SSEE Laboratories

Transilvania University of Brasov
Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science

Department of Electrical Engineering and Applied Physics
Șef Lucr. Dr. Ing. Luminița BAROTE
Electrical Energy Storage

Systems
Laboratory Handbook
2013
Table of content
Laboratory 1 ............................................................................................................................. 3
1. Introduction in Electrical Energy Storage Systems ...................................................... 3
1.1. Parameters of an Energy Storage Systems ............................................................. 5
1.2. Energy Storage Applications.................................................................................. 5
1.3. Conclusions ............................................................................................................ 6
1.4. References .............................................................................................................. 7
Laboratory 2 ............................................................................................................................. 8
2. Lead acid battery (LAB).............................................................................................. 8
2.1. LAB operating principle......................................................................................... 8
2.2. LAB description model and modelling .................................................................. 8
2.3. Simulink Implementation..................................................................................... 11
2.4. References ............................................................................................................ 12
Laboratory 3 ........................................................................................................................... 13
3. Vanadium Redox Flow Battery (VRB)..................................................................... 13
3.1. VRB operating principle ...................................................................................... 13
3.2. VRB description model........................................................................................ 14
3.3. VRB Moddeling ................................................................................................... 14
3.5. References ............................................................................................................ 20
Laboratory 4 ........................................................................................................................... 22
4. Lithium – Ion (Li-Ion) Battery.................................................................................. 22
4.1. Li-Ion battery operating principle ........................................................................ 22
4.2. Li-Ion battery description model.......................................................................... 23
4.3. Li-Ion Battery Moddeling .................................................................................... 24
4.5. References ............................................................................................................ 27
Laboratory 5 ........................................................................................................................... 29
5. Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC).................................................. 29
5.1. PEMFC operating principle ................................................................................. 29
5.2. PEMFC description model and moddeling .......................................................... 30
5.4. References ............................................................................................................ 35
Laboratory 6 ........................................................................................................................... 36
6. Energy storage applications ...................................................................................... 36
6.1. Study Case 1: LAB implementation..................................................................... 36
6.2. Study Case 2: VRB implementation .................................................................... 40
6.3. Study Case 2: Li-Ion implementation .................................................................. 44
6.4. Study Case 4: LAB-VRB-PEMFC comparison ................................................... 48
2
Laboratory 1
1. Introduction in Electrical Energy Storage Systems
Energy storage systems play the important role of unifying, distributing and enhancing
the capabilities of alternative and renewable energy-distributed generating systems. The
centralized power generation is large enough not to be affected by changes from residential
and commercial loads, while the distributed generation is exposed to these changes. The
storage systems are capable of smoothing out the load fluctuations as well as to react to fast
transient power quality. In this manner they can contribute to efficient energy management
policies and faster economic investments in the new projects.
The energy storage technologies can enhance distributed generation (DG) in three
different ways:
¾ Stabilizes and permits DG to run at a constant and stable output;
¾ Provides energy to ride-through instantaneous lacks of primary energy;
¾ Permits DG to operate as a dispatchable unit.
These technologies are classified according to energy, time and transient response
required for their operation. They can also be categorized in terms of energy density
requirements or in terms of power density requirements. The storage objectives determine
storage features as shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Functionality of the storage systems in terms of time response

