Avionics

Unit I: Power Distribution System

CONTENTS
• Introduction to Power Distribution Systems in Aircraft Electrical System
• Bus Bar System
• Special Purpose Cables
• Electrical Diagram and Identification Scheme
• Circuit Controlling Devices
• Power Utilization- typical application to avionics
• Need for Avionics in civil and military aircraft

Electrical Systems
• Electrical systems have made significant advances over the years as aircraft have become more
dependent upon electrically powered services.
• An Aircraft Electrical System is a self contained network of components that generate, transmit,
distribute, utilize and store electrical energy.
• An electrical system is an integral and essential component of all but the most simplistic of aircraft
designs.
• The electrical system capacity and complexity varies tremendously between a light, piston
powered, single engine GA aircraft and a modern, multiengine commercial jet aircraft.
• All aircraft electrical systems have components with the ability to generate electricity.
• Depending upon the aircraft, generators or alternators are used to produce electricity. These are
usually engine driven but may also be powered by an Auxiliary Power Unit (APU), a hydraulic
motor or a Ram Air Turbine (RAT).
• Generator output is normally 115-120V/400HZ AC, 28V DC or 14V DC.
• Power from the generator may be used without modification or it may be routed
through transformers, rectifiers or inverters to change the voltage or type of current.
• The generator output will normally be directed to one or more Power Distribution Bus.
• Individual components are powered from the bus with circuit protection in the form of a Circuit
Breaker or fuse incorporated into the wiring.
• The generator output is also used to charge the aircraft battery(s).
• Batteries are usually either of the lead-acid or NICAD types but lithium batteries are becoming
more and more common.
• They are used for both aircraft startup and as an emergency source of power in the event of a
generation or distribution system failure.

Aircraft Electrical Systems: Characteristics

• Power generation.
• Primary power distribution and protection.
• Power conversion and energy storage using a Transformer Rectifier Unit (TRU) and Battery.
• Secondary power distribution and protection.
Generic aircraft AC electrical system

Threats
• Generator Failure
• Bus Failure
• Component Failure
• Electrical System Fire

Effects
• Loss of some or all of primary power generation capability.
• Loss of all components and systems powered by the failed bus.
• Loss of an individual component.
• Potential loss of aircraft should the fire become uncontrollable, loss of busses; systems or
components due to the fire or as a result of electrical isolation procedures; smoke and/or fumes.

Accidents and Incidents

• MD11, en-route, Atlantic Ocean near Halifax Canada, 1998: On 2 September 1998, an MD-11
aircraft belonging to Swissair, crashed into the sea off Nova Scotia following an in-flight electrical
fire.
• A319, London Heathrow UK, 2009: On 15 March 2009, an Airbus A319-100 being operated by
British Airways on a scheduled passenger flight from London Heathrow to Edinburgh experienced
an electrical malfunction during the night pushback in normal ground visibility which blanked the
EFIS displays following the second engine start and produced some electrical fumes but no smoke.

Electrical Power Distribution System

• Electrical power is supplied to the various electrically energized components in an aircraft via
common points called bus-bars systems or busses.
• The electrical power distribution system is based on one or more busses, the number of which
varies as a function of the size and the complexity of the aircraft.
• On almost all aircraft the bus bar is connected to the positive output terminal of the generator
and/or battery. The negative voltage is distributed through the metal structure of the aircraft.
• For any aircraft type, the distribution system will comprise the following items: busbar, protection,
control, wiring and loads.
 • Bus naming convention varies by manufacturer but names such as Essential AC Bus, Left DC
Bus and Battery Bus are commonly used to denote importance, power source and voltage.

Electrical Power Distribution System-Types

• Primary Power Distribution System
• Secondary Power Distribution System

Primary Power Distribution System

• The primary power distribution system consolidates the aircraft electrical power inputs.

• In the case of a typical civil airliner, the aircraft may accept power from the following sources:

▪ Main aircraft generator.

