INTERNSHIP REPORT

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

SUBMITTED BY:
Muhammad Talal Anwar

SUBMITTED TO:
HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGER
 PREFACE
In this internship report I will describe my experiences during my internship period. This internship report
contains an overview of the internship company and the activities, tasks and projects that I have worked
on during my internship. Writing this report, I will also describe and reflect my learning objects and
personal goals that I have set during my internship period.

I have tried to discover the relationship between theoretical and practical type of knowledge. I have tried
to bridge the gap between theoretical assumptions and practical necessities.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This report has been prepared for the internship that has been done in the IFFCO PAKISTAN, in order to
study the practical aspect of the course and implementation of the theory in the real field with
the purpose of fulfilling the requirements of the course of BSc.(Bachelor of Science in Electrical
Engineering ).The aim of this internship is to be familiar to the practical aspect and uses of theoretical
knowledge and clarifying the career goals, so I have successfully completed the internship and compiled
this report as the summary and the conclusion that have drawn from the internship experience .I would
like to express my sincere gratitude to our internship coordinator who have given their valuable time and
given me chance to learn something despite having their busy schedule and Mr. Abdul Samad for his great
guidelines during the internship. I am also thankful to Mr. Hallar, Mr. Rehan, Mr. Hasseb and other staff
member for their co-operative support, and also presenting with an opportunity for me to have a practical
experience in this organization .Lastly, I would like to thank Mr. Sajid Raza for providing me this
opportunity to work in IFFCO PAKISTAN . I am also grateful to all the members of IFFCO PAKISTAN for
sharing their experience with me and teaching me different techniques. Thus, the time in IFFCO was
very audacious and supportive to my career through which I have gained valuable work experience that
will definitely help make a favorable impression on me as a prospective future employer.
INTRODUCTION:
IFFCO Pakistan (Private) Limited is part of United Arab Emirates based business house operating in over
84 countries and is a principal player in the edible oil and fats market, located inside Port Qasim. It is the
largest edible oil refinery in the country, processing, packaging and marketing cooking oil, fats and
margarine. IFFCO Pakistan is the only multinational company in edible oil industry.

As a giant in the Edible Oil industry, IFFCO Pakistan also has an in-house designed and manufactured
seed crushing plant, being utilized for the extraction of raw/crude oil from soya bean seeds. With a
capacity of 300 tons/day. Overall this company showcases multiple operations taking place within a
single premise, from importing or crushing seeds to the loading of trucks with the finished product.

Internship Summary
I joined IFFCO Pakistan as an intern on the 11th of June 2019. My area of interest being related to my
field of study was Electrical Engineering works. This was covered in a manner that IFFCO has its own
electricity generation and an advance automation system and along with that a skilled maintenance
workforce that is technically sound to ensure that these entire component are always working at
optimum condition.

My internship was mostly comprised of making notes and learning the functioning characteristic of all
the components present in the company, these included an array of Motors, pumps, valves, contactors,
VFDs and other electrical equipment along with that the load distribution and power management.
Since IFFCO utilizes its own generators for power production, this was a proper way to learn about
power distribution and safety precautions taken to ensure safe operations of all the parts of the Factory.

The staff and atmosphere is very friendly and everyone treats each other with respect and dignity. The
learning atmosphere and exposure with no bounds or restrictions for the education of internees is rare
to find like it is in IFFCO. I enjoyed my time learning and making new friends since my boss and fellows
were more like a friend teaching me instead of Boss calling out for me. I learned a lot, I enjoyed a lot, I
will remember my time I spent here in IFFCO Pakistan.

The factory comprises of the following technical departments:

POWER HOUSE:
Power House at IFFCO Pakistan Pvt. generates and distribute Electrical Power around the IFFCO plant
and its different parts.

It comprises of 4 GAS generators and 4 Diesel generators although Diesel generators are now out of
service and were being used as backup/standby generators before that.

Switch gears and L.V Panels are used for protection purpose.
GENERATORS:
The Generation Plant compromises of 4 Jenbacher Gas Engines, since GAS is easily available, cost
effective and also gas engines are easy to maintain as compared to coal or diesel generators.

There are 4 generators with two different specifications:

1. JGS 320
 P=1 MW
 S=1200KVA
 P.F=0.88
 V=400V
2. JGS 420
 P=1.5 MW
 S=1700KVA
 P.F=0.88
 V=400V

JGS 320 and 420 both are 20 cylinder engines with a different model no. and power rating.

