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1.0 Introduction
Voltage is proportional to the magnetic flux in the power system element. Most of the Power System
elements are reactive in nature. They absorb / generate reactive power depending on system loading
conditions. The balance in reactive power availability and requirement at a node indicates steady
voltage. Drawal of reactive power leads to reduction in voltage and supply of reactive power leads to
increase in voltage at the node. Ideally, the reactive power balance should be effected within each
region, within each distribution system.
A great many loads consume not only active but also reactive power. The electric network itself both
consumes and produces reactive power. Transmission and distribution of electric power involve
reactive power losses due to the series inductance of transformers, overhead lines and underground
cables. Lines and cables also generate reactive power due to their shunt capacitance; this generation
of reactive power is, however, only of significance at high system voltages.
During the steady-state operation of an AC power system the active power production must match the
consumption plus the losses, since otherwise the frequency will change. There is an equally strong
relationship between the reactive power balance of a power system and the voltages. In itself, a
reactive power balance will always inherently be present, but with unacceptable voltages if the balance
is not a proper one. An excess of reactive power in an area means high voltages: a deficit means low
voltages. The reactive power balance of a power system also influences the active losses of the
network, the heating of components and, in some cases, the power system stability.
Contrary to the active power balance, which has to be effected by means of the generators alone, a
proper reactive power balance can and often has to be effected both by the generators and by
dispersed special reactive devices, producing or absorbing reactive power. The use of shunt reactive
devices. i.e. shunt compensation, is a straightforward reactive-power compensation method. The use of
series capacitors, i.e. series compensation is a line reactance compensation method.
No special reactive compensation devices were used in the early AC power systems, because the
generators were situated close to the loads. As networks became more widespread, synchronous
motors, small synchronous compensators and static shunt capacitors were adopted for power-factor
correction. Ever larger synchronous compensators were installed in transmission systems. Along with
the development of more efficient and economic capacitors, there has been a phenomenal growth in
the use of shunt capacitors as a means of furnishing reactive power, particularly within distribution
systems. With the introduction of extra-high-voltage lines, shunt reactors and series capacitors became
important compensation devices. The latest development is the Thyristor-controlled static var
compensator, which is now well established not only in high- power industrial networks but also in
transmission systems.
In the following a distinction is made between transmission and distribution systems and also between
different voltage ranges in terms of HV, EHV, etc. It should therefore be appropriate to explain briefly
these terms.
Transmission systems form those parts of power systems conveying comparatively large amounts of
electrical power. They link the generating sources with the distribution systems and interconnect parts
1
Chapter 9(a) Reactor Power Fundamentals
of the power system or adjacent power systems. Distribution systems form the continued links to the
consumers. The boundary between transmission and distribution systems is not very well defined.
Systems for voltages higher than 132 KV are usually called transmission systems. Systems for voltages
lower than 33 KV are usually called distribution systems. Systems in the range 33 to 132 kV are called
distribution, sub transmission systems. All the figures given in this introduction refer to the highest
voltage for equipment.
In a power system, the ac generators and EHV and UHV transmission lines generate reactive power.
Industrial installations whether small or large as also the irrigation pump motors, water supply systems
draw substantial reactive power from the power grid.
The generators have limited defined capability to generate reactive power- this is more so in respect of
large size generating units of 210 MW/500 MW capacity. Generation of higher reactive power
correspondingly reduces availability of useful power from the generators. During light load conditions,
there is excess reactive power available in the system since the transmission lines continue to generate
the reactive power thereby raising the system voltage and this causes reactive power flows to the
generators.
Particularly in India, the load curves show wide fluctuations at various hours of the day and in various
seasons of the year. When load demand is heavy, there is low voltage, which is harmful to the
consumers as well as utility’s installations. Burning of motors occur. When load demand is very low,
high voltage occurs in the system and this has harmful effect on insulation of power transformers.
Failure of power transformers occur.
For better efficiency, it is necessary to reduce and minimize reactive power flows in the system.
Besides harmful effects, the reactive power flows also affect the economy adversely both for the utility
and the consumer. If reactive power flows are reduced i² R power losses as well as i² X losses are
reduced. The generators can produce additional active power. If the consumer reduces reactive power
requirement his demand KVA is reduced. For energy conservation also there is need to reduce reactive
power demand in the system.
It is therefore very clear that for efficient management of power system and for improving the quality of
electric supply, it is very essential to install reactive compensation equipment. Such installations are
necessary and essential for utility as well as the consumer. Infact the utility should be made responsible
for making available only the active power to the consumer. Unfortunately, in India, the responsibilities
of users are not well defined and there is not enough realization in this regard. Utilities have now
introduced power factor clause in the tariff structure. However. It would be worthwhile to note that even
a 90% power factor load requires 43% reactive power from the grid.
2
Chapter 9(a) Reactor Power Fundamentals
Unit is volt-ampere reactive (VAR) The sign of Q is a matter of convention, it depends on the definition
of the direction of φ. According to the IEC the sign shall be such that the net reactive power supplied to
an inductive element is positive. Consequently, the net reactive power supplied to capacitive element is
negative. In the past the opposite sign convention has also been used. With the sign convention as
base, reactive power is said to be produced/generated by overexcited synchronous machines and
capacitors, and consumed or absorbed by under excited synchronous machines, inductors, etc.
Reactive power can be considered as a convenient evaluation quantity, giving information about the
watt-less current, which greatly influences voltages, active losses.
1.3 Sources and sinks of Reactive power :
Vs∠δ Vr∠0
jX
Ir
G M
Let r S
Vs =Sending end voltage
Fig. 1.2
Vr =Receiving end voltage Simple Transmission System
Sr = Receiving end complex power
Pr = Receiving end active power
Qr = Receiving end reactive power
δ = The angle difference between Vs and Vr
Ir = Receiving end current
X = Line reactance
Ps = Sending end active power
Qs = Sending end reactive power
Sr = Pr +j Qr = Vr . Ir* (1)
*
V s cos δ + jV s Sinδ − Vr
= Vr
jX
V sVr
Pr = sin δ = Pmax Sin δ = Ps → (2)
X
For a loss less line.
P and δ are closely related.
VsVr Cosδ − Vr 2
Qr = → (3)
X
3
Chapter 9(a) Reactor Power Fundamentals
Vs 2 − VsVr Cosδ
Qs = → (4)
X
Vr (V s −V r )
Qr = → (5)
X
V − Vr
Qs = Vs s → (6)
X
Q and V are closely coupled.
Inferences:
If V1and V2 are the sending end and receiving end voltages
The transmission capacity increases as the square of the voltage level
1. the direction of MW flow is determined by δ
V1 leading V2 ⇒ P is 1 → 2
V1 lagging V2 ⇒ P is 2 → 1
2. Magnitudes of V1 and V2 do not determine the MW flow direction
3. Though P1=P2, Q1≠ Q2
4. The reactive loss in line reactance is
2 2
Qs + Qr V s − V r
Qave = =
2 2x
5. If Vs > Vr the MVAR flows 1 →2
If Vr> Vs the MVAR flows 2 →1
P − JQ
Where I = ;
V
*
I* = P + JQ
V
2
I = I.I* =
(P − jQ)(P + jQ )
=
(P 2
+ Q2 )
V .V * V2
P2 + Q2
Ploss = I2R = 2
.R
→ (7)
V
P2 + Q2
Qloss =I2X = .X → (8)
V2
Voltage regulation is defined as the change of voltage at the receiving end when rated load is thrown
off, the sending end voltage being held constant.
ETh∠δ
X.Pr
4 V
Vr X.Qr
Chapter 9(a) Reactor Power Fundamentals
Three methods of system voltage control are available : (a) Varying excitation of generators, (b)
Varying the turns ratio of transformers by OLTC and (c) Varying shunt compensation.
Shunt compensation is drawing or injection of reactive power at a node. Reactor absorbs reactive
power and so reduces system voltage. Capacitor injects reactive power and so increases system
voltage.
S Q
θ P
The reactive power is the extra effort needed to pull a load along the rail when the effort, s is at an
angle, θ toFig
the 1.4.
rails. Physical analogy for Active and Reactive powers
1.9.1 Transformers
5
Chapter 9(a) Reactor Power Fundamentals
Figure 1.5 shows a simple equivalent circuit of a two-winding transformer. The series reactance X is of
main interest, usually lying within the range 0.05 to 0.15 p.u. based on the transformer power rating,
with low values for small and high values for large transformers. The resistance is usually negligible.
The total reactive power losses due to the magnetizing shunt reactance Xm of many small transformers
within a distribution system can, however, be of some importance. The magnetizing reactive power may
also increase rapidly with the voltage level, due to core Saturation.
Overhead lines and underground cables are distributed-constant circuits, which have their series
resistance, series inductance and shunt capacitance distributed uniformly along its length. Figure 1.6
shows a lumped-constant equivalent circuit. If we assume constant operating voltages at the ends, the
reactive power generated due to the capacitance, the charging reactive power, is practically
independent of the power transferred. Particularly when we are dealing with long EHV lines, the so-
called Surge Impedance Load (SIL) P0 or natural load of an uncompensated line is a convenient value
for reference purposes. It is given approximately by:
b
Po = V 2 MW ------------------------------------------------(12)
x
where
V = voltage, line-line kV
b = susceptance mho/km
x = reactance ohm/km
A loss less line (a reasonable approximation of an EHV line) transferring an active power P0 and with
equal voltages at the line ends has reactive power balance. The reactive power loss due to the line
inductance is equal to the reactive power generated by the line capacitance.
6
Chapter 9(a) Reactor Power Fundamentals
Table 1 gives typical values of overhead line characteristics at 50Hz. At 60 Hz the SIL values are the
same while the line charging, X and X/R values are 20 per cent higher. The SIL is usually much lower
than the thermal rating. Below 69 kV the line charging is usually negligible while it is a significant
source of reactive power for long lines of higher system voltages.
Paradoxically, the series reactance is fairly independent of the system voltage, assuming a single
conductor. The lower values at 400 kV, 500 kV and 750 kV illustrate the effect of the necessary use of
bundle conductors for these system voltages. In reality there is a great spread in the X/R values, for a
system voltage under consideration, in particular at low system voltages. The figures are however,
included in order to illustrate that the X/R ratio increases rapidly with the system voltage.
1.10 Loads
A great many loads consume not only active but also reactive power. The Industry wise power factor is
generally observed to be as follows:
Some typical values of reactive power consumption of individual loads are given below:
• Induction motors 0.5 to 1.1 kvar/kW, at rated output.
7
Chapter 9(a) Reactor Power Fundamentals
Both controlled rectifiers and arc furnaces of steel mills have a reactive power consumption
characterized by a high average value and fast variations. Purely resistive loads, like filament lamps
and electric heaters, do not, of course, consume reactive power.
The synchronous motor is the only type of individual load, which can produce reactive power. it consumes
reactive power when under excited and produces reactive power when overexcited. Synchronous motors are
usually operated overexcited and thus usually produce reactive power.
Individual loads may, of course, vary within short or long time ranges. The composite loads of a power
system. Each one being the total load of a certain area, usually vary with the time of the day, the day of the
week and the season of the year and may also grow from year to year. The consumer demand for reactive
power varies in a somewhat similar way to the demand for active power. Figure 1.7 illustrates how the active
and the reactive power supplied from a transmission substation into a load area, with mixed industrial and
domestic loads, may vary during a Sunday and a Monday.
The resultant active power demand of a power system varies roughly as the variation of total toad. The
resultant reactive power demand may vary considerably more due to the changing series reactive power
losses in the networks.
The Phasor diagram of Figure 1.8, for a case with lagging power factor, shows that it can be approximately
expressed by the following equations:
The accuracy of the equations (14) and (15) is better, the less the voltage-angle difference is. The
equations are usually sufficiently accurate for calculations concerning a single link with lagging power
factor. The equations are less accurate and should not be used in calculations for -leading power
factor. Precise calculations concerning a complete network are, nowadays, performed by means of
computer power flow programs.
The equation (15) is, however, generally useful for qualitative discussions of voltage versus reactive
power. For transformers, R can always be disregarded. For transmission (not distribution) lines and
cables. X is usually much larger than R. For all these many links, where X is -much larger than R, there
will evidently be a much greater influence on ∆V per kvar of reactive power than per kW of active power
transmitted.
When power is supplied through a single link, Figure 1.8, assuming V1 constant, V2 varies with
changes in P and Q. Load variations create voltage variations if not counteracted. This is a general, and
sometimes -troublesome, operation feature of AC power systems.
There are three major methods of power system voltage control:
• Varying the excitation of the generators by means of their excitation systems.
• Varying the turn’s ratio of transformers by means of their on-load tap changers.
• Varying the shunt compensation, where applied.