▪ Alternate aircraft generator – in the event of main generator failure.
▪ Auxiliary Power Unit (APU) generator.
▪ Ground power, by means of an external power contactor (EPC) under the control of
the ground power monitor.
▪ Back-up converter.
▪ RAT generator when deployed by the emergency electrical system.
• Single Engine Aircraft

▪ Battery Bus Bar System

▪ Busbars are often formed from thick strips of copper, hence the name ‘bar’.
▪ These have holes at appropriative intervals for attaching one side of the protection device
(circuit-breaker or fuse). Alternatively, they are made from heavy gauge wire.
▪ A bus bar is used as a terminal in the aircraft electrical system to connect the main electrical
system to the equipment using electricity as a source of power. This simplifies the wiring
system and provides a common point from which voltage can be distributed throughout the
system.
▪ The busbar can be supplied from one or more of the power sources previously described
(generator, inverter, transformer rectifier unit or battery).
▪ Protection devices, whether fuses or circuit-breakers, are connected in series with a specific
system; they will remove the power from that system if an overload condition arises.
▪ There also needs to be a means of protecting the power source and feeder lines to the busbar,
i.e. before the individual circuit protection devices.
Battery Bus Bar Schematic
▪ The current supplied from the battery to the bus will be very high, a heavy‐duty relay or
contactor is often used;
▪ The battery master switch activates the contactor when power is required on the bus.
▪ The same switch is also used for generator control.
▪ For general aviation aircraft the battery is normally used for an engine start.

• Twin‐engine aircraft
• In the basic configuration, each engine drives its own generator, and the outputs are applied to a
common battery busbar.

• Larger Aircraft
• Larger (commuter, business and passenger) aircraft have many more electrical systems compared with
general aviation aircraft; there is a requirement for a comprehensive approach to account for potential
failures of generators, wiring, etc.
• The management of potential failures is addressed by categorizing the various loads and then
disconnecting them in accordance with a predetermined sequence.
• The process of switching loads off the bus is called load‐shedding; this can be achieved by automatic
or manual control.
• These loads are connected onto specific busbars that fulfil a specific function.
• Connections between busbars are via heavy‐duty contactors, or breakers.
• There are three main types of distribution system architecture used on aircraft:

1. Split Bus System

2. Parallel System
3. Split Parallel System

Split Bus System

• This is a completely isolated twin generation system, sometimes called a non-parallel system used
on twin-engine aircraft.
• Primary power is based on two main AC integrated drive generators.
• An Auxiliary Power Unit (APU) generator is used as back‐up in the event of a main integrated
drive generator (IDG) failure.
• Secondary power is derived from step‐down transformers to provide 26 V AC; transformer
rectifier units (TRU) provide 28 V DC for the
DC busbars and battery charging.
• The major advantage of a split-bus system is that the generator operates independently; that is,
generator output frequencies and phase relationships need not to be so closely regulated.
• Another advantage of a split‐bus system is that the generators do not need to be operating at
exactly the same frequency and can be running out of phase with each other.
Split Bus System-Control Panel
• Features of this panel are:

1. Ammeters for the main generators to indicate load current.

2. Ground power available when external power supply is connected.
3. Ground power on/off switch to select ground power onto the aircraft.
4. Transfer bus off when the transfer relay is de‐energized (either normal or transfer).
5. Bus off both respective generator circuit breakers (GCB) and bus tie breakers (BTB) open.
6. Generator bus off if the respective GCB is open.
7. APU generator bus off APU running at 95% rpm, no power from generator.

Parallel Bus System

• The electrical distribution system on larger passenger aircraft (with three or four engines) are based on
a parallel load distribution system.
• In this configuration, all generators are connected to their own AC load bus and a distribution bus; any
generator can supply any load bus to provide equal load‐sharing.
• All generator voltages, frequencies and phase relationships must be controlled to very close tolerances
(must synchronize and connect in parallel by the tie bus).
• Any attempt to connect generators in parallel before these conditions are met could result in loss of
generator power due to large circulating currents.

Split Parallel Bus System

• This is a flexible load distribution system for large passenger aircraft; it provides the advantages of
the parallel system and maintains isolation when needed.
• Primary power supply features include: one Integrated Drive Generator (IDG) per engine, two
APU generators and two external power connections.
• A split system breaker (SSB) links left and right sides of distribution system.
• Any generator can supply any load busbar; any combination of generators can operate in parallel.