Our total generating capacity is 4.5MW i.e 5100KVA at full load.

The Jenbacher gas engines which are renowned for robust performance in challenging conditions.
Jenbacher gas engines are manufactured in the town of Jenbach, Austria in the Tyrol. The Jenbacher gas
engine is designed to run solely on different types of gas, and for different types of applications. The
class-leading efficiency of up to 47.8% of GE's Jenbacher engines results in outstanding fuel economy
and in parallel the highest levels of environmental performance. The engines have also proved to be
highly reliable and durable in all types of applications. Jenbacher generators are renowned for being
able to constantly generate the rated output even with variable gas conditions.

Each Generator has a V-type block with 10 cylinders on each bank. The fuel being used is Methane gas
provided by SSGC. The engines used in the Generators are Internal Combustion (IC) with forced draft or
forced induction using a turbo blower for a more efficient combustion. Each generator has a custom
panel for inspecting and controlling its operation with safety systems to monitor high and low priority
alarms during operation. Like the use of temperature sensors to make sure the engines is not
overheating or running cool.

As the generators produce huge amounts of heat and noise, precautions like ear muffs and hard hats
along with safety shoes are worn before entering the generator room. The heat is controlled using
magnitude of methods.

Following are block Diagram Representation of the cooling systems.

Another cooling system is the jacket water Heating System.

This system is used to cool down;

1. Cylinder Lining
2. Cylinder Heads
3. Turbo Blower
4. Cylinder Jacket
5. Core

The block diagram shows the Jacket water cooling system which incorporates the waste heat recovery
system.

The Jacket water heat recovery system is a way the company ensures that steps can be taken in the
direction towards utilizing wasted potential. The heat wasted is recovered for preheating the water that
is used in the boiler to create steam. As the returning water from the jacket water cooling system is at
85-90.C, it is circulated in a close system that heats up the soft-water that is sent to the heat recovery
system in another closed circuit from the boiler house. Use of heat exchanger allows the jacket water
temperature to fall to 70.C while the soft-water temperature rises to 60-70.C to send for steam
production.

This use of economizers enable IFFCO to ensure that the overall efficiency of the plant increases and
savings ensure that the plant operates as economically as possible without damaging the environment
in the process.

Powerhouse is the only source of Electricity for the entire factory along with the Seed Crushing Plant.

L.V Panels and Switch Gears:

Switch gears and L.V panels are used for generator protection.

Air Circuit Breakers (ACB) are used at 440V and different current rating depending on the load or
generator connected. There are 4 generators therefore 4 separate ACBs are used for their protection.

 JGS 420 have a 3200A ACB

 Masterpact NW32 H1 (Icu=65KA, Ics= 100% Icu, Ue=220/440V, Icw=65KA*1s,
Uimp=12KV, Ui=1000V).
 JGS 320 have a 2000A ACB (Icu=55KA, Ics= 100% Icu, Ue=380/415V, Icw=50KA*1S).

There are 3 L.Ts:

 L.T 1 5000A ( Connected to Can Filling Department )

 TERASAKI TemP2OWER AR650S (3 Poles, Icu=120KA, Ics= 100% Icu, Ue=220/440V,
Icw=120KA*1s,Icw=85KA*3s, Uimp=12KV, Ui=1000V).
 L.T 2 3200A ( Connected to Refinery 2 and Electrolyzer )
 Masterpact NW32 H1 (Icu=65KA, Ics= 100% Icu, Ue=220/440V, Icw=65KA*1s,
Uimp=12KV, Ui=1000V).
 L.T 3 2500A ( Coupled with old L.T and connected to refinery 1, admin block, tank farm, boiler,
security gate, mosque, workshops )
 Masterpact NW25 H1 (Icu=65KA, Ics= 100% Icu, Ue=220/440V, Icw=65KA*1s,
Uimp=12KV, Ui=1000V).
 OLD L.T 3200A and connected to refinery 1, admin block, tank farm, boiler, security gate,
mosque, workshops )
 TemPower AT32 (Icu=85KA, Ics= 100% Icu, Ue=220/440V, Icw=65KA*1s, Icw=50KA*3s)

MAIN BUSBAR:
All the Generators and loads are connected to the main busbar. It’s a 4 copper rods – 100mm*10mm in
size with a current carrying capacity of 4800A.

Since 1.2A/1sq.mm is the standard current rating for copper.

 TRANSFORMER:
Two step-up transformers are used to transfer the electrical energy from Power House to Seed Crushing
Plant and Can Filling Department. The transformers use Wye-Delta configuration and converts 400V to
11KV. The transmission cable used is 3core-300 sq. mm. There are two more transformers at the
receiving end which steps down 11KV-400V with Delta-Wye configuration.

 Transformer 1 rating is 3500 KVA

 Transformer 2 rating is 4000 KVA

Load-Shed System:
Load-shed system is used in order to avoid any damage to the system in case of any breakdown.

 If JGS 420 stops or is cut off it disconnects Seed crushing plant from the system.
 If any one or more of the JGS 320 trips it disconnects Electrolyzer from the system.

Power Factor Improvement Plant:

In order to improve the power factor P.F.I plant is used, it consist of capacitor units connected in three
phase wye connection i.e. each phase having its own capacitor unit.

 800 kVAR
 400 kVAR

REFINERIES:
Refinery 1 (Old Refinery)
Edible/vegetable oil refining is a step by step process. Refining removes phospholipids, pigments, off-
flavors, free fatty acids and other impurities in the crude oil. The entire vegetable oil refinery plant
process comprises degumming/neutralization, bleaching and deodorization.

Physical refining is method that used for edible oil refining. Through this method, the free fatty acids are
removed during the process of distillation, which is one stage of deodorizing. The crude oil should be
thoroughly degummed to come up with effective results. This is not applicable to some oil such as
cottonseed oil. With the help of various equipment and machinery, all kinds of refining methods are
done and used to refine almost all kinds of oil from seeds like sunflower seeds, groundnuts, sesame
seeds, mustard seeds, etc. More simply, physical and chemical refining is defined according to the
technology used. Physical refining means the removal of gum from oil via the process of degumming, a
special method for removing FFA in the process of deodorization by steam. Chemical refining, however,
means chemically removing FFA (acid-base neutralization). Gum and soap produced in the last step are
then separated by centrifuge.

Process Description of Edible Oil Refinery Plant

As per the today market research it is being concluded that the market demands the refined edible oil
with characteristics such as bland flavor and odor, clear appearance, light color, Long Shelf Life, Suitable
for frying since the Crude Oil obtained does contains many harmful factors like free fatty acids (FFA),
sediments, gums, odoriferous material & other impurities.

Degumming / Neutralization
Degumming is a process of removing phospholipids to improve its physical stability and facilitate further
refining. Phospholipids may lead to the dark colored oil and they may also lead to off -flavor. Free fatty
acids, pigments and other impurities are also partially removed by degumming.

Bleaching
The bleaching of edible oils and fats is an important part of the refining process of crude oils and fats. It
does remove the several contaminations which impacts adversely the physical appearance and quality
of the oil. Generally the oil after degumming / neutralization also does have impurities in various
quantities. Many of these impurities have to be removed from the oil to achieve the high quality oil for
the edible use.

Deodorization
Deodorization is done to remove the volatile components, mainly Aldehydes & Ketones, with threshold
values for dictation by taste or smell. Deodorization is essentially a steam distillation process carried out
at low pressure 2-6 Kg/Cm2 and elevated temp range of 180-220°C.

Refinery 2 (New Refinery)

Chemical refining
Chemical refining is performed in order to remove the fatty acids from the crude oil that is extracted
from the seeds. These are further neutralized with the use of caustic soda. This results in the removal of
sodium soaps by batch settling or centrifugal separators. The neutral oils are then bleached and
deodorized.

Features of Chemical Refining

-Excellent adaptability and fewer requirements for high oil quality

-The finished oil is consistent and stable

-Less bleaching earth necessary compared with physical refining

The process can be further divided;

Water Degumming
Crude oil obtained by screw pressing and solvent extraction of oilseeds will throw a deposit of so-called gums
on storage. The chemical nature of these gums has been difficult to determine. They contain nitrogen and
sugar and can start fermenting so they were at one stage thought to consist of glycolipids and proteins. Now
we know that these gums consist mainly of phosphatides but also contain entrained oil and meal particles.
They are formed when the oil absorbs water that causes some of the phosphatides to become hydrated and
thereby oil-insoluble. Accordingly, hydrating the gums and removing the hydrated gums from the oil before
storing the oil can prevent the formation of a gum deposit. This treatment is called water degumming. It is
never applied to fruit oils like olive oil and palm oil since these oils have already been in contact with water
during their production.

Water degumming is the oldest degumming treatment and also forms the basis of the production of
commercial lecithin. I use the term 'commercial lecithin' here to make a distinction from the use of the word
'lecithin' as the trivial name for the compound phosphatidylcholine (PC). Similarly, phosphatidylethanolamine
(PE) has the trivial name 'kephalin'. Since the water degumming process involves more water than when
crude oil is allowed to absorb moisture from the atmosphere, the gums resulting from the water degumming
process also remove hydrophilic substances such as sugars from the oil.

Lecithin as obtained by drying the gums resulting from the water degumming process contains a mixture of
different phosphatides.

Acid Degumming
The acid degumming process can be considered as an alternative to the water degumming
process in that it uses a degumming acid combined with water. Crude oil, either water
degummed or not, is treated by an acid, usually phosphoric acid, citric acid or malic acid in the
presence of water. For oils containing relatively low amounts of NHP (e.g. sunflower oil) this
process can lead to degummed oil with a lower residual phosphorus content (5 to 30 ppm) than
water degumming. The acid degummed oil is then dry degummed and physically refined. The
process is usually carried out at elevated temperature around 90°C.
CAN FILLING DEPARTMENT:
Can filling department or CFD is the place where the final and refined oil is sent for filling in the 16KG
distribution boxes or 1 KG pouches. Boxes on the conveyors move towards the filling nozzles where the
proximity sensors indicate the presence of box and opens the nozzles, nozzles open for a fix time and
fills the can, each can is then weighted to be approximately 16 KG. Any defected, overweight or
underweight can is sent back for refiling.

This whole process is semi-automatic.

MARGARINE:
Hard oils from the refinery is sent to the margarine plant where two main products are manufactured:

 Margarine
 Shortening

Oil from the oil storage tanks is sent to the heaters and mixture and then pumped into the grinder
where it is also cooled using ammonia compressor the final product depends on the procedure followed
for example if margarine is obtained it needs to be moisturized and sent through different machines as
the shortening which is actually a pure fatty product with minimum moisture.

BOILER HOUSE:
The boiler house utilizes fire tube boilers for the purpose of producing steam for the refinery.
With a fuel consumption of 14 ton/hr. of natural gas, the boiler generates 18 tons/hr. of steam.
A fire-tube boiler is a type of boiler in which hot gases pass from a fire through one or (many)
more tubes running through a sealed container of water. The heat of the gases is transferred
through the walls of the tubes by thermal conduction, heating the water and ultimately
creating steam.

BULK OIL TERMINAL:

Crude Palm oil through oil tankers is transported to the Bulk Oil Terminals of IFFCO PAKISTAN. These are
huge tanks with a storage capacity of about .
SEED CRUSHING PLANT:
Soya beam seeds are imported from USA or Brazil and are stored in Seed Storage Tanks.

There are two methods of extracting one is physical and the other one is chemical. First physical
extraction takes place and then chemical so that maximum oil is extracted from the seeds.

 From these storage tanks seeds are transferred to the day storage tank using conveyers.
 Impurities are removed from the seeds before starting the oil extraction.
 Seeds are crushed to remove the upper layer of the seeds.
 Then seeds are turned into flakes to increase the surface area.
 Flakes are then heated using steam.( No physical contact between flakes and steam)
 Oil is then extracted by means of physical force.
 The cake after the extraction still have some amount of oil.
 For its extraction cake is first cooled to around 50 degree Celsius then sent to the chemical
refinery.
 In chemical refinery the cake is treated with Hexane which reacts and extracts the remaining oil
and hexane is separated and again sent to react with the cake.
 The final product of the seeds is used as a semi-finished or by product for poultry feeds.
 And the oil extracted is sent through the tankers to the refinery.

ELECTROLYZER:
Electrolysis is a promising option for hydrogen production. Electrolysis is the process of using electricity
to split water into hydrogen and oxygen. This reaction takes place in a unit called an Electrolyzer.
Electrolyzers can range in size from small, appliance-size equipment that is well-suited for small-scale
distributed hydrogen production to large-scale, central production facilities that could be tied directly to
renewable or other non-greenhouse-gas-emitting forms of electricity production.

Rectifying panel steps down the 400V to 100V and rectifies the AC current to DC for electrolysis.
Transport of hydroxide ions (OH-) through the electrolyte from the cathode to the anode with hydrogen
being generated on the cathode side. Electrolyzers using a liquid alkaline solution of sodium or
potassium hydroxide as the electrolyte have been commercially available.

Here in IFFCO PAKISTAN PVT. Potassium hydroxide is used to as Electrolyte to produce Hydrogen.

This Hydrogen is used in refinery for the purpose of hardening food grade palm oil for the
manufacturing of vegetable based margarine and other solid oil products.

HYDROGEN COMPRESSOR:
A hydrogen compressor is a device that increases the pressure of hydrogen by reducing its volume
resulting in compressed hydrogen or liquid hydrogen.
It is used to compress hydrogen into tanks.

THINGS LEARNED DURING THE

INTERNSHIP:
 CONDITION MONITORING:
Condition monitoring (or, colloquially, CM) is the process of monitoring a parameter of condition in
machinery (vibration, temperature etc.), in order to identify a significant change which is indicative of a
developing fault. It is a major component of predictive maintenance. The use of condition monitoring
allows maintenance to be scheduled, or other actions to be taken to prevent consequential damages
and avoid its consequences. Condition monitoring has a unique benefit in that conditions that would
shorten normal lifespan can be addressed before they develop into a major failure. Condition
monitoring techniques are normally used on rotating equipment, auxiliary systems and other machinery
(compressors, pumps, electric motors, internal combustion engines, presses).

 Condition monitoring technology

The following list includes the main condition monitoring techniques applied in the industrial and
transportation sectors:

 Vibration analysis and diagnostics

 Lubricant analysis
 Acoustic emission (airborne ultrasound)
 Infrared thermography
 Ultrasound testing (material thickness/flaw testing)
 Motor condition monitoring and motor current signature analysis (MCSA)
 Model-based voltage and current systems (MBVI systems)
Most CM technologies are slowly being standardized by ASTM and ISO.

VIBRATIONAL ANALYSIS:
Rotating equipment is an industry umbrella term that includes gearboxes, reciprocating and centrifugal
machinery.
The most commonly used method for rotating machines is vibration analysis.
Measurements can be taken on machine bearing casings with accelerometers (seismic or piezo-electric
transducers) to measure the casing vibrations, and on the vast majority of critical machines, with eddy-
current transducers that directly observe the rotating shafts to measure the radial (and axial)
displacement of the shaft. The level of vibration can be compared with historical baseline values such as
former startups and shutdowns, and in some cases established standards such as load changes, to
assess the severity. Machinery and parts OEM also define vibration limits based on the machine design
or of the internal parts, e.g. fault frequencies of bearings.
Interpreting the vibration signal obtained is an elaborate procedure that requires specialized training
and experience. It is simplified by the use of state-of-the-art technologies that provide the vast majority
of data analysis automatically and provide information instead of raw data. One commonly employed
technique is to examine the individual frequencies present in the signal. These frequencies correspond
to certain mechanical components (for example, the various pieces that make up a rolling-element
bearing) or certain malfunctions (such as shaft unbalance or misalignment). By examining these
frequencies and their harmonics, the CM specialist can often identify the location and type of problem,
and sometimes the root cause as well. For example, high vibration at the frequency corresponding to
the speed of rotation is most often due to residual imbalance and is corrected by balancing the machine.
A degrading rolling-element bearing, on the other hand, will usually exhibit vibration signals at specific
frequencies increasing in intensity as it wears. Special analysis instruments can detect this wear weeks
or even months before failure, giving ample warning to schedule replacement before a failure which
could cause a much longer down-time. Beside all sensors and data analysis it is important to keep in
mind that more than 80% of all complex mechanical equipment fail accidentally and without any
relation to their life-cycle period.

Handheld data collectors and analyzers are now commonplace on non-critical or balance of
plant machines on which permanent on-line vibration instrumentation cannot be economically justified.
The technician can collect data samples from a number of machines, then download the data into a
computer where the analyst (and sometimes artificial intelligence) can examine the data for changes
indicative of malfunctions and impending failures. For larger, more critical machines where safety
implications, production interruptions (so-called "downtime"), replacement parts, and other costs of
failure can be appreciable (determined by the criticality index), a permanent monitoring system is
typically employed rather than relying on periodic handheld data collection. However, the diagnostic
methods and tools available from either approach are generally the same.

 Motor Starting Methods:

Introduction

Most large induction motors are started directly on line, but when very large motors are started that
way, they cause a disturbance of voltage on the supply lines due to large starting current surges. To limit
the starting current surge, large induction motors are started at reduced voltage and then have full
supply voltage reconnected when they run up to near rotated speed.

Two methods of reduced voltage starting are star delta starting and autotransformer starting.
Contactors perform the switching action in the starter to connect and disconnect the power supply to
the motor. If the current is above the rated current for the motor, the contactor will be tripped
automatically to disconnect the motor from the supply.
 A three phase supply is given to the stator of the three phase induction motor, and this in turn produces
a magnetic field which revolves in space around the stator. As if the magnetic poles are being rotated,
the speed of the rotating magnetic field is given by

N = 120 f /P

Starting Principle

The high starting current will produce severe a voltage drop and will affect the operation of other
equipment. It is not desirable to start large motors direct on line (giving full voltage to the stator).
Normally with motors beyond 5 HP, starters are provided. For reduction in the starting current, a lower
voltage is applied to the stator, especially for the squirrel cage induction motors. Full voltage is only
applied when the motor picks up speed.

Starting methods of Induction motor include:

1. Direct –On– line (DOL) starters for less than 10 Kw motors.

2. Star–Delta starters for large motors. The stator winding is initially connected in a star configuration and
later on changed over to a Delta connection, when the motor reaches rated speed.
3. Auto transformer.
1. Direct On Line Starter
1. It is simple and cheap starter for a 3-phase induction motor.
2. The contacts close against spring action.
3. This method is normally limited to smaller cage induction motors, because starting current can
be as high as eight times the full load current of the motor. Use of a double –cage rotor requires
lower staring current( approximately four times) and use of quick acting A.V.R enables motors of
75 Kw and above to be started direct on line.
4. An isolator is required to isolate the starter from the supply for maintenance.
5. Protection must be provided for the motor. Some of the safety protections are over-current
protection, under-voltage protection, short circuit protection, etc. Control circuit voltage is
sometimes stepped down through an autotransformer.

2. Star-Delta Starter
A three phase motor will give three times the power output when the stator windings are connected in
delta than if connected in star, but will take 1/3 of the current from the supply when connected in star
than when connected in delta. The starting torque developed in star is ½ that when starting in delta.

1. A two-position switch (manual or automatic) is provided through a timing relay.

2. Starting in star reduces the starting current.
3. When the motor has accelerated up to speed and the current is reduced to its normal value, the
starter is moved to run position with the windings now connected in delta.
4. More complicated than the DOL starter, a motor with a star-delta starter may not produce
sufficient torque to start against full load, so output is reduced in the start position. The motors
are thus normally started under a light load condition.
5. Switching causes a transient current which may have peak values in excess of those with DOL.

3. Auto Transformer Motor Starting

1. Operated by a two position switch i.e. manually / automatically using a timer to change over
from start to run position.
2. In starting position supply is connected to stator windings through an auto-transformer which
reduces applied voltage to 50, 60, and 70% of normal value depending on tapping used.
3. Reduced voltage reduces current in motor windings with 50% tapping used motor current is
halved and supply current will be half of the motor current. Thus starting current taken from
supply will only be 25% of the taken by DOL starter.
4. For an induction motor, torque T is developed by V2, thus on 50% tapping, torque at starting is
only (0.5V)2 of the obtained by DOL starting. Hence 25% torque is produced.
5. Starters used in lager industries, it is larger in size and expensive.
6. Switching from start to run positions causing transient current, which can be greater in value
than those obtained by DOL starting.
4. Rotor Resistance Starter

1. This starter is used with a wound rotor induction motor. It uses an external resistance/phase in
the rotor circuit so that rotor will develop a high value of torque.
2. High torque is produced at low speeds, when the external resistance is at its higher value.
3. At start, supply power is connected to stator through a three pole contactor and, at a same
time, an external rotor resistance is added.
4. The high resistance limits staring current and allows the motor to start safely against high load.
5. Resistors are normally of the wire-wound type, connected through brushes and slip rings to
each rotor phase. They are tapped with points brought out to fixed contactors.
 6. As the motor starts, the external rotor resistance is gradually cut out of circuit; the handle or
starter is turned and moves the three contacts simultaneously from one fixed contact to the
next.
7. The three moving contacts are interconnected to form a start point for the resistors.
8. To ensure that the motor cannot be started until all rotor resistance is in circuit, an interlock is
fitted which prevents the contactors from being closed until this condition is fulfilled.

5. VARIABLE FREQUENCY DRIVE:

A Variable Frequency Drive (VFD) is a type of motor controller that drives an electric motor by varying
the frequency and voltage supplied to the electric motor. Other names for a VFD are variable speed
drive, adjustable speed drive, adjustable frequency drive, AC drive, Microdrive, and inverter.

Frequency (or hertz) is directly related to the motor’s speed (RPMs). In other words, the faster the
frequency, the faster the RPMs go. If an application does not require an electric motor to run at full
speed, the VFD can be used to ramp down the frequency and voltage to meet the requirements of the
electric motor’s load. As the application’s motor speed requirements change, the VFD can simply turn
up or down the motor speed to meet the speed requirement.

How does a Variable Frequency Drive work?

The first stage of a Variable Frequency AC Drive, or VFD, is the Converter. The converter is comprised of six
diodes, which are similar to check valves used in plumbing systems. They allow current to flow in only one
direction; the direction shown by the arrow in the diode symbol. For example, whenever A-phase voltage
(voltage is similar to pressure in plumbing systems) is more positive than B or C phase voltages, then that
diode will open and allow current to flow. When B-phase becomes more positive than A-phase, then the B-
phase diode will open and the A-phase diode will close. The same is true for the 3 diodes on the negative side
of the bus. Thus, we get six current “pulses” as each diode opens and closes. This is called a “six-pulse VFD”,
which is the standard configuration for current Variable Frequency Drives.
 Let us assume that the drive is operating on a 480V power system. The 480V rating is “rms” or root-mean-
squared. The peaks on a 480V system are 679V. As you can see, the VFD dc bus has a dc voltage with an AC
ripple. The voltage runs between approximately 580V and 680V.

We can get rid of the AC ripple on the DC bus by adding a capacitor. A capacitor operates in a similar fashion
to a reservoir or accumulator in a plumbing system. This capacitor absorbs the ac ripple and delivers a
smooth dc voltage. The AC ripple on the DC bus is typically less than 3 Volts. Thus, the voltage on the DC bus
becomes “approximately” 650VDC. The actual voltage will depend on the voltage level of the AC line feeding
the drive, the level of voltage unbalance on the power system, the motor load, the impedance of the power
system, and any reactors or harmonic filters on the drive.

The diode bridge converter that converts AC-to-DC, is sometimes just referred to as a converter. The
converter that converts the dc back to ac is also a converter, but to distinguish it from the diode converter, it
is usually referred to as an “inverter”. It has become common in the industry to refer to any DC-to-AC
converter as an inverter.
Note that in a real VFD, the switches shown would actually be transistors.

When we close one of the top switches in the inverter, that phase of the motor is connected to the positive
dc bus and the voltage on that phase becomes positive. When we close one of the bottom switches in the
converter, that phase is connected to the negative dc bus and becomes negative. Thus, we can make any
phase on the motor become positive or negative at will and can thus generate any frequency that we want.
So, we can make any phase be positive, negative, or zero.

The blue sine-wave is shown for comparison purposes only. The drive does not generate this sine wave.

Notice that the output from the VFD is a “rectangular” wave form. VFD’s do not produce a sinusoidal output.
This rectangular waveform would not be a good choice for a general purpose distribution system, but is
perfectly adequate for a motor.

If we want to reduce the motor frequency to 30 Hz, then we simply switch the inverter output transistors
more slowly. But, if we reduce the frequency to 30Hz, then we must also reduce the voltage to 240V in order
to maintain the V/Hz ratio (see the VFD Motor Theory presentation for more on this). How are we going to
reduce the voltage if the only voltage we have is 650VDC?

This is called Pulse Width Modulation or PWM. Imagine that we could control the pressure in a water line by
turning the valve on and off at a high rate of speed. While this would not be practical for plumbing systems, it
works very well for VFD’s. Notice that during the first half cycle, the voltage is ON half the time and OFF half
the time. Thus, the average voltage is half of 480V or 240V. By pulsing the output, we can achieve any
average voltage on the output of the VFD.
Why should I use a VFD?