8
Chapter 9(a) Reactor Power Fundamentals
By shunt compensation is meant drawing or injection of reactive power, at a point of a power system by
means of a shunt-connected device, which is installed for this sole purpose. Drawing reactive power.
e.g. absorption by means of a shunt reactor, effects voltage reduction. Injection of reactive power, e.g.
production by means of a shunt capacitor, effects voltage rise. The equation (15) and Figure 1.8 show
how shunt compensation influences the voltage. The voltage-change directions mentioned arise
because the network equivalent impedance has an inductive character at the fundamental frequency.
The shunt compensation may be fixed, switchable in steps or continuously controllable. Around the
nominal voltage, the voltage change ∆V, when the shunt compensation is changed in step, is
approximately expressed by;
∆Q
∆V = ------------------(16)
S sc
Where
∆Q- change in nominal three phase reactive power injection Mvar
Ssc- Short-circuit capacity in MVA
Adjacent generators with voltage regulators and adjacent transformers with voltage-relay controlled on-
load tap changers will, of course, more or less reduce the voltage change after a certain time. By series
compensation is meant compensation of line inductive reactance by means of a capacitor in series with
the line, thus reducing the effective inductive reactance of the line and the effects thereof.
1.12 PV Curves
PV Curves are the product of parametric analysis. Take into consideration the system shown at right.
Power is transferred from the Sending Area to the Receiving Area via a set of transmission lines
forming an Interface. As the transfer increases, the conditions on the lines and buses along the transfer
path, including those within the Sending and Receiving area, change. The voltages may drop, flows on
branches may increase or decrease.
Monitoring voltage at a particular bus and plotting this against the power transfer produces a familiar
diagram known as the PV Curve. A sample curve is shown below. When the voltage at the selected bus
goes below some pre-defined criteria, then the transfer at which this occurs is the Low Voltage transfer
limit for that bus. Ignoring the low voltage and continuing to increase transfer would eventually bring the
curve to a point where the system collapses. The point of collapse can likewise be designated as the
Voltage Collapse transfer limit.
9
Chapter 9(a) Reactor Power Fundamentals
In PSS™TPLAN, PV curves are provided as a distinct Analytical Engine. As such it is provided with
powerful features:
• Easy setup
• Comprehensive results
• Adaptive step size. You define a range for the transfer increment, and PSS™TPLAN will select a
step size which will maintain the accuracy of the simulation at minimum loss of resolution.
• Non-divergent power flow. The last point on the curve is always accurately determined by a
special algorithm which can identify divergence.
10
Chapter 9(a) Reactor Power Fundamentals
CHAPTER - 2
REACTIVE POWER SOURCES AND SINKS
2.0 Introduction:
Sources of reactive power are
• Generating units
• Synchronous condenser
• On-load tap changers and phase-shifting transformers.
• Capacitors and reactors
• Static compensators.
2.1 Generators
The purposes of generators are to supply the active power, to provide the primary voltage control of the
power system and to bring about, or at least contribute to, the desired reactive power balance in the
areas adjacent to the generating stations. A generator absorbs reactive power when under excited and
it produces reactive power when overexcited. The reactive power output is continuously controllable
through varying the excitation current. The allowable reactive power absorption or production is
dependent on the active power output as illustrated by the power charts of Figures 2.1 and 2.2. For
short-term operation the thermal limits are usually allowed to be overridden.
The step-response time in voltage control is from several tenths of a second and upwards. The rated
power factor of generators usually lies within the range 0.80 to 0.95. Generators installed remotely from
load centers usually have a high rated power factor; this is often the case with large hydro-turbine
generators. Generators installed close to load centers usually have a lower rated power factor. In some
cases of large steam-turbine generators the rated power factor may have been selected at the lower
end of the above range in order to ensure reactive power reserve for severe forced outage conditions of
the power system.
Fig 2.1 Typical Power chart for large steam turbine and gas turbine generators
where
a — Turbine power limit
b — Stator winding thermal limit
c — Field winding thermal limit
d — Steady-slate stability limit with proper AVR
e — Assumed intervention curve of under excitation limiter
11
Chapter 9(a) Reactor Power Fundamentals
Fig.2.2. Typical power chart for large hydro-turbine generators (salient-pole machines)
Large generators are usually connected direct to transmission networks via step-up transformers. The
terminal voltage of a large generator is usually allowed to be controlled within a ± 5% range around the
nominal voltage, at rated load. In most countries the generator step-up transformers are usually not
equipped with on-load tap changers.