Secondary Power Distribution System

➢ Power Switching

• In order to reconfigure or to change the state of a system, it is necessary to switch power at various
levels within the system.
• At the high power levels that prevail at the primary power part of the system, power switching is
achieved by using high-power electromagnetic devices called contactors.
• These devices can switch hundreds of amperes and are used to switch generator power on to the
primary busbars in both DC and AC systems.
 ➢ Load Protection - Circuit Breakers

• Circuit breakers perform the function of protecting a circuit in the event of an electrical overload.
• Circuit breakers serve the same purpose as fuses or current limiters.
➢ Solid State Power Controllers

• Solid-State Power Controllers, or SSPCs, effectively combine the function of a relay or switch and a
circuit breaker.

Requirements for Power Distribution Systems

• The general requirements for power distribution system on normal, utility and acrobatic aircraft can be
found from Federal Aviation Administration (www.faa.gov).
• For commercial and other civil aircraft the requirements for the installation and approval of electrical
components and materials are established by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) and
published in Federal Aviation Regulations (FAR).
• The Federal Aviation Regulations (FAR) set forth only basic guidelines upon which an aircraft’s
certification is based.

Special Purpose Cables

• For certain types of electrical systems, cables are required to perform a specialized functions.
Types:
1. Ignition Cables
2. Thermocouple Cables
3. Co-axial Cables
Ignition Cables
• These cables are used for the transmission of high tension voltages in both piston engine and
turbine engine ignition systems, and are of the single-core stranded type suitably insulated, and
screened by metal braided sheathing to prevent interference.
Thermocouple Cables
• These cables are used for the connection of cylinder head temperature indicators and turbine
engine exhaust gas temperature indicators to their respective thermocouple sensing elements.
• The conducting materials are normally the same as those selected for the sensing element
combinations, namely, Iron and Constantin or Copper and Constantin for cylinder head
thermocouples, Chromel (an alloy of Chromium and Aluminum) and Alumel (an alloy of
Aluminum and Nickel) for exhaust gas thermocouples.
Co-Axial Cables
• A specialized version of the shielded wire is the coaxial cable.
• The inner conductor is solid or stranded; it can be plain copper or plated. The outer conductor
forms a shield and is a single wire braid made from fine strands of copper or steel. The inner and
outer conductors are separated by a solid insulation, forming a dielectric. The outer sheath or
jacket provides protection against fluid contaminants.
• Coaxial cables are normally used to guide radio-frequency (RF) energy between antennas and
receivers or transmitters.
• The inner conductor is shielded by the braiding from electric and magnetic fields; the conductor’s
own field is contained within the same shield.
• The net result is that fields from the inner and outer conductors cancel each other out.
• In most practical RF applications, coaxial cable radiation and susceptibility are virtually
eliminated.
Coaxial Cables: Construction
The typical construction of coaxial cable is shown in the salient features are:

• inner conductor: silver plated copper

• solid insulation: (dielectric) foamed FEP
• single wire braid: (screen) tin plated copper
• outer insulation: (jacket) FEP

Electrical Diagram and Identification Scheme

• To read and understand an electronic diagram or electronic schematic, the basic symbols and
conventions must be understood.
• Electronic prints fall into two basic categories:
1. Electronic Schematics
2. Block Diagrams

Electronics Schematics
• Electronic schematics represent the most detailed category of electronic drawings.
• They depict every component in a circuit, the component's technical information (such as its
ratings), and how each component is wired into the circuit.
• Of all the different types of electronic drawings, electronic schematics provide the most detail and
information about a circuit.
• Each electronic component in a given circuit will be depicted and in most cases its rating or other
applicable component information will be provided.
• This type of drawing provides the level of information needed to troubleshoot electronic circuits.
Electronic Symbols used on Electronics Schematics

Example of Electronic Schematic Diagram

• Electronic schematics use symbols for each component found in an electrical circuit, no matter
how small.
• The schematics do not show placement or scale, merely function and flow.
• From this, the actual workings of a piece of electronic equipment can be determined.
Block Diagram
• Block diagrams are the simplest type of drawing.
• As the name implies, block diagrams represent any part, component, or system as a simple
geometric shape, with each block capable of representing a single component (such as a relay) or
an entire system.
• The intended use of the drawing dictates the level of detail provided by each block.
• Block diagrams are used extensively to show complex instrument channels and other complex
systems when only the flow path of the signal is important.