Storage Capacity Energy Storage Features
Transients • Compensate for voltage sags
(microseconds) • Ride through disturbances
• Improves harmonic distortion and power quality
• Regenerates electrical motors
Very Short Term • Covers load during start-up and synchronization of back-up generators
(cycles of the • Compensate transient response of renewable-based power converters
grid frequency) • Increases system reliability during fault management
3
Short Term • Covers load during short-term load peaks
(minutes) • Smoothes renewable energy deficits for on-line capture of wind and
solar power
• Decreases needs of start-up back-up generator
Medium Term • Renewable energy storage
(few hours) • Compensate for load-leveling policies
• Allows stored energy to be negotiated on net-metering basis
Long Term • Stores RE for compensation of weather-based changes
(several hours to • Decreases waste of RE
days) • Produces hydrogen for RES
Planning • Includes large power storage systems
(weeks to • Stores hydrogen from biomass or RES
months)
Energy storage is a well established concept yet still relatively unexplored. As the
electricity sector is undergoing a lot of change, energy storage is starting to become a realistic
option for:
restructuring the electricity market;
integrating renewable resources;
improving power quality;
aiding shift towards distributed energy;
helping network operate under more stringent environmental requirements.
Energy storage can optimise the existing generation and transmission infrastructures
whilst also preventing expensive upgrades. Power fluctuations from renewable resources will
prevent their large-scale penetration into the network. However energy storage devices can
manage these irregularities and thus aid the amalgamation of renewable technologies. In
relation to conventional power production energy storage devices can improve overall power
quality and reliability, which is becoming more important for modern commercial
applications. Finally, energy storage devices can reduce emissions by aiding the transition to
newer, cleaner technologies such as renewable resources and the hydrogen economy.
4
1.1. Parameters of an Energy Storage Systems
Power Capacity is the maximum instantaneous output that an energy storage device
can provide, usually measured in kilowatts (kW).
Energy Storage Capacity is the amount of electrical energy the device can store
usually measured in kilowatt-hours (kWh).
Efficiency indicates the quantity of electricity which can be recovered as a percentage
of the electricity used to charge the device.
Response Time is the length of time it takes the storage device to start releasing
power.
Round-Trip Efficiency indicates the quantity of electricity which can be recovered as
a percentage of the electricity used to charge and discharge the device.
Charge-to-Discharge Ratio is the ratio of the time it takes to charge the device
relative to the time it takes to discharge the device.
Depth of Discharge (DoD) is the percentage of the battery capacity that is discharged
during a cycle.
Memory Effect: If certain batteries are never fully discharged they ‘remember’ this
and lose some of their capacity.
1.2. Energy Storage Applications
Energy storage devices can accommodate a number of network requirements. These

are:
load management;
spinning reserve;
transmission and distribution stabilisation;
transmission upgrade deferral;
peak generation;
renewable energy integration;
end-use applications;
emergency back-up.
In [1], different types of energy storage devices currently available is presented

(Pumped-Hydroelectric Energy Storage (PHES), Underground Pumped-Hydroelectric Energy
Storage (UPHES), Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES), Battery Energy Storage (BES),
Flow Battery Energy Storage (FBES), Flywheel Energy Storage (FES), Supercapacitor
5
Energy Storage (SCES), Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES), Hydrogen
Energy Storage (HES) and finally, Thermal Energy Storage (TES). The).
The parameters used to describe an energy storage device and the applications they
fulfil are explored. Also, an analysis of each energy storage technology currently available
indicating their:
operation and the advantages;
applications;
cost;
disadvantages;
future.
1.3. Conclusions
In the study of [1], after investigating the various energy storage techniques available
it is evident that there is no ideal solution. It is most likely that PHES/UPHES (depending on
its feasibility), FBES and HES will be the most attractive options moving forward because:
PHES is a mature, proven, large-scale storage system that can act as an energy
reservoir during times of excess or a shortage in energy supply. As it is the only
reliable large-scale source, future developments would be very beneficial.
FBES facilities can act as the ‘middle-man’ between the grid and large-scale
PHES/UPHES facilities. Consequently, its fast response and flexibility can balance
compensate for the disadvantages of PHES/UPHES.
The hydrogen economy is establishing itself as a contender for future power
production more and more especially in the transport sector. Therefore, even if HES is
not utilised for converting the hydrogen back to electricity, it is evident that hydrogen
will be required for more applications in the future. Therefore, it is an area that has a
lot of future potential.
BES, FES, SMES, SCES and TES are always going to be used within the power sector
but future operational breakthroughs are unlikely. Finally, although CAES reduces the amount
of gas required it still uses gas for electricity production and therefore is likely to be a
transition technology rather than a long-term solution.
6
1.4. References
[1]. D. Connolly, M. Leahy, An investigation into the energy storage technologies