Excitation Control: The MVAR output of a generator is dependent on its excitation. The MVAR is
generated during over excitation and is absorbed during under excitation. The rotor current depends on
the excitation. The rotor winding temperature, the air gap temperature and the machine temperature
increase during over excitation. The winding temperature is limited to about 90oC during normal
loading. It increases to 100 – 105oC during over loading. The machine which is already over heated
due to MVAR generation can not take MW load to its full capacity. Hence MW load is to be
compromised when the unit is excited beyond its normal limits.
When the unit generates MVAR and supplies to the system, the system voltage profile around the
generating station increases. This increase in voltage is more in first neighbourhood. The load end
voltages which are beyond, say second neighbourhood will not get effected because of this unit
excitation. Hence the influence of a unit on voltage profile in the system is local in nature. The load
end voltages can not be controlled by the generating units.
However depending on the capability curve of the generating unit and as long as margin is available in
the unit, it can be used to control the system voltages in its vicinity.
The change in the voltage ∆V in the first neighbourhood of the generating station depends on the
relation
∆V = ∆Q/S in p.u.
Where ∆V = change in bus voltage in pu
∆Q = Amount of Q supplied through over excitation in p.u.
S = Fault level of the system at first neighbourhood in p.u.
Shunt reactors in use range in size from a few Mvar at low medium voltages and up to hundreds of
Mvar.
Shunt reactors are necessarily installed to suppress high voltage during light load conditions. For
400kV and UHV lines, shunt reactors are directly connected on line. This is for the purpose of
compensating leading charging MVAR released by the line. Shunt reactors are also connected on
tertiary delta windings of autotransformers so that these can be switched on during light load periods.
Reactor Operation: The shunt reactor is a coil connected to the system voltage and grounded at the
other end. It draws the magnetizing current, which is purely inductive, from the system and hence
forms an inductive load at the point of connection. Hence the reactor absorbs reactive power from the
system as long as it is connected to the system. Hence it is complimentary to a capacitor bank in its
function. The reduction in voltage at the point of connection is given by ∆V = ∆Q/S, all expressed in
p.u. terms.
12
Chapter 9(a) Reactor Power Fundamentals
The reactors are required to be used at EHV voltages of 400 kV and above, as the line charging at this
voltage is quite significant, it increases the receiving end voltage to unacceptable limits under light load
conditions. A 400 kV line generates about 55 MVAR per 100 km and hence this Ferranty effect is high
for lines of 300 km and above.
The functions of both bus reactor as well as line reactor are same. They absorb the reactive power
from the system depending upon their capacity.
The bus reactors are switchable and hence are cut-in whenever the system voltage is higher and can
be cut-off from the system whenever the system voltage reduces.
The line reactors are permanently connected to the lines and hence the system. Their role is to
a) Reduce the effect of line charging
b) Provide a least impedance path for the switching over voltages generated in the system due to
inductive load currents’ switching. The switching over voltages are of power frequency and equal
to 1.5 to 2.5 p.u. in magnitude.
c) When the EHV lines have single phase switching facility and auto reclose protection scheme is
implemented, the abnormal voltages developed across the circuit breaker can be contained only
with a line reactor on the line side.
d) The line reactors provide a least impedance path for low frequency (power frequency) switching
over voltages. Hence they act as surge diverters for power frequency over voltages. The lightning
over voltages cannot pass through the line reactor because of their high frequency.
Capacitor Operation: The capacitor banks are reactive power sources. They produce reactive power
equal to their rating when connected to the bus. In order to keep the insulation costs less, they are
connected to the system at distribution voltage levels, e.g. 0.4 kV, 11 kV, 33 kV etc.
The output of a capacitor bank is Qc = V2 ωc
Hence the output is proportional to the square of the voltage. If the system voltage to which the
capacitor bank is connected reduces to 0.9 p.u. the MVAR generated by the capacitor reduces to 0.81
p.u. Hence the performance of a capacitor bank will be poor under low voltage conditions, at which
time it is required most.
The influence of a capacitor bank on the system voltage is again local like in case of a generator. It is
most pre dominent at the bus to which it is connected. Its effect gets reduced as we go to next
neighbourhood. The change in voltage at the point of connection is governed by the relation ∆V = ∆Q/S
Where ∆V = change in bus voltage in pu
∆Q = Amount of Q supplied through the capacitor bank in p.u.
S = Fault MVA of the bus in p.u.
Hence it is possible to compute the capacitor requirement of the system at a location using
∆Q = (∆V)(S)
13
Chapter 9(a) Reactor Power Fundamentals
Outstanding features of shunt capacitors are their low overall costs and their high application flexibility.