Examples of Block Diagram

• This particular block diagram represents an instrumentation channel used to measure the neutron
flux, indicate the measured flux, and generate output signals for use by other systems.

Circuit Controlling Devices

• In aircraft electrical installations the function of initiating, and subsequently controlling the
operating sequences of constituent circuits is performed principally by
1. Switches
2. Relays
3. Circuit Breakers
Switches
• In its simplest form, a switch consists of two contacting surfaces which can be isolated from each
other or brought together as required by a moveable connecting link. This connecting link is
referred to as a pole and when it provides a single path for a flow of current, the switch is
designated as a single pole, single throw switch.
• The term throw thus indicates the number of circuits each pole can complete through the switch.
• In many circuits, various switching combinations are usually required, and in order to facilitate the
make and break operations, the contact assemblies of switches (and certain relays) may be
constructed as integrated units. For example, the switch in Figure can control two circuits in one
single make or break operation, and is therefore known as a double pole, single throw switch, the
poles being suitable insulated from each other.
• Other types:
1. Single pole, double throw
2. Double pole, double throw
• In additions to number of poles and throws, switches (toggle types in particular) are also
designated by the number of positions they have.
 • Thus, toggle switch which is spring loaded to one position must be held at the second to complete
a circuit, is called a single position switch.
• If the switch can be set at either of two positions, example opening the circuit in one positions and
completing it in another, it is called a two position switch.
• A switch which can be set at any of three positions, e.g. a center “off” and two “on” positions, is a
three position switch also known as selector switch.

Toggle Switches

• Toggle of tumbler type switches performs what may be regarded as “general purpose” switching
functions and are used extensively in various circuits.
• A toggle switch is a class of electrical switches that are manually actuated by a mechanical lever,
handle, or rocking mechanism.
• Designed to provide the simultaneous actuation of multiple sets of electrical contacts, or the
control of large amounts of electric current or mains voltages.

Push Button Switches

• A push button is a momentary or non-latching switch which causes a temporary change in the
state of an electrical circuit only while the switch is physically actuated.
• An automatic mechanism (i.e. a spring) returns the switch to its default position immediately
afterwards, restoring the initial circuit condition.
• There are two types:
1. A push to make switch allows electricity to flow between its two contacts when held in.
When the button is released, the circuit is broken. This type of switch is also known as
a Normally Open (NO) Switch. (Examples: Computer case power switch).
2. A push to break switch does the opposite, i.e. when the button is not pressed, electricity can
flow, but when it is pressed the circuit is broken. This type of switch is also known as
a Normally Closed (NC) Switch. (Examples: Alarm Switches in Fail-Safe circuits).
Rocker Button Switch
• Rocket button switches the action of both toggle and push button switch type switches are utilized for
circuit control of some systems and equipment.
• A rocker switch is an on/off switch that rocks (rather than trips) when pressed, which means one side
of the switch is raised while the other side is depressed much like a rocking horse rocks back and
forth.
• A rocker switch may have a circle (for "on") on one end and a horizontal dash or line (for "off") on
the other to let the user known if the device is on or off.
• Rocker switches are used in surge protector, display monitors, computer power supplies, and many
other devices and applications.

Rotary Switches

• These are manually operated, and for certain operating requirements they offer an advantage over
toggle switches in that they are less prone to accidental operations.
• The rotary principle and positive engagement of contacts made possible by the constructional
features make these switches more adaptable to multi-circuit selection than toggle type switches.
• A typical application is the selection of a single voltmeter to read the voltages at several bus-bars.

Mercury Switches
• A mercury switch is an electrical switch that opens and closes a circuit when a small amount of the
liquid metal mercury connects metal electrodes to close the circuit.
• There are several different basic designs (tilt, displacement, radial, etc.) but they all share the
common design strength of non-eroding switch contacts.
• The most common is the mercury tilt switch.
• It is in one state (open or closed) when tilted one direction with respect to horizontal, and the other
state when tilted the other direction.
• This is what older style thermostats used to turn a heater or air conditioner on or off.

