3.1.1 The Logic of Quantified Statements Part 1.1

The Logic of Quantified
Statements
Part 1.1
Predicates and Quantified Statements I
Introduction
The sentence “He is a college student” is
not a statement because it may be either
true or false depending on the value of
the pronoun he.
Similarly, the sentence “x + y is greater
than 0” is not a statement because its
truth value depends on the values of the
variables x and y.
Introduction
In grammar, the word predicate refers to
the part of a sentence that gives
information about the subject.
In the sentence “James is a student at
Bedford College,” the word James is the
subject and the phrase is a student at
Bedford College is the predicate.
Introduction
The predicate is the part of the sentence
from which the subject has been
removed.
In logic, predicates can be obtained by
removing some or all of the nouns from a
statement.
Introduction
For instance, let P stand for “is a student
at Bedford College” and let Q stand for
“is a student at.”
Then both P and Q are predicate symbols.
Introduction
The sentences “x is a student at Bedford
College” and “x is a student at y” are
symbolized as P(x) and as Q(x, y)
respectively, where x and y are predicate
variables that take values in appropriate
sets.
Introduction
When concrete values are substituted in
place of predicate variables, a statement
results.
For simplicity, we define a predicate to be
a predicate symbol together with suitable
predicate variables.
Introduction
In some other treatments of logic, such
objects are referred to as propositional
functions or open sentences.
Definition
A predicate is a sentence that contains a
finite number of variables and becomes a
statement when specific values are
substituted for the variables.
The domain of a predicate variable is the
set of all values that may be substituted
in place of the variable.
Example 1 Finding the Truth
Values of a Predicate
Let P(x) be the predicate “x2 > x” with
domain the set R of all real numbers.
Write P(2), P( 1/2 ), and P(−1/2 ), and
indicate which of these statements are
true and which are false.
Solution
P(2):
2
2 > 2 or 4 > 2.
True.
Solution
P (1/2):
2
(1/2) > 1/2 , or 1/4 > 1/2 .
False.
Solution
P (−1/2):
2
(−1/2) > −1/2 , or 1/4 > −1/2.
True.
When an element in the domain of the
variable of a one-variable predicate is
substituted for the variable, the resulting
statement is either true or false.
The set of all such elements that make the
predicate true is called the truth set of the
predicate.
Definition
If P(x) is a predicate and x has domain D, the
truth set of P(x) is the set of all elements of
D that make P(x) true when they are
substituted for x.
The truth set of P(x) is denoted {x ∈ D | P(x)}.
Example 2 Finding the Truth Set
of a Predicate
Let Q(n) be the predicate “n is a factor of 8.”
Find the truth set of Q(n) if
+
a. the domain of n is the set Z of all positive
integers
b. the domain of n is the set Z of all integers
of a Predicate
+
a. the domain of n is the set Z of all positive
integers.
Solution
The truth set is {1, 2, 4, 8} because these are
exactly the positive integers that divide 8 evenly.
of a Predicate
b. the domain of n is the set Z of all integers
Solution
The truth set is {1, 2, 4, 8, −1, −2, −4, −8}
because the negative integers −1, −2, −4, and −8
also divide into 8 without leaving a remainder.
The Universal Quantifier: ∀
One sure way to change predicates into
statements is to assign specific values to all
their variables.
For example, if x represents the number 35,
the sentence “x is (evenly) divisible by 5” is a
true statement since 35 = 5·7.
Another way to obtain statements from
predicates is to add quantifiers.
Quantifiers are words that refer to quantities
such as “some” or “all” and tell for how
many elements a given predicate is true.
The formal concept of quantifier was
introduced into symbolic logic in the late
nineteenth century by the American
philosopher, logician, and engineer Charles
Sanders Peirce and, independently, by the
German logician Gottlob Frege.
The symbol ∀ denotes “for all” and is called
the universal quantifier.
For example, another way to express the
sentence “All human beings are mortal” is to
write
∀ human beings x, x is mortal.
When the symbol x is introduced into the
phrase “∀ human beings x,” you are
supposed to think of x as an individual, but
generic, object—with all the properties
shared by every human being but no other
properties.
Thus you should say “x is mortal” rather than
“x are mortal.”
In other words, use the singular “is” rather
than the plural verb “are” when describing
the property satisfied by x.
If you let H be the set of all human beings,
then you can symbolize the statement more
formally by writing
∀x ∈ H, x is mortal,
which is read as “For all x in the set of all
human beings, x is mortal.”
Some other expressions that can be used
instead of for all are for every, for arbitrary,
for any, for each, and given any.
In a sentence such as “∀ real numbers x and
y, x + y = y + x,” the ∀ symbol is understood to
refer to both x and y.
Definition
Let Q(x) be a predicate and D the domain of x.
A universal statement is a statement of the
form “∀x ∈ D, Q(x).”
It is defined to be true if, and only if, Q(x) is true
for every x in D.
Definition
It is defined to be false if, and only if, Q(x) is
false for at least one x in D.
A value for x for which Q(x) is false is called a
counterexample to the universal statement.
Example 3 Truth and Falsity of
Universal Statements
1. Let D = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, and consider the