An unfavorable characteristic, most important in conjunction with major outages and disturbances, is
that they provide the least support at the very time when it may be most needed, because the reactive
power output is proportional to the voltage squared. If used in a proper mix with other reactive power
sources, this is, however, no obstacle to an extensive use of shunt capacitors. The losses of modern
shunt capacitors are of the order of 0.2w/Kvar, including the losses of fuses and discharge resistors
Shunt capacitors are useful in
• Power factor correction
• Voltage control and reactive power balance
• Reducing transmission losses
• Meeting requirements of reactive loads
Pf correction by shunt capacitors is by far the most satisfactory and economical method. The static
capacitor owing to its low losses, simplicity and high efficiency, is finding very wide and universal use
for pf correction.
A detailed description on construction, operation, protection and trouble shooting of capacitor banks is
provided in Chapter 3.
If the transformer tap is raised to say 5, it is now boosting the HV voltage to say, 1.02 pu. Now the
reactive power in-flow reduces to HV bus, to say 20 MVAR. This reduced MVAR is flowing to LV bus.
Hence the LV bus voltage reduces. This is illustrated in Fig 2.4. Hence the transformer tap only alters
the number of turns in the HV winding there by altering the HV voltage. If this HV voltage is less than
the neighbourhood voltage it receives MVAR, if it is more, then it pumps MVAR to its neighbourhood.
The LV bus voltage is maintained only as a consequence of MVAR inflow or outflow to it from the HV
bus.
14
Chapter 9(a) Reactor Power Fundamentals
Synchronous condenser is another reactive power device, traditionally in use since 1920s.
Synchronous condenser is simply a synchronous machine without any load attached to it. Like
generators, they can be over-exited or under-exited by varying their field current in order to generate or
absorb reactive power, synchronous condensers can continuously regulate reactive power to ensure
steady transmission voltage, under varying load conditions. They are especially suited for emergency
voltage control under loss of load, generation or transmission, because of their fast short-time
response. Synchronous condensers provide necessary reactive power even exceeding their rating for
short duration, to arrest voltage collapse and to improve system stability.
Synonymous terms are synchronous compensator and synchronous phase modifier. The synchronous
compensator is the traditional means for Continuous control of reactive power. Synchronous
compensators are used in transmission systems: at the receiving end of long transmissions, in
important substations and in conjunction with HVDC inverter stations. Small synchronous compensators
have also been installed in high-power industrial networks of steel mills; few of these are in use today.
Synchronous compensators in use range in size from a few MVA up to hundreds of MVA.
Both indoor and outdoor installations exist. Synchronous compensators below, say, 50 MVA are usually
air-cooled, while those above are usually hydrogen-cooled. Modern synchronous compensators are
usually equipped with a fast excitation system with a potential-source rectifier exciter. Various starting
methods are used; the modern one is inverter starting.
The size of a synchronous compensator is referred to the Continuous MVA rating far the generation of
reactive power. In the generating mode of operation it usually has a rather high short-time overload
capability. The absorption capability is normally of the order of 60 per cent of the MVA rating, which
means that the control range is usually 160 per cent of the MVA rating. The reactive power output is
continuously controllable. The step-response time with closed-loop voltage control is from a few tenths
of a second, and up. The losses of hydrogen-cooled synchronous compensators are of the order of 10
W/kvar at rated output. The losses of small air-cooled machines are of the order of 20 W/kvar at rated
output.
In recent years the synchronous compensator has been practically ruled out by the SVC, in the case of
new installations, due to benefits in cost performance and reliability of the latter. One exception is
HVDC inverter stations, in cases where the short-circuit capacity has to be increased. The synchronous
compensators can do this, but not the SVC.
15
Chapter 9(a) Reactor Power Fundamentals
system and therefore increase the size of circuit capacity of the system, as their
(11kV etc.) breakers in the neighbourhood. output is proportional to V2
10. This is a rotating device. Hence the O&M These are static and simple devices.
problems are more Hence O&M problems are negligible
As early as the first half of the 1970s the SVC became a well-established device in high-power
industrial networks, particularly for the reduction of voltage fluctuations caused by arc furnaces. In
transmission systems the breakthrough came at the end of the 1970s. Since then, there has been an
almost explosive increase in the number of applications, in the first place as an alternative to
synchronous compensators, but also for a more extensive use of dynamic shunt compensation, i.e. of
easily and rapidly controllable shunt compensation.
Compensators in use range in size from a few Mvar up to 650 Mvar control range, and with nominal
voltages up to 765 kV.
This way the SVC not only improves the voltage characteristic but also helps in damping oscillations
during post fault period. This property is also used for damping of power swings. Damping of angular
swings are improved by feeding a properly conditioned signal derived from power flow on the line to the
voltage regulator.
16
Chapter 9(a) Reactor Power Fundamentals
The following subsections 2.5.2 to 2.5.5 apply in the first place to transmission system SVCs. Industrial
system SVCs in conjunction with arc furnaces usually differ in some respects: No SVC transformer,
fixed capacitor (filter)/Thyristor-controlled reactor main circuit arrangement only, open-loop reactive-
power compensation control instead of closed-loop voltage control.
Principles of operation:
Two types of Thyristor-controlled elements are used in SVCs:
1. TSC — Thyristor-switched capacitor
2. TCR — Thyristor- controlled reactor
From a power-frequency point of view they can both be considered as a variable reactance, capacitive
or inductive, respectively.
Fig. 2.5 illustrates the operating principle. The problem of achieving essentially transient-free switching
on of the capacitor is overcome by choosing the switching instant when the voltage across the Thyristor
switch is at a minimum, ideally zero. In Fig 2.5 the switching-on instant is selected at the time (t1) when
the branch voltage has its maximum value and the same polarity as the capacitor voltage. This ensures
that the switching on takes place with practically no transient.
Switching off a capacitor is accomplished by suppression of the firing pulses to the Thyristor so that the
Thyristor will block as soon as the current becomes zero (t2). In principle, the capacitor will then remain
charged to the positive or negative peak voltage and be prepared for a new switching on.
17
Chapter 9(a) Reactor Power Fundamentals
Fig. 2.6 shows the basic diagram of a TCR. The branch shown includes an inductor L and a bi-
directional Thyristor switch TY. The current and there by also the power frequency component of the
current are controlled by delaying the closing of the thyristor switch with respect to the natural zero
passages.
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Chapter 9(a) Reactor Power Fundamentals
• Generation of harmonics
If stepwise control is acceptable, a switched mode of operation with constant delay angle. ∝ = 90o, can
be used (TSR mode of operation). The advantage of this mode of operation is that no harmonic current
is generated. A sufficiently small SVC step size can usually be achieved by a few TSRs, sized and
operated in a so-called binary system.
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Chapter 9(a) Reactor Power Fundamentals
Fig 2.8 Operating principle of a SVC of type TSC + TCR for a slow change of control order
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Chapter 9(a) Reactor Power Fundamentals
Harmonics in SVC:
A TSC does not produce harmonic currents, but a TCR does. All SVCs with continuous reactive power
control include one TCR or more thus they produce harmonic currents. The harmonics of zero
sequence character (eg. 3rd, 9th etc.) are eliminated by some delta connection. The 5th and 7th
harmonics are in some cases eliminated by 12 pulse arrangement. As a last resort a filter is included.
The allowable amount of harmonic currents into the Power System expressed in terms of voltage
distortion at the point of SVC connection are :
• The allowed voltage distortion caused by a single harmonic current =1.0%
• The allowed total voltage distortion caused by all harmonic currents=1.5%
Dynamic Performance:
The small-signal performance of an SVC with closed-loop voltage control may be characterized by its
step-response time. It is defined here as the time required to achieve 90% of the called-for change in
voltage, for a step change in the reference voltage. The step change must be small enough for the
SVC not to reach a limit. The step-response time depends on the power-system equivalent impedance
at the SVC point of connection. It is typically less than a few cycles of the power-frequency voltage at
the minimum short-circuit MVA level considered when choosing the voltage regulator gain.
If there is a risk that the short-circuit MVA level can be even lower and thereby cause SVC voltage
control instability, this can be cured by a gain supervisor automatically reducing the gain in case of
instability.
If there are frequent wide variations in the short-circuit MVA level and if it is judged important to get as
fast small-signal voltage control as possible for all operating conditions, this can be achieved by a gain
optimizer, automatically and repeatedly adjusting the gain up or down versus the short-circuit MVA
level.
The above discussion is primarily referred to continuously acting SVCs, but does in principle also apply
to discrete acting SVCs (SVCs of TSC, TSR or TSC/TSR type in a binary arrangement).
The large-signal performance is essentially characterized by the actuating time of the SVC triggering
and main circuits only. For a large voltage deviation, the SVC response time is typically of the order of
one power-frequency cycle, considering the power-frequency voltage component only.
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Chapter 9(a) Reactor Power Fundamentals
Fig. 2.11 Illustrates the dynamic performance of an SVC for a large step change in the reference
voltage IT, IC and IB mean total, capacitor and reactor current respectively.
The degree of compensation is 20 to 70% of line inductive reactance. The series capacitor (Cse) can be
located at the ends of a long Transmission line or in a switching station in the middle of it.
Considerations are voltage profiles, efficiency of compensation, losses, fault currents, over voltages,
proximity to attended stations etc.
1. The shunt unit is connected in parallel The series unit is connected in series in
across full line voltage. The current the circuit and therefore conducts full
through the shunt capacitor is nearly current
constant as the supply terminal voltage
and its reactance are constant.
2. The voltage across the shunt capacitor is The voltage across the series capacitor
substantially constant as it is equal to the changes instantaneously as it depends on
system voltage and generally within certain the load current through it, which varies
limits of say 0.9 to 1.1 pu. from 0 to ILmax
3. The power developed across the shunt The power developed across the series
capacitor is capacitor is
4. The shunt capacitor supplies lagging The series capacitor reduces the line
reactive power to the system. Hence reactance as it introduces leading
directly compensating the lagging KVAR reactance in series of the line. Thus
load. It improves the load power factor series capacitor at rated frequency
substantially. Hence its main purpose is to Compensates for the drop, through
compensate the load Power factor inductive reactance of the feeder. Hence
it is used to increase the line transmission
capacity.
5. The size and capacity of shunt capacitor is The size and capacity of a series
generally higher for the same voltage capacitor is relatively lesser for the same
regulation voltage regulation
6. Not suitable for transient voltage drops The voltage regulation due to series
caused by say, frequent motor starting, capacitor is proportional to the IL2 hence it
electric welding etc. meets the requirements of transient
voltage changes
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Chapter 9(a) Reactor Power Fundamentals
8. The shunt capacitor need not be on the The series capacitor should always be on
source side. But closer to the load point the source side of the load.
10. The Ferranti effect is aggravated by shunt The Ferranti effect is reduced by the
compensation series capacitor
11. Power transferred through a line With Cse, Vr increases and X decreases
VV hence P increases much more.
P= s r Sinδ
X
with shunt capacitor, Vr increases ⇒ P
increases
12. The shunt compensation does not require The voltage across series capacitor
special protection arrangements as the abnormally rises due to flow of fault
terminal voltage of the capacitor bank falls current through it. Hence it requires
under fault conditions special protection schemes.
Csc
The fig. 2.12 Shows the bypass arrangement series capacitor (Cse) in case of faults as large voltage
develops across the series capacitor. But the transient stability warrants reinsertion of Cse into the
system at the earliest. This is achieved by the Zinc Oxide (Zno) varistor. It provides instantaneous
capacitor reinsertion after fault clearing. A triggered spark gap is provided to take care of excess energy
absorbed by Zno. Damping circuit (D) limits the discharge current.
Fig.2.12 Series Capacitor with Zinc-oxide varistor by-pass system.
Zno arrestor is highly non linear. It is connected across the series capacitor in addition to the triggered
gap and by pass switch. The varistor clamps the capacitor voltage below its short time over voltage
rating during the fault. The re-insertion is almost instantaneous. Thus both capacitor protection and
system stability aspects are taken care of.
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Chapter 9(a) Reactor Power Fundamentals
Fig 2.13 System of the type most exposed to the sub-synchronous resonance
In case of hydro-turbine generator units, the risk of torsional oscillation problem is practically negligible.
Preventive Measures:
• SSR detection and relaying leading to tripping of unit
• Compensating sub synchronous currents with Dynamic stability
• Pole-face amortizer winding against induction generator effect
• Thyrister Controlled Series Capacitor.
The use of a Thyristor-controlled module, appropriately controlled, of the series capacitor bank seems
to be a promising counter measure.
Another subject often discussed is how to ensure correct operation of line relay protections in
conjunction with series capacitors. According to service experience the risk of maloperation of line
distance protections seems small. Ultra-high-speed line protections based on traveling wave detection
can eliminate the possible problems of line protection in conjunction with series capacitors.
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