sequent-peak method computes the cumulative sum of inflows

QFt minus the releases (firm yield) Rt, that is, S(flow-demand)
S(QFt-Rt) for all time periods t. Graphically, the required storage is
the vertical difference between the first peak and the low point
before the sequent peak.
Solution Notes to Example 6: Algebraic Solution using Excel

The reservoir inflows QFt must be adjusted to account for

precipitation, evaporation, and seepage losses. The adjusted
QFta in period t can be estimated as,

QFta = QFt + PPt – EVt – SPt

where PP = precipitation
EV = evaporation
SP = seepage loss

The required storage capacity Kt at the beginning of period t is

computed as,

Kt = Rt – QFta + Kt-1, if positive

or Kt = 0, otherwise where Rt = firm yield (release)

The initial value of Kt at time = 0 is set to zero. The largest Kt

for any time t is the required storage capacity. The required
storage capacity is 8,840 acre-ft as shown in Table 11.7.3.