statement ∀x ∈ D, x2 ≥ x. Show that this statement
is true.
Solution
Check that “x2 ≥ x” is true for each individual x in D
12 ≥ 1, 22 ≥ 2, 32 ≥ 3, 42 ≥ 4, 52 ≥ 5.
Hence “∀x ∈ D, x2 ≥ x” is true.
2. Consider the statement ∀x ∈ R, x2 ≥ x. Find a
counterexample to show that this statement is
false.
Solution:
Counterexample: Take x = 1/2.
Then x is in R (since 1/2 ∈ R) and (1/2) 2 = 1/4 ≱ 1/2.
Hence “∀x ∈ R, x2 ≥ x” is false.
The Existential Quantifier: ∃
The symbol ∃ denotes “there exists” and is
called the existential quantifier.
For example, the sentence “There is a
student in Math 140” can be written as
∃ a person p such that p is a student in
Math 140,
or, more formally,
∃p ∈ P such that p is a student in Math
140, where P is the set of all people.
The words such that are inserted just before
the predicate.
Some other expressions that can be used in
place of there exists are there is a, we can
find a, there is at least one, for some, and for
at least one.
In a sentence such as “∃ integers m and n
such that m + n = m ·n,” the ∃ symbol is
understood to refer to both m and n.
Sentences that are quantified existentially
are defined as statements by giving them the
truth values specified in the following
definition.
Let Q(x) be a predicate and D the domain of x.
An existential statement is a statement of the
form “∃x ∈ D such that Q(x)” or “∃x ∈ D, Q(x)”
or “∃x ∈ D│Q(x)” or “∃x ∈ D s.t. Q(x)”
It is defined to be true if, and only if, Q(x) is true
for at least one x in D.
It is false if, and only if, Q(x) is false for all x in D.
Summary
The phrase “for every” (or its equivalents) is called
a universal quantifier.
The phrase “there exists” (or its equivalents) is
called an existential quantifier.
The symbol ∀ is used to denote a universal
quantifier, and the symbol ∃ is used to denote an
existential quantifier.
Summary
Using this notation, the statement “For each real
number x, x2 > 0” could be written in symbolic
form as:
2
(∀x ∈ R)(x > 0) or
∀x ∈ R, x2 > 0
Summary
The following is an example of a statement
involving an existential quantifier.
There exists an integer x such that 3x - 2 = 0.
This could be written in symbolic form as
(∃x ∈ Z)(3x - 2 = 0) or
∃x ∈ Z, 3x - 2 = 0 or
∃x ∈ Z │3x - 2 = 0 or ∃x ∈ Z s.t. 3x - 2 = 0
Existential Statements
1. Consider the statement ∃m ∈ Z+ such that
m2 = m. Show that this statement is true.
Solution
2 2
Observe that 1 = 1. Thus “m = m” is true for at
least one integer m.
2
Hence “∃m ∈ Z such that m = m” is true.
2. Let E = {5, 6, 7, 8} and consider the statement
∃m ∈ E such that m2 = m. Show that this
statement is false.
Solution
2
Note that m = m is not true for any integers m
from 5 through 8:
52 = 25 ≠ 5, 62 = 36 ≠ 6, 72 = 49 ≠ 7, 82 = 64 ≠ 8
2. Let E = {5, 6, 7, 8} and consider the statement
∃m ∈ E such that m2 = m. Show that this
statement is false.
Solution
Thus “∃m ∈ E such that m2 = m” is false.
Example 5 Translating from
Formal to Informal Language
Rewrite the following formal statements in a
variety of equivalent but more informal
ways. Do not use the symbol ∀ or ∃.
2
a. ∀x ∈ R, ≥ 0.
x
Solution
All real numbers have nonnegative squares.
Or: Every real number has a nonnegative
square.
Or: Any real number has a nonnegative square.
Or: The square of each real number is nonnegative.
Note: The singular noun is used to refer to
the domain when the ∀ symbol is translated
as every, any, or each.
b. ∀x ∈ R, x2 ≠ −1.
Solution
All real numbers have squares that are not equal
to −1.
Or: No real numbers have squares equal to −1.
c. ∃m ∈ Z+ such that m2 = m.
Solution
There is a positive integer whose square is equal
to itself.
Or: We can find at least one positive integer
equal to its own square.
c. ∃m ∈ Z+ such that m2 = m.
Solution
Or: Some positive integer equals its own square.
Or: Some positive integers equal their own
squares.
Another way to restate universal and existential
statements informally is to place the
quantification at the end of the sentence.
For instance, instead of saying
“For any real number x, x2 is nonnegative,”
you could say
“x2 is nonnegative for any real number x.”
In such a case the quantifier is said to “trail” the
rest of the sentence.
Example 6 Trailing Quantifiers
Rewrite the following statements so that the
quantifier trails the rest of the sentence.
a. For any integer n, 2n is even.
Solution
2n is even for any integer n
Example 6 Trailing Quantifiers
Rewrite the following statements so that the
quantifier trails the rest of the sentence.
b. There exists at least one real number x
2
such that x ≤ 0.
Solution
x ≤ 0 for some real number x.
Or: x2 ≤ 0 for at least one real number x.
Example 7 TRY Translating from
Informal to Formal Language
Rewrite each of the following statements
formally. Use quantifiers and variables.
a. All triangles have three sides.
b. No dogs have wings.
c. Some programs are structured.
a. All triangles have three sides.
Solution
∀ triangles t, t has three sides.
Or: ∀t ∈ T, t has three sides (where T is the
set of all triangles).
b. No dogs have wings.
Solution
∀ dogs d, d does not have wings.
Or: ∀d ∈ D, d does not have wings (where D
is the set of all dogs).
c. Some programs are structured.
Solution
∃ a program p such that p is structured.
Or: ∃p ∈ P such that p is structured (where P
is the set of all programs).
Universal Conditional Statements
A reasonable argument can be made that
the most important form of statement in
mathematics is the universal conditional
statement:
∀x, if P(x) then Q(x).
∀x, (P(x) → Q(x))
Universal Conditional Statements
∀x, if P(x) then Q(x)
∀x, (P(x) → Q(x))
Familiarity with statements of this form is

