Chapter 7

THE BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES

7.1 EARTH, LIFE, AND CHEMISTRY 

● Earth is a Peculiar Planet 

Earth is the only body that has the combination of four characteristics: l​iquid water​; ​water at its triple point
(gas, liquid, and solid phases at the same time); ​plate tectonics​; and ​life​. While Earth shares a common origin
scheme with other members of the Solar System, it is unique in these aspects.
● Space Travelers and Our Solar System 
Life changes its planet’s atmosphere, oceans, and upper surfaces. Much of the Earth’s physical uniqueness
comes from the fact that life has modified the planet in ways that other planets have not been modified, an
aspect that could be deduced by space travelers. Life on Earth can be said to prevent the ​thermodynamic 
equilibrium​ approached on other planets.
● The Fitness of the Environment 
Why is the Earth so fit for life to exist? ​At first, there must have been conditions that allowed life to begin and
develop, but then living things brought about changes to the system that allowed further development of life,
thus enhancing further the ​environmental fitness​ of the Earth​. This is a rough parallel to the primary
succession processes.
● The Rise of Oxygen 
Evidence from banded-iron formations suggests that the early Earth was oxygen-deficient. ​There are no
significant geologic sources of oxygen gas, so most atmospheric oxygen was added by living organisms,
starting with cyanobacteria and eventually including algae and green plants.
 
● Life Responds to an Oxygen Environment  
Early cells were ​prokaryotic​ (lacking a nucleus or membrane-bound organelles) and ​anaerobic​ (a metabolism
that used an electron sink other than oxygen)​. They had high demands for energy compared to their capability
for extracting it which placed a limit on their size. Thermal vent communities are significant because they
suggest how the earliest ecosystems probably operated billions of years ago in the ocean when the atmosphere
was devoid of oxygen - this can be a good discussion point.
Some prokaryotes began producing oxygen as a waste product, and organisms evolved means of using this
oxygen to produce a more efficient metabolism, which led to higher levels of cellular complexity. ​The evolution
of ​eukaryotic​ cells (those with a membrane bound nucleus, membrane-bound organelles, and a cytoskeleton)
was directly influenced by oxygen availability​. Photosynthetic eukaryotic cells continued to increase the oxygen
in Earth’s biosphere.
7.2 LIFE AND GLOBAL CHEMICAL CYCLES

26
 Chapter 7
Life depends on a constant supply of chemical building blocks or essential elements. ​ Life cannot exist even if
one of the essential elements is missing.​ The abiotic environment consists of about 103 elements, although the
biotic environment requires only around 24 of these. ​Elements needed in large supply by all life are called
macronutrients ​(C, H, N, O, P and S), and those just as essential but in smaller quantities are ​micronutrients​.
The growth rate of organisms is dependent on the supply rates of these essential nutrients. ​ More specifically,
biological production is limited by the one element (termed the ​limiting factor​) that is least available relative to
the need or the demand. ​In most natural environments and in agriculture, the elements that are most commonly
limiting (the elements that usually limit the rate of production) are N and P. That is why farmers use so much N
and P fertilizer to make their crops grow faster.
The essential elements are not uniformly across the planet. For example, some soils are said to be naturally
fertile, while others that are deficient in these elements are not. At the other extreme, the abundance of some
elements (e.g. selenium) can be so great that they are toxic. Other elements are considered to be neutral in
regards to life.

7.3 GENERAL ASPECTS OF BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES

Our planet can be divided roughly into two parts: one that is living or derived from once living things (termed
biotic​) and one that is non living and not derived from once living things (termed ​abiotic​).​ The abiotic systems
can be further divided into the ​atmosphere​, ​lithosphere​, and ​hydrosphere​.
The biotic portions are composed of chemical building blocks derived from the abiotic part. These building
blocks pass repeatedly between the biotic and the various abiotic environments. ​These transfers or
transformations of the elements are collectively referred to as ​biogeochemical cycles​. A biogeochemical cycle
is the complete path that a chemical takes through the Earth’s systems.
A systems approach can be applied to the study of biogeochemical cycles. ​For a particular cycle, there is a
series of compartments​ ​(​reservoirs​) with flow from ​sources​ to ​sinks​ at a certain rate (​flux​). ​They manner in
which they pass back and forth between the abiotic environment and living organisms, among organisms, and