available, for the integration of alternative generation techniques, University of
Limerick Raport, 2007.
[2]. M. Swierczynski, R. Teodorescu, C.N. Rasmussen, P. Rodriguez, H. Vikelgaard,
Overview of the Energy Storage Systems for Wind Power Integration Enhancement,
ISIE 2010, pp. 3749 – 3756.
[3]. A. Gonzalez, O. B. Gallachoir, E. McKeogh, K. Lynch, Study of Electricity Storage
Technologies and Their Potential to Address Wind Energy Intermittency in Ireland,
Final Raport Grant RE/HC/03/001, University College Cork, May 2004.
[4]. C. Marinescu, M. Georgescu, L. Clotea, s.a., Surse regenerabile de energie. Abordări
actuale – Capitolul 4: Mijloace de stocare şi reglare a energiei electrice, Editura
Universităţii Transilvania din Braşov, ISBN 978 – 973 – 598 – 430 – 4, 2009.
[5]. S. P. Gordon, P. K. Falcone, The Emerging Roles of Energy Storage in a Competitive
Power Market: Summary of a DOE Workshop, Sandia National Laboratories, 1995.
[6]. S. M. Schoenung, Characteristics and Technologies for Long-vs. Short-Term Energy
Storage: A Study by the DOE Energy Storage Systems Program, SANDIA National
Laboratories Report no. SAND2001-0765, 2001.
7
Laboratory 2
2. Lead acid battery (LAB)
2.1. LAB operating principle
This is the most common energy storage device in use at present. Its success is due to
its maturity (research has been ongoing for an estimated 140 years), relatively low cost, long
lifespan, fast response, and low self-discharge rate. These batteries are can be used for both
short-term applications (seconds) and long-term applications (up to 8 hours).
Both the power and energy capacities of lead-acid batteries (LABs) are based on the
size and geometry of the electrodes. The power capacity can be increased by increasing the
surface area for each electrode, which means greater quantities of thinner electrode plates in
the battery. However, to increase the storage capacity of the battery, the mass of each
electrode must be increased, which means fewer and thicker plates. Consequently, a
compromise must be met for each application.
LABs can respond within milliseconds at full power. The average DC-DC efficiency
of a LAB is 75% to 85% during normal operation, with a life of approximately 5 years or 250-
1,000 charge/discharge cycles, depending on the depth of discharge.
2.2. LAB description model and modelling
For autonomous systems, storage devices are essential to store electricity when the wind
and/or the sun are absent. Lead-Acid Batteries (LAB) contain cells whose voltage is 2 V (at
open circuit), cells are connected in series and/or parallel, depending on the desired electrical
characteristics of implementation.
A model of LAB commonly used is shown in Fig. 1, and consists of a controlled
voltage source (Eb) in series with an internal resistance (Rint) and the battery voltage
represented by Vb. This voltage can be determined by measuring it at no load, while the
internal resistance can be deduced by connecting a load and measuring both the voltage and
current at full load.
8
Fig. 1. Equivalent electric circuit model of the LAB
Internal voltage Eb depends on several factors, such as state of charge, temperature,

battery type and can be expressed by a general relation as follows:
Q
Eb = Eb 0 − K ⋅ t
(1)
Q − ∫ I b dt
0
where:
- Eb0: the voltage corresponding to no load at nominal load, [V];
- K: the bias voltage, [V];
- Q: the battery capacity, [Ah];
- Ib: the discharge current of the battery, [A].
In the model there are some simplifications:

- Identical charging and discharging characteristics;
- The battery internal resistance is considered constant in all regimes;
- Neglecting the effect of ambient temperature on battery capacity;
- Neglecting the memory effect and battery self discharge over time.
The state of charge (SOC) expressed in equation (2) is another important parameter of
the battery and is used as input to the charging / discharging controller of the battery.
⎛ 1 t
⎞
SOC [%] = SOC 0 [%] + ⎜⎜
⎝ Qn
∫0 b ⎟⎟⎠ ⋅ 100
I dt (2)
where: Qn is the battery rated capacity.
9
SOC for a fully charged battery is 100 %, and for a completely discharged battery is
0 %. For some lead-acid batteries the full discharge is not recommended because there may
not be any material to react chemically and thus the battery will be damaged. In this case are
taken into account in implementing the controller that provides battery charging and
discharging of a minimum SOC, SOC min = 20% . Below that threshold the control system will
prevent battery discharge.
Correct estimation of battery state of charge is a difficult problem, especially the first
time after installing the system, because you can not know exactly what the state of charge of
the batteries was when they were installed. Battery current measurement accuracy is another
source of error in estimating SOC correctly, because current measurement error will be
integrated in time according to equation (2), and after a certain period of time, the
accumulated error will represent an important percentage of the SOC. To minimize these
errors, adaptive algorithms can be used, which from time to time resets the SOC value,
depending on the battery voltage and other parameters of the batteries used.
The LAB characteristics used in the simulations is shown in Table 2.
Table 2. LAB characteristics:

Nominal voltage 12 V
Number of cells 10
Nominal capacity 26 Ah
Table 3. Battery voltage variation depending on the state of charge:

SOC Battery – 120 V Volts / cell
100 % 127 2.12
90 % 125 2.08
80 % 124.2 2.07
70 % 123.2 2.05
60 % 122 2.03
50 % 120.6 2.01
40 % 119 1.98
30 % 117.5 1.96
20 % 115.8 1.93
10 % 113.1 1.89
0% 105 1.75
10
2.3. Simulink Implementation
If we assume that the SOC is a first degree equation and F(x)=ax+b then we will be
able to determine SOC. If we represent graphically then the SOC can be interpreted like:
Fig. 2. SOC expressed as a first degree function
By considering: F(105)=0 and F(127)=1, we will determine the values of a and b.

After calculation the results are:
a= 1 ; b = −4.77
22
Using the values of a and b the function (Fcn) becomes: f(u)=1/22u-4.77.
In the Fig. 3, the Simulink implementation for the LAB model used is shown:
i
1 +
-
+
+
Controlled Voltage Source

s
2 -
f(u) Fcn
0.8
SOC[0]
1
s -K- SOC100
Integrator Add1 Gain

Divide1
-C-
Qn
Fig. 3. The Simulink implementetion of the LAB model
11
In this laboratory, a LAB model is described. LAB always ensures the safe supply of
the loads (households) regardless of the problems caused by wind speed for example, by
passing from charging to discharging mode and vice versa.
2.4. References
[1]. P. Lailler, „Investigation on Storage technologies for Intermittent Renewable

Energies: Evaluation and Recommended R&D Strategy”, Contract ENK5-CT-2000-
20336, EC-FP5, WP1 ST1- Lead Acid Systems Storage Technology Report, 2003.
[2]. I. Serban, “Microretele hibride cu surse regenerabile de energie”, Editura
Universitatii Transilvania din Brasov 2008.
[3]. P. Thounthong, S. Rael, B. Davat, „Control Algorithm of Fuel Cell and Batteries for
Distributed Generation System”, IEEE Trans. Energy Conversion, vol. 23, no. 1,
pp.148-155, March 2008.
[4]. J.P. Barton, D.G. Infield, “Energy storage and its use with intermittent renewable
energy”, IEEE Transaction on Energy Conversion, vol.19, no.2, pp. 441-448, June
2004.
[5]. P. Ribeiro, B. Johnson, M. Crow, A. Arsoy, Y. Liu, “Energy Storage Systems for
Advanced Power Applications”, Proceedings of the IEEE, vol. 89, no. 12, pp. 1744 –
1756, December 2001.
12
Laboratory 3
3. Vanadium Redox Flow Battery (VRB)
3.1. VRB operating principle
The motivation for developing and implementing electrical equivalent battery models
for batteries comes from an interest in studying their application in wind energy systems. As
wind energy penetration levels increase, there is a growing interest in using short and long-
term storage devices to aid in managing the fluctuations in wind turbine output power.
Advantages using storage devices in wind energy systems include:
- sort-term (seconds), medium-term (minutes) and possibly long-term (hours)
management of wind power fluctuations;
- providing real and reactive power for local voltage support during transmission
system short-circuits and large transients;
- meeting peak-load demand without interruption and without increase in
generation, maximizing wind plant capacity.
Energy storage systems can be used within stand-alone applications, also as grid
connected wind parks. In remote hybrid systems, there is an interest in increasing wind
penetration, reducing the diesel fuel consumption costs, as well as avoiding voltage and
frequency variations. In interconnected power system wind systems, the focus is on
improving power quality and stability for different power range. In order to study various
aspects of battery storage in wind energy systems, fast and accurate battery models are
needed.
Vanadium redox batteries (VRBs) have many advantages comparing with other
storage technologies, including operation over a wide range of power outputs, high storage
efficiency, rapid response, low maintenance cost and long lifecycle. Operation under rapidly
changing conditions is possible without impact on efficiency, because the integrated pump
ensure the availability of electrolyte at all times near the electrodes. The power and voltage
range of a VRB depends on the cell stack, while the energy capacity depends on the tank size.
This independence between energy and power ratings provides high flexibility in terms of
design. These characteristics make VRB suitable for energy applications.
13
3.2. VRB description model
A VRB is an electrochemical cell divided into two compartments, positive and

negative tanks containing electrolyte, and a pump and piping for circulating the electrolyte
from the tanks to the cell. The active material for both the positive and negative electrodes of
the VRB is vanadium ions that are dissolved in sulfuric acid and serve as metal ions whose
valence number changes. Fig. 1 shows the operating modes of the VRB.
V 5+ /V 4+ V 2+ /V 3+
Fig. 1. VRB operating principle
Vanadium – redox flow batteries use a controlled pump to induce flow, which
improves battery performance and efficiency. In a VRB battery, the total energy storage of the
system depends on the State of Charge (SOC) and amount of active chemicals in the system.
The total power available is related to the electrode area within the cell stacks.
3.3. VRB Moddeling
The proposed VRB model will be based on a 5 kW – 20 kWh, and 56 Vdc, with an
initial voltage of 48 V assumed during these proposed model. The simple flow battery model,
as shows in Fig. 2, takes into account internal resistance and parasitic resistance. The internal
resistance accounts for losses due to reaction kinetics, mass transport resistance, membrane
resistance, solution resistance, electrode resistance and bipolar plate resistance. Parasitic
resistance accounts for power consumption by recirculation pumps, the system controller, and
power loss from cell stack by-pass currents. The step-by-step procedure for deriving the
parameters should be easily repeatable for different sized VRB systems.
14
SOC
Parasitic Losses
Vstack
C electrodes
V battery
R fixed losses I pump losses

Rreaction
Rresistive losses
Fig. 2. Studied VRB model
The calculations VRB parameters are based on estimating losses of 21% (15 %
internal losses + 6% parasitic losses) in the worse case operating point, for a minimum
voltage of 42V, and a current of 112A. For the battery to be able to ensure 5 kW with 21%
losses, the cell stack internal power should be:
5000
Pstack = = 6329,11W (1)
1 − 0.21
The battery internal stack voltage is directly related to the SOC of the battery based on
the following equations:
RT ⎛ SOC ⎞
Vcell = Vequilibriu m + 2 ln ⎜ ⎟ (2)
F ⎝ 1 − SOC ⎠
where:
- T – the temperature impact on battery operation;
- R – the VRB internal resