Photovoltaic Systems Engineering

(Winter 2017)

Dr. Walid Atef Omran

Today’s Lecture
➢ Thin film solar cells

➢ The Topaz Photovoltaic Farm

➢ Connection of Solar Cells

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Thin Film Solar Cells

(a) (b) (c)

(a) Amorphous silicon with dangling bonds passivated by hydrogen

(b) Amorphous silicon PV panel
(c) Amorphous silicon flexible PV panel 3
Thin Film Solar Cells
➢ Thin film technologies are based on depositing extremely thin films (nm
to 10s of μm) of semiconductor materials onto glass or metal substrates.

➢ They are less efficient than thick solar cells, but have several advantages
such as:
▪ Low price due to the less semiconductor material used
▪ Require low energy in production because they can be manufactured
using low temperature processes (<500oC)
▪ Transparent cells can be made by controlling the thickness of the
semiconductor material.
▪ Multiple-junction cells can be formed to increase the efficiency.

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Thin Film Deposition Techniques
➢ The deposition of thin film on the substrate is a very important step in
the manufacturing thin film solar cells.

➢ The techniques used for the deposition of thin film can be divided into
two main categories:
1) Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD): where the deposition of the film
is obtained by physically transporting the atoms from the source to
the substrate in gas phase (e.g., evaporation and sputtering).
2) Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD): where the deposition of the
film is obtained by chemical reaction (in the gas or liquid state) at the
surface of the substrate (e.g., low pressure and atmospheric pressure
CVD).
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Thin Film Amorphous Silicon Solar Cells

➢ Almost all of today’s thin-film technology is based on amorphous

silicon.

➢ Amorphous silicon has atoms that don’t have regular structural

arrangement, which results in areas within the material containing
unsatisfied, or ‘dangling’ bonds where nothing attaches to one of the
valence electrons.

➢ These dangling-bond makes the amorphous silicon difficult to be doped

and also act as recombination centers so that the photo-generated
electrons recombine with holes before they can travel very far.

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Thin Film Amorphous Silicon Solar Cells

➢ To overcome this problem, atomic hydrogen is incorporated in

amorphous silicon (5–10%) which saturates the dangling bonds and
improves the quality of the material.

➢ Moreover, the silicon–hydrogen alloy that results (a-Si:H) is easily

doped to make n-type and p-type materials for solar cells.

Amorphous silicon with dangling bonds

which can be passivated by hydrogen

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Thin Film Amorphous Silicon Solar Cells

➢ The simple structure of the thin film amorphous silicon cell is:
▪ A glass superstrate on top of the cell under which the thin film is deposited
(Other types can have a substrate at the bottom of the cell).

▪ A transparent electrical top contact made from a transparent conducting oxide

(TCO) such as tin oxide or zinc oxide. It is used to have efficient collection of
carriers without significant resistive losses.

▪ Three semiconductor layers; the p-layer and n-layer separated by an intrinsic

layer of a-Si:H called the i layer which is added to increase the drift current
within the cell. This type of cell is called p–i –n cell.

▪ An aluminum back contact of the cell is added.

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Thin Film Amorphous Silicon Solar Cells

Cross section of an amorphous

silicon solar cell

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Tandem Amorphous Silicon Solar Cells
➢ Amorphous silicon a-Si has a band gap energy of about 1.75 eV. This
band gap energy is higher than the optimum value of 1.4 eV.

➢ The band gap energy can decrease or increase when forming alloys from
a-Si and other elements from group IV such as carbon or germanium.

➢ When a-Si is alloyed with carbon, for example, the band gap can be
increased (to about 2 eV), and when alloyed with germanium the gap
will be reduced (to about 1.3 eV). Thus, multijunction photovoltaic
devices can be fabricated by layering p–n junctions of different alloys.

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Tandem Amorphous Silicon Solar Cells
➢ The idea behind a multi-junction cell (also called tandem cell) is to
create junctions with decreasing band gaps as photons penetrate deeper
and deeper into the cell.

➢ The top junction should capture the most energetic photons while
allowing photons with less energy to pass through to the next junction
below.

➢ Multi-junction a-Si has a higher efficiency than single-junction a-Si, and

thus, is more widely used.

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Tandem Amorphous Silicon Solar Cells

Tandem amorphous silicon solar cells

(a) Energy bands, (b) Schematic structure
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Hetero-junction Thin Film Technologies
➢ Hetero-junction thin film cells are cells that have the p-region is made
from one material and the n-region made of another material.

➢ This combination of different materials improve the efficiency of thin

film solar cells.

➢ An example of hetero-junction cells is CdTe/CdS cells, where the

cadmium telluride (CdTe) composes the p-region while the cadmium
sulfide (CdS) composes the n-region. These cells have better efficiency
than a-Si cell, there are some debates about the toxicity of cadmium.

Hetero-junction cell

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The Topaz Photovoltaic Farm
➢ A 550 MW Grid-connected PV farm in California, USA built on
approximately 14.2 km2 and produces about 1096 GWh/year

➢ Formed of 9 million panels of CdTe thin film technology of efficiency

about 14.4%

➢ Can power up to 160,000 home and displace about 377,000 metric tons of
CO2 per year (equivalent of removing approximately 73,000 cars off the road)

➢ A $2.5 billion project built by First Solar INC., a market leader in CdTe
PV technology.

➢ First Solar INC. is currently constructing another 550 MW PV farm in

California, USA.
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The Topaz Photovoltaic Farm
➢ The Topaz PV Farm is online since November 2014.

Topaz PV Farm (Source: PV Magazine)

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Largest PV Farms Worldwide
Capacity Size
Name Country Year
MWp km²
Tengger Desert Solar
China 1,547 43 2016
Park
Datong Solar Power Top
China 1,000 2016
Runner Base
Kurnool Ultra Mega
India 950 24 2017
Solar Park
Longyangxia Dam Solar
China 850 23 2015
Park
Kamuthi Solar Power
India 648 2016 2016
Project

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Connection of Solar Cells

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Connection of Solar Cells
➢ A single solar cell produces a maximum voltage of about 0.6V (Voc) and
maximum current of about 4A (Isc).

➢ Solar cells can be connected in series to increase the total voltage and
can be connected in parallel to increase the total current.

➢ The behavior of the connected cells is very similar to the behavior of an

individual cell if the cells are: (1) identical (i.e., have the same
characteristics and parameters) and (2) operating at the same conditions
(i.e., irradiance and temperature).

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Connection of Solar Cells

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Mismatch Losses
➢ In the previous analysis it was assumed that all the connected cells are
identical and operate under the same conditions, which is not true in
many cases

➢ The differences between cells can be due to the difference in

manufacturing or due to partial shading.

➢ Mismatch losses are caused by the interconnection of solar cells or

modules which do not have identical properties or which experience
different operating conditions from one another.

➢ Mismatch losses due to differences in Voc and Isc of the cells is the most
common.
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I-V curve of the Cell in Three Quadrants

➢ The cell generates power if it is operating in the first quadrant, otherwise

the cell will dissipate power if it is operating in the second or fourth
quadrants.

I-V characteristics for a solar cell

in the three quadrants

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Mismatch in Series Connected Cells
Mismatch in Open Circuit Voltage of Series Cells:
➢ A mismatch in the open-circuit voltage of series-connected cells is a
relatively mild form of mismatch.

➢ As the two cells are connected in series, the current through the two
solar cells is the same, and the overall voltage is found by adding the
two voltages at a particular current.

➢ The major impact of this type of mismatch is that the total voltage, and
thus the total power, is reduced in most of the operating regions of the
mismatched cells as compared to the case when the cells are identical.

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Mismatch in Series Connected Cells

Two series cells

Equivalent I-V characteristics

due to mismatch in Voc

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Mismatch in Series Connected Cells
Mismatch in Short Circuit Current of Series Cells:
➢ A mismatch in the short-circuit current of series connected cells can
have a severe impact on the PV module.

➢ One of the most common reasons for this type of mismatch is the partial
shading effect.

➢ As the current through the series cells must be equal, the overall current
from the combination cannot exceed that of the poor or shaded cell.

➢ At low voltages, the extra current-generated by the good cell causes

power to be dissipated in the poor cell which can be damaged.

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Mismatch in Series Connected Cells
Mismatch in Short Circuit Current of Series Cells:
➢ At high voltages, near the open-circuit voltage, the impact of a reduced
short-circuit current is relatively minor. This is due to the minor change
in the open-circuit voltage because of the logarithmic dependence of
open-circuit voltage on short-circuit current.

Equivalent I-V characteristics due to mismatch in Isc

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Mismatch in Series Connected Cells
Mismatch in Short Circuit Current of Series Cells:
➢ A direct method for calculating the combined short-circuit current of
series connected mismatched cells is:

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Mismatch in Series Connected Cells

Two matched series cells Two unmatched series cells under

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Mismatch in Series Connected Cells

Power dissipated is the shaded cell during short circuit

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Mismatch in Series Cells Using the
Exact Cell Model

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Mismatch in Series Cells Using the
Exact Cell Model
➢ The reduced output voltage due to the shaded cell can be calculated by:

𝑉𝑆𝐻 = 𝑉𝑛−1 − 𝐼 𝑅𝑠ℎ + 𝑅𝑠

𝑛−1
𝑉𝑛−1 = 𝑛 𝑉

𝑛−1
𝑉𝑆𝐻 = 𝑛
𝑉 − 𝐼 𝑅𝑠ℎ + 𝑅𝑠

𝑉
∆𝑉 = 𝑉 − 𝑉𝑆𝐻 = + 𝐼 𝑅𝑠ℎ + 𝑅𝑠
𝑛
Where n is the number of series cells in the module.
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Mismatch in Series Cells Using the
Exact Cell Model

Effect of partial shading on the I –V curves for a PV module

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Example L6-1
A PV module is made up of 36 identical cells, all wired in series.
With 1kW/m2 each cell has short-circuit current Isc = 3.4A and at
25◦C its reverse saturation current is Io = 6 × 10−10 A. The Parallel
resistance Rsh = 6.6Ω and the series resistance Rs = 0.005Ω. At an
output current I = 2.14A the output voltage was found to be V =
19.41V. If one cell is shaded and the output current stays the same,
then:
1. Calculate the new module output voltage and power.
2. Find the voltage drop across the shaded cell
3. Estimate the power dissipated in the shaded cell

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Hot Spot Heating
➢ Hot-spot heating occurs when a large number of series connected cells
cause a large reverse bias across the mismatched cell, leading to large
dissipation of power in this cell.

➢ The enormous power dissipation occurring

in a small area results in local overheating,
or "hot-spots", which in turn leads to
destructive effects, such as cell or glass
cracking, melting of solder or degradation
of the solar cell.
Heat dissipated in a shaded cell
caused the module to crack
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Hot Spot Heating
➢ Hot-spot heating occurs when a large number of series connected cells
cause a large reverse bias across the mismatched cell, leading to large
dissipation of power in this cell.

➢ The enormous power dissipation occurring

in a small area results in local overheating,
or "hot-spots", which in turn leads to
destructive effects, such as cell or glass
cracking, melting of solder or degradation
of the solar cell.
Heat dissipated in a shaded cell
caused the module to crack
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Bypass Diodes
➢ The destructive effects of hot-spot heating may be avoided by using a
bypass diode connected in parallel with the solar cell.

➢ Under normal operation, the bypass diode

will be reverse biased (open circuit).

➢ If a solar cell is reverse biased due to

mismatch in Isc between series connected
cells, then the bypass diode conducts.

➢ The maximum reverse bias across the

mismatched cell is reduced to about a single
diode drop, thus limiting the current and preventing hot-spot heating.
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Bypass Diodes

I-V curve for a solar cell and a

parallel bypass diode

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Bypass Diodes

Operation of bypass diode at Operation of bypass diode at

short circuit conditions open circuit conditions
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Bypass Diodes

Power dissipated during short circuit when the bypass diode is included
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Bypass Diodes
➢ In practice, adding one bypass diode per cell is too expensive, and thus,
diodes are usually placed across groups of cells.

➢ If one cell is shaded, the current is shunted around all cells in the group
and passes through the bypass diode.

➢ This group is reverse-biased to a voltage equal to the ‘knee-voltage’ of

the diode, and thus, the shaded cell is reverse-biased to the forward
voltage of the other unshaded cells in the group plus the knee voltage of
the diode.

➢ Therefore, the maximum power dissipated in the shaded cell

approximately equals the generating capability of all cells in the group.
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Bypass Diodes
➢ For silicon solar cells, the maximum group size per diode, without
causing damage, is about 10–15 cells per bypass diode. Hence for a
normal 36 cell module, three bypass diodes are needed to ensure the
module will not be vulnerable to hot spot damage.

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Mismatch in Parallel Connected Cells
➢ Mismatch in parallel connected cells can occur due to mismatch in the
short circuit current or open circuit voltage.

➢ For parallel connections, the mismatch in the short circuit current is not
an issue because the total current will be the sum of the cells currents.

Equivalent I-V characteristics

due to mismatch in Isc

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Mismatch in Parallel Connected Cells
➢ On the other hand, the mismatch in the open circuit voltage will result in
losses but it is less harmful than the mismatch in the short circuit current
of series connections.

Equivalent I-V characteristics

due to mismatch in Voc

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Mismatch in Parallel Connected Cells
➢ A direct method of calculating the combined open circuit voltage (Voc)
of mismatched cells in parallel is:

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Example L6-2
Suppose a PV module that has two bypass diodes has the 1-sun I-V curve
shown below. Suppose there is enough shading on the bottom cells to cause
the lower diode to start conducting. Draw the new “shaded” I-V curve for
the module (assume that the diodes have no voltage drop across them when
conducting).

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Photovoltaic Modules and Arrays

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Photovoltaic Modules
➢ A PV module has a number of cells that are usually connected in series.

➢ Typical modules can have 36 series cells or 72 series.