27
Chapter 7
the way they move about and are distributed spatially and temporally are the subjects of much investigation by
ecologists.
A cycle can be visualized as a box and arrow diagram showing the flux of an element or compound from one
compartment to another (see Figure 7.9). The arrows generally show the flow rate or flux rate and the boxes
show the amount of the element in that particular compartment. From these amounts and fluxes it is possible to
calculate the ​residence times​. Take for example a lake with a volume of 3 x 10​6​ m​3​ and flows into and out of
the lake of 3,000 m​3​/day. The residence time of water in the lake would be the volume divided by the flux, or
1000 days.
Some elements like O, H, C, N and S cycle between the air, water, soil and living things. Most other essential
elements do not exist in a gaseous form, and they do not cycle through the air. Most importantly, every
biogeochemical cycle is closed. There are no dead ends - the product of every reaction is the substrate of
another reaction.
Cycles are influenced by biological, geological, atmospheric and hydrological factors. ​The cycles interact, and
they are intentionally and unintentionally modified by people, sometimes with positive results and sometimes
with negative results. We intentionally modify the cycles to increase food production, for example, by
supplying extra nutrients, like nitrogen. But this has unintentional side effects like harming the ecology of lakes
and rivers.
7.4 THE GEOLOGIC CYCLE
Nature consists of many different kinds of cycles that operate on different time scales. The geologic cycle or
rock cycle also involves a cycle of elements, but it operates on time scales longer than the biogeochemical
cycles. Geologic cycles literally churn the elements by consuming and renewing the earth’s crust. Liquid rock
spews out of volcanoes, hardens to form igneous rock, igneous rock is twisted and compressed under great
pressure to form metamorphic rock, metamorphic and igneous rock both are eroded and deposited to form
sedimentary rock, and all are eventually drawn again into the interior of the earth and converted into magma.
● The Tectonic Cycle 
This cycle involves the creation and destruction of the solid outer layer of Earth, the lithosphere. Discussion of
plate tectonics​, subduction zones, and spreading centers, including earthquakes, volcanism, the speed at which
the plates move, Pangea, and the faults are all appropriate.​ Show illustrations of the earth’s plate boundaries
and the position of the continents over time. You also can talk about the importance of continental drift to
biogeography (biogeography is discussed in greater detail later). Use of global mapping software projected on a
classroom screen is an excellent way to show various types of plate boundaries.
● ​The Hydrological Cycle
The hydrologic cycle is a vitally important concept in biogeochemical cycling. Not only is the availability of
water and the means by which it moves critical knowledge, but water serves as a key transporting agent for
other materials, including both natural substances as well as pollutants, and will tie into most all other cycles.
● The Rock Cycle 
Tectonic processes form igneous rock, which are weathered by wind, water and acids into sand, silt and clay.
Weathered materials accumulate in basins and can be compacted by overlying sediment to form sedimentary
rock. Under intense heat and pressure, sedimentary rock will form metamorphic rock. Types of rock found in
certain areas will affect soil fertility, speed of erosion, beach formation, and other aspects of the ecosystem.
7.5 SOME MAJOR GLOBAL BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES 
An effective technique is to project images of these cycles and discuss them point by point. Excellent critical
thinking opportunities exist for students to (a) speculate on the outcomes of interferences to the cycles, (b)
28
 Chapter 7
compare and contrast different cycles as to which have gaseous phases, or (c) determine which rely more
heavily on water as a transport mechanism.
The chemical composition of life forms is remarkably uniform. For the most part, living things (the biota) are
all composed of the same chemical elements. ​ For all practical purposes, the abundance of each of the basic
elemental building blocks is fixed, they neither increase nor decrease over time. This is referred to as
conservation of mass​. Conservation of mass is an important concept.​ The example of what happens to the
mass of a piece of wood or paper when it burns will serve as a nice illustration. Of course the solid C​6​H​12​O​6​ is
converted into CO​2​ and H​2​O, the mass of elements in wood is conserved, they are just converted into gas. What
follows is a discussion of several of the major biogeochemical cycles (N, C, P) and how they operate, why they
are important, and how humans are affecting the cycles.
● ​The Carbon Cycle  
Cycling of carbon through the atmosphere is very fast. Plants absorb carbon as carbon dioxide (CO​2​) during the
process of photosynthesis and from organic molecules. Organic molecules containing C, synthesized by plants,
are passed along to animals, and from animal to animal.
The organic C molecules in plants and animals are eventually degraded or decomposed by microbes (bacteria
and fungi) and the organic matter converted to CO​2​, completing the cycle. Over geologic time scales, some of
the organic C has been preserved in deposits, buried, and converted into coal, gas, and petroleum (fossil fuel).
We have excellent measurements of how much fossil fuel is used annually on a global scale, and we have
excellent measurements of how much CO​2​ is accumulating in the air. Much of the CO​2​ produced by burning
fossil fuel does not remain in the atmosphere. A large part is absorbed by the ocean, but there is a sizable
fraction that is unaccounted for and this has led to a spirited debate among scientists about where it is going. If
the missing fraction is not going into the ocean (which we think we know) or atmosphere (which we know with
certainty), then it very likely is going into the vegetation. ​The biogeochemical carbon cycle is one that humans
are modifying to a degree that may be sufficient to modify global climate.
● The Carbon-Silicate Cycle  
Over geological time scales, the cycling of carbon and silicon are linked. CO​2​ in water forms a weak acid
(carbonic acid or H​2​CO​3​). This helps to weather rock and dissolve calcium and silicate ions. These carbonates,
silicates and calcium move in surface and groundwater to the ocean where diatoms and other organisms make
their shells from these materials. When they die, these shells sink to the bottom and make vast deposits of
carbonate-rich sediments, such as limestone.
● The Nitrogen Cycle 
The nitrogen cycle is one of the most complex because it involves several steps that are uniquely accomplished
by microbes. Plants absorb nitrogen as ammonium (NH​4​+​) or nitrate (NO​3​-​). Ammonium is a cation, while
nitrate is an anion. These molecules behave much like table salt. When paired with a molecule with an
opposite charge they will form a solid that looks like salt, but when placed in water the compound dissolves (the
anion separates from the cation). Animals require their N in organic form. It must have been converted first by
a plant into organic molecules (usually proteins).
The N in both plants and animals is returned to the soil where the organic matter decays and the organic N is
once again converted back into inorganic NH​4​+​ by microorganisms (fungi and bacteria). ​ There are specialized
bacteria that will convert NH​4​+​ into NO​3​-​; this process is termed ​nitrification​. It is a process that requires
oxygen. There are specialized bacteria that will convert NO​3​-​ into N​2​ gas; this process is termed
denitrification​. ​ It is a process that happens only in the absence of oxygen. Such environments are found in
waterlogged soils like find in wetlands, groundwater and some other restricted places.