1 - Reduce Energy Consumption and Energy Costs

If you have an application that does not need to be run at full speed, then you can cut down energy costs by
controlling the motor with a variable frequency drive, which is one of the benefits of Variable Frequency
Drives. VFDs allow you to match the speed of the motor-driven equipment to the load requirement. There is
no other method of AC electric motor control that allows you to accomplish this.
Electric motor systems are responsible for more than 65% of the power consumption in industry today.
Optimizing motor control systems by installing or upgrading to VFDs can reduce energy consumption in your
facility by as much as 70%. Additionally, the utilization of VFDs improves product quality, and reduces
production costs. Combining energy efficiency tax incentives, and utility rebates, returns on investment for
VFD installations can be as little as 6 months.

2 - Increase Production through Tighter Process Control

By operating your motors at the most efficient speed for your application, fewer mistakes will occur, and
thus, production levels will increase, which earns your company higher revenues. On conveyors and belts you
eliminate jerks on start-up allowing high through put.

3 - Extend Equipment Life and Reduce Maintenance

Your equipment will last longer and will have less downtime due to maintenance when it’s controlled by VFDs
ensuring optimal motor application speed. Because of the VFDs optimal control of the motor’s frequency and
voltage, the VFD will offer better protection for your motor from issues such as electro thermal overloads,
phase protection, under voltage, overvoltage, etc.. When you start a load with a VFD you will not subject the
motor or driven load to the “instant shock” of across the line starting, but can start smoothly, thereby
eliminating belt, gear and bearing wear. It also is an excellent way to reduce and/or eliminate water hammer
since we can have smooth acceleration and deceleration cycles.
  CONTACTORS:
A contactor is an electrically-controlled switch used for switching an electrical power circuit.[1] A
contactor is typically controlled by a circuit which has a much lower power level than the switched
circuit, such as a 24-volt coil electromagnet controlling a 230-volt motor switch.

Unlike general-purpose relays, contactors are designed to be directly connected to high-current load
devices. Relays tend to be of lower capacity and are usually designed for both normally
closed and normally open applications. Devices switching more than 15 amperes or in circuits rated
more than a few kilowatts are usually called contactors. Apart from optional auxiliary low-current
contacts, contactors are almost exclusively fitted with normally open ("form A") contacts. Unlike relays,
contactors are designed with features to control and suppress the arc produced when interrupting
heavy motor currents.

Contactors come in many forms with varying capacities and features. Unlike a circuit breaker, a
contactor is not intended to interrupt a short circuit current. Contactors range from those having a
breaking current of several amperes to thousands of amperes and 24 V DC to many kilovolts. The
physical size of contactors ranges from a device small enough to pick up with one hand, to large devices
approximately a meter (yard) on a side.

Contactors are used to control electric motors, lighting, heating, capacitor banks, thermal evaporators,
and other electrical loads.

CONSTRUCTION:
A contactor has three components. The contacts are the current carrying part of the contactor. This
includes power contacts, auxiliary contacts, and contact springs. The electromagnet (or "coil") provides
the driving force to close the contacts. The enclosure is a frame housing the contacts and the
electromagnet. Enclosures are made of insulating materials such as Bakelite, Nylon 6, and thermosetting
plastics to protect and insulate the contacts and to provide some measure of protection against
personnel touching the contacts. Open-frame contactors may have a further enclosure to protect
against dust, oil, explosion hazards and weather.
WORKING PRINCIPLE:
When current passes through the electromagnet, a magnetic field is produced, which attracts the
moving core of the contactor. The electromagnet coil draws more current initially, until
its inductance increases when the metal core enters the coil. The moving contact is propelled by the
moving core; the force developed by the electromagnet holds the moving and fixed contacts together.
When the contactor coil is de-energized, gravity or a spring returns the electromagnet core to its initial
position and opens the contacts.

For contactors energized with alternating current, a small part of the core is surrounded with a shading
coil, which slightly delays the magnetic flux in the core. The effect is to average out the alternating pull
of the magnetic field and so prevent the core from buzzing at twice line frequency.

CONCLUSION:
In review this internship has been an excellent and rewarding experience. I have been able to meet and
network with so many people that I am sure will be able to help me with opportunities in the future.
One main thing that I have learned through this internship is time management skills as well as self-
motivation. When I first started I did not think that I was going to be able to make myself sit in an office
for eight hours a day, five days a week. Once I realized what I had to do I organized my day and work so
that I was not overlapping or wasting my hours. I learned that I needed to be organized.

The team and supervisors were co-operative and friendly who taught me in any way possible, this
internship turned out to be more productive than I thought.