➢ The PV module is usually encased in

tough, weather-resistant packages
to protect them from the harsh conditions
of the environment.

Modules with different

sizes and ratings

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I-V Relation of a PV Module with
Identical Series Cells
➢ When cells are wired in series, they all carry the same current, and at
any given current their voltages add.

➢ If all the series connected cells within a module are identical and are
exposed to the same operating conditions, then the I-V relation of the
module can be expressed by:

𝑞 𝑉𝑀 1 𝑉𝑀
𝐼𝑀 = 𝐼𝐿 − 𝐼𝑜 exp + 𝐼𝑀 𝑅𝑠 −1 − + 𝐼𝑀 𝑅𝑠
𝑛𝑘𝑇 𝑁𝑠 𝑅𝑠ℎ 𝑁𝑠
(Don’t memorize)
where Ns is the number of identical cells connected in series, IM &VM are
the module current and voltage, Rs, Rsh, IL &Io are the cell parameters
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I-V Relation of a PV Module with
Identical Series Cells

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PV Strings and Blocks
➢ PV modules can be connected in series to increase the total voltage. This
is called a string.

➢ The strings can be also connected in parallel to increase the total current.
This is sometimes called a block.

Two strings in parallel each Three blocks in series each

having three modules having two modules

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Example L6-3
4 PV modules having exactly the same electrical characteristics. The I-V
curve for one module is shown. Sketch the I-V curves for the following
connections of the modules.

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PV Arrays
➢ PV arrays are composed of modules that are connected in series and
parallel.

➢ One of the most common connections

is to connect a number of modules in
series to form a string and then strings
are connected together in parallel.
This is called the series-parallel connection.

Series-parallel array
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PV Arrays
➢ There are several other connections that are less common such as the
total cross tie connection and H-bridge connection.

Total cross tie array H-bridge array

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Model for a Series Parallel PV Array
➢ The single diode model of a solar cell can be used in the case when Ns
cells are connected in series to form a string and then Np strings are
connected in parallel to form an array. This extension is only applicable
under the assumption that all cells are identical operate at the conditions.

𝑞 𝑉𝐴 𝐼𝐴 𝑅𝑠 𝑁𝑝 𝑉𝐴 𝐼𝐴 𝑅𝑠
𝐼𝐴 = 𝑁𝑝 𝐼𝐿 − 𝑁𝑝 𝐼𝑜 exp + −1 − +
𝑛𝑘𝑇 𝑁𝑠 𝑁𝑝 𝑅𝑠ℎ 𝑁𝑠 𝑁𝑝

(Don’t memorize)

where Ns & Np are the number of identical cells connected in series and
parallel, respectively, IA & VA are the array current and voltage,
respectively, Rs, Rsh, IL & Io are the cell parameters
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Model for a Series Parallel PV Array

Model for a series parallel PV array

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Mismatch in Parallel Modules within
PV Arrays
➢ Open Circuit Modules:
A module in parallel may be open
circuited, and thus, will not
contribute to the generated current
similar to the case of shaded cells.
The bypass diodes are helpful in
this case to avoid the harmful
effects of this mismatch.

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Mismatch in Parallel Modules within
PV Arrays
➢ Thermal Runaway:
When modules are connected in
parallel, their bypass diodes will be
also connected in parallel.
If the diodes are not identical, then
the diodes with lower resistance will
have higher current in case of mismatch.
This leads to an increase in their temperature,
and thus, a further reduction in the resistance
which might lead to their damage.

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Blocking (String) Diodes
➢ Sometimes a blocking (string) diode is added in series with the string to
prevent reverse current from flowing through the PV modules in case of
mismatch between parallel strings.

➢ This is also useful when a battery is connected

with the PV system to prevent the battery from
discharging through the PV modules at night.

➢ Blocking diodes in strings are not usually recommended

because they waste some of the collected energy.

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PV Array Junction/Combiner Box
➢ The Array Box is a junction box which allows several photovoltaic
strings to be connected in parallel.

➢ They are mostly adapted for PV power plants and photovoltaic systems
in large buildings.

PV Array Junction Box

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PV Array Junction/Combiner Box
➢ The PV array junction box can contain the following:
▪ Array terminals and isolation points

▪ String fuses (for protection against over-currents)

▪ Blocking diodes (they are not widely used)

▪ Surge arresters (to divert excess transient voltage produced from

lightning or switching to the ground)

▪ The DC main disconnect/isolator switch (to disconnect the PV array)

▪ String monitoring elements (measurement and failure detection)

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PV Array Junction/Combiner Box

PV Array and Junction Box

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Announcement
➢ Quiz 2 will be held on Thursday, 16th of November at 10:00 am.

➢ The quiz will cover the material of lectures 5 and 6 (till slide 44).

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