29
Chapter 7
There are other specialized bacteria that will convert N​2​ into ammonium (NH​4​+​); this process is termed ​nitrogen 
fixation​. ​ There are nitrogen fixing bacteria that live in the roots of some plants (legumes) and supply the plant
hosts with N, and there are other nitrogen fixing bacteria that live freely in the soil and in aquatic environments.
Nitrogen used in agriculture (as well as munitions) is manufactured using the Haber-Bosch process. This is a
process that uses natural gas to fix atmospheric N​2​. ​ Prior to the discovery of this process in the early 20​th
century, nitrogen was obtained from deposits of guano.
Here you could test your students grasp of the concept of recycling by diagramming the N cycle and omitting
the N-fixation step. Ask them what would happen.
● ​The​ ​Phosphorus Cycle 
Phosphorus is one of the elements that does not have an important gaseous phase. Phosphorus frequently exists
as ​orthophosphate ion​ (PO​4​3-​), often just called “​phosphate​”. ​ Orthophosphate​ is
​ taken up by autotrophs and is
converted into organic P compounds (amino acids, ATP, etc.). Animals require their P in organic form.
The phosphorus in both plants and animals is returned to the soil where the organic matter decays and the
organic P is once again converted back into inorganic forms by microorganisms (fungi and bacteria),
completing the cycle. Some phosphorus​ ​is lost from terrestrial ecosystem because it leaches from the soil into
groundwater and moves slowly to lakes and streams and eventually into the ocean. The lost phosphorus is
replaced by P that dissolves slowly from rocks. Phosphorus for agriculture is derived from phosphate mines,
usually from ore containing calcium phosphate. Note that phosphate mines represent a nonrenewable resource,
and this could limit agricultural production in the future. Phosphate mining is also associated with a
considerable amount of pollution problems.

30
 Chapter 7
Critical Thinking Questions 
 
1. The supply of phosphorus from mining is a limited resource. In the U.S., extraction is decreasing and the
price is rising dramatically. Do you think phosphorus can be used sustainably? How? If not, what are the
potential consequences for agriculture?
In order to preserve the phosphorus resource within an environment, it is necessary to map stocks and flows to
identify key points where we can minimize dissipation and increase recycling. The potential consequences of a
scarce supply of phosphorus on agriculture include decreased plant growth and a decline in food production
since phosphorus is an essential nutrient within plants which enables plant growth.
2. Do you think phosphorus use should be governed by an international body? Why?
Why not?
Generally, I believe that phosphorus use should be governed by an international body, as various nations should
be able to reach consensus regarding policies that regulate phosphorus mining within their nation and preserve
the supply of phosphorus collectively.
3. Compare the rate of human contributions to nitrogen fixation with the natural rate.
Referring to the 1940’s, industrial nitrogen fixation has increased substantially and human activity has doubled
the amount of global nitrogen fixation.
4. Defend or criticize the statement that the increase in human population must be accompanied by an increase
in mining of phosphorus.
In general, the increase of human population leads to a higher demand of environmental resources, such as
phosphorus, nitrogen, natural gas, etc, in order to increase food production or produce items or products for
human consumption.
5. Develop a diagram to illustrate the links between the phosphorus, nitrogen, and carbon cycles.

31
Chapter 7
6. Discuss ways in which we could modify our activities to reduce our contributions to the phosphorus and
nitrogen cycles.
In order to reduce our contributions to the phosphorus and nitrogen cycles, activities that we can modify include
recycling animal and human waste that are rich in phosphorus and nitrogen nutrients to make fertilizers.
Additionally, we could store wastewater or agricultural runoff in an area that filtrates the nitrogen and
phosphorus to prevent it from reaching waterways with clean freshwater and affecting the marine organisms.
7. Should phosphorus and nitrogen be used to produce corn as a biofuel (alcohol)? Why? Why not?
In my opinion, I believe that phosphorus and nitrogen should be used to produce corn as a biofuel because
phosphorus and nitrogen are essential nutrients that enable plant growth, however, it should be managed wisely
as demand for biofuels increases since phosphorus is a limited environmental resource.

Study Questions  
 
1. Why is an understanding of biogeochemical cycles important in environmental science? Explain your answer,
using two examples.
The understanding of biogeochemical cycles is crucial in the understanding of environmental science because
knowledge regarding the natural processes that produce environmental resources, such as phosphorus, water,
carbon, etc. will allow a person to understand how human activity or other actions influence the biogeochemical
cycles. Additionally, a basic understanding of biogeochemical cycles will enable a person to further their
studies in a certain biogeochemical cycle and they can observe various factors within an environment which
affects the natural cycles.
2. Summarize some of the general rules that govern biogeochemical cycles, especially the transfer of material.
The general rules that govern biogeochemical cycles is that materials are transferred through biotic or abiotic
factors within the environment. In order for an ecosystem to continue, every nutrient within the biogeochemical
cycle will be recycled continuously. Every biogeochemical cycle has a main reservoir that continues the cycle.
3. Synthesize the major aspects of the carbon cycle and the environmental concerns associated with it.
Within the Carbon cycle, it is recycled through various reservoirs, such as the lithosphere, atmosphere,
biosphere, and hydrosphere. The carbon cycle comprises of four stages: photosynthesis, decomposition,
respiration, and combustion. The concerns regarding the carbon cycle is that an accumulation of greenhouse
gases will lead to global warming.
4. Contrast the geochemical cycles for phosphorus and nitrogen and explain why the differences are important
in environmental science.
The phosphorus cycle and nitrogen cycle differs because the nitrogen cycle cycles through the environment,
while the phosphorus cycle does not interact with the environment.
5. What are the major ways that people have altered biogeochemical cycles?
A major way that people have altered the biogeochemical cycles consist of human activity, such as usage of
fossil fuels for combustion, which has released substantial amounts of carbon into the atmosphere and has
caused climate change. In addition, deforestation has led to an increase of carbon within the environment since
less carbon dioxide is absorbed and less oxygen is formulated, therefore, carbon accumulates in greater
quantity.
6. Speculate on what would happen if all life on Earth ceased. Would the atmosphere become like that of Venus
and Mars? Why or why not?
If all life on Earth were to cease, the Earth’s atmosphere would shift and become similar to the atmosphere of
Mars since Mars’ atmosphere has little oxygen, methane, or hydrogen, but large amounts of carbon dioxide. If
life on Earth ceased, the photosynthesis process would terminate and the Earth would be left with an abundance
of carbon within the atmosphere, similar to Mars’ environment.

Web Resources  
32
 Chapter 7
 
You can find many excellent resources on the WRI web site: ​www.wri.org​.

33