essential if you are to learn to speak
mathematics.
Example 8 Writing Universal
Conditional Statements Informally
Rewrite the following statement informally,
without quantifiers or variables.
2
∀x ∈ R, ((x > 2)→ (x > 4))
∀x ∈ R, ((x > 2)→ (x2 > 4))
Solution
If a real number is greater than 2 then its square
is greater than 4.
Or: Whenever a real number is greater than 2,
its square is greater than 4.
∀x ∈ R, ((x > 2)→ (x2 > 4))
Solution
Or: The square of any real number greater than
2 is greater than 4.
Or: The squares of all real numbers greater than
2 are greater than 4.
Conditional Statements Formally
Rewrite each of the following statements in the
form ∀ _____ , if _____ then _____ .
a. If a real number is an integer, then it is a
rational number.
b. All bytes have eight bits.
c. No fire trucks are green.
∀ _____ , if _____ then _____ .
rational number.
Solution
∀ real numbers x, if x is an integer, then x is a
rational number.
∀ _____ , if _____ then _____ .
rational number.
Or: ∀x ∈ R, if x ∈ Z then x ∈ Q.
∀ _____ , if _____ then _____ .
b. All bytes have eight bits
Solution
∀x, if x is a byte, then x has eight bits.
∀ _____ , if _____ then _____ .
c. No fire trucks are green.
Solution
∀x, if x is a fire truck, then x is not green.
Equivalent Forms of Universal and
Observe that the two statements
“∀ real numbers x, if x is an integer then x is
rational” and
“∀ integers x, x is rational”
mean the same thing. Both have informal
translations
“All integers are rational.”
In fact, a statement of the form
∀x ∈ U, if P(x) then Q(x)
can always be rewritten in the form
∀x ∈ D, Q(x)
by narrowing U to be the domain D
consisting of all values of the variable x that
make P(x) true.
Conversely, a statement of the form
∀x ∈ D, Q(x)
can be rewritten as
∀x, if x is in D then Q(x) or
∀x, if x ∈ D then Q(x).
Example 10 Equivalent Forms for
Rewrite the following statement in the two
forms
“∀x, if ____ then ____” and
“∀ ____ x, ____ ”:
All squares are rectangles.

“∀x, if ____ then ____” and
“∀ ____ x, ____ ”:
All squares are rectangles.
a. ∀x, if x is a square then x is a rectangle.

b. ∀ squares x, x is a rectangle.
Similarly, a statement of the form
“∃x such that P(x) and Q(x)”
can be rewritten as
“∃x ∈ D such that Q(x),” where D is the
set of all x for which P(x) is true.
A prime number is an integer greater than 1
whose only positive integer factors are itself
and 1.
Consider the statement in the next slide.

“There is an integer that is both prime and
even.” Let Prime(n) be “n is prime” and Even(n)
be “n is even.”
Use the notation Prime(n) and Even(n) to
rewrite this statement in the following two
forms:
be “n is even.”
a. ∃n such that _____ ∧ _____.
Answer:
∃n such that Prime(n) ∧ Even(n).
be “n is even.”
b. ∃ _____ n such that _____.
Answer:
∃ a prime number n such that Even(n).
Or: ∃ an even number n such that Prime(n).
Implicit Quantification
Consider the statement
If a number is an integer, then it is a
rational number.
As shown earlier, this statement is
equivalent to a universal statement.
However, it does not contain the revealing
word all or every or any or each.
The only clue to indicate its universal
quantification comes from the presence of
the indefinite article a.
This is an example of implicit universal
quantification.
Let P(x) and Q(x) be predicates and suppose
the common domain of x is D.
• The notation P(x) ⇒ Q (x) means that
every element in the truth set of P(x) is in
the truth set of Q(x), or, equivalently,
∀x, P(x) → Q(x).
Let P(x) and Q(x) be predicates and suppose
the common domain of x is D.
• The notation P(x) ⇔ Q (x) means that P(x)
and Q(x) have identical truth sets, or,
equivalently, ∀x, P(x) ↔ Q(x).
Assignment # 1 (Final Term)
1. Let Q(n) be “n is a factor of 8,”
R(n) be “n is a factor of 4,”
S(n) be “n < 5 and n ≠ 3,”
+
and suppose the domain of n is Z , the set of
positive integers. Use the ⇒ and ⇔ symbols to
indicate true relationships among Q(n), R(n),
and S(n).
2. Consider the domain of real numbers. Define
the predicate P(x) to mean x is (strictly) positive,
N(x) to mean x is (strictly) negative.
Translate each statement in everyday
language.
A. ∀x(P(x) ∨ N(x))
B. ∃x(∼ P(x)∧ ∼ N(x))
C. ∀x(P(x) →∼ N(x))
D. ∃x(P(x) →∼ N(x))

3.1.1 The Logic of Quantified Statements Part 1.1

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3.1.1 The Logic of Quantified Statements Part 1.1

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The Logic of Quantified

Familiarity with statements of this form is

All squares are rectangles.

a. ∀x, if x is a square then x is a rectangle.

Consider the statement in the next slide.

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