Relays
• A relay is an electrically operated switch.
• Relays are used where it is necessary to control a circuit by a separate low-power signal, or where
several circuits must be controlled by one signal.
• A type of relay that can handle the high power required to directly control an electric motor or other
loads is called a contactor.
• Relays with calibrated operating characteristics and sometimes multiple operating coils are used to
protect electrical circuits from overload or faults; in modern electric power systems these functions
are performed by digital instruments still called "protective relays".
Circuit Breakers
• A circuit breaker is an automatically operated electrical switch designed to protect an electrical
circuit from damage caused by overcurrent, typically resulting from an overload or short circuit.
• Its basic function is to interrupt current flow after a fault is detected. Unlike a fuse, which operates
once and then must be replaced, a circuit breaker can be reset (either manually or automatically) to
resume normal operation.

Power utilization in Aircraft

• In modern aircraft two constant speed driven alternators of 10 kVA are used along with an Auxiliary
Power Unit (APU) which also is designed for 10 kVA electric power and will also supply pneumatic
power.
• The power from the alternators is converted into 28 V DC with the help of transformer rectifier
units.
• For emergency AC power a single phase solid static inverter is provide. This provides 1 phase 400
c/s AC power using 28 V DC from a battery.
• The alternators are started using a ground cart while on the ground or using the pneumatic power
from the APU while in air.

Need for Avionics in Civil, Military and Space Systems

• Avionics are advanced electronics used in aircraft, spacecraft and satellites.
• These systems perform various functions including communication, navigation, flight control,
display systems, flight management etc.
• There is a great need for advanced avionics in civil, military and space systems.
• All electronic and electromechanical systems and subsystems (hardware and software) installed in
an aircraft that are dependent on electronics for its operation.
• Avionics Systems are essential to enable the flight crew to carry out the aircraft mission safely and
to meet the mission requirements with minimum flight crew.

Needs are
• Avionics systems are essential to enable the flight crew to carry out the aircraft mission safely and
efficiently.
• In civil aircraft, the mission is to carrying of the passenger to their destination safely (eg: Civil
Airliner).
• In military aircraft, (i) Incepting a hostile aircraft. (ii) Attacking the ground target. (iii) Maritime
patrol.
• In spacecraft, carrying the mission safely and (i) reduction in weight (ii) long life time mission.
Other needs are
• Minimal power consumption
• Air Traffic Control (ATC) requirements
• All weather operations
• Reduction in fuel consumption
• Improved in aircraft performance and control
• Reduction in maintenance cost

Civil Aircraft
• For better flight control, performing computations and increased control over flight control surfaces.
• For navigation, provide information using sensors like Altitude and Head Reference System
(AHRS).
• Provide air data like altitude, atmospheric pressure, temperature, etc.
• Reduce crew workload.
• Increased safety for crew and passengers.
• Reduction in aircraft weight which can be translated into increased number of passengers or long
range.
• All weather operation
• Reduction in aircraft maintenance cost.

Military Aircraft
• Avionics in fighter aircraft eliminates the need for a second crew member like navigator, observer
etc., which helps in reducing the training costs.
• A single seat fighter is lighter and costs less than an equivalent two seat version.
• Improved aircraft performance, control and better handling.
• Reduction in maintenance costs.
• Secure communication.

Space Systems
• Fly-by-wire communication system used for space vehicle’s attitude and translation control.
• Sensors used in the spacecraft for obtaining data.
• Autopilot redundancy system.
• On-board computers used in satellites for processing the data.

General advantage of Avionics over the conventional aircraft

• Increased safety
• Air traffic control requirements
• All weather operation
• Reduction in fuel consumption
• Improved aircraft performance and control and handling and
• Reduction in maintenance costs
Questions
1. List the various switching devices available and explain the switches like mercury switches,
proximity switches, rotary switches and toggle switches?
2. Explain briefly about the special purpose cables in aircraft electrical systems?
3. Categorize the abnormal conditions in busbar system and the requirements are satisfied?
4. What are the requirements of avionics in civil and military aircraft?
5. Explain split bus bar system?
6. List different types of cables used for connecting onboard electrical system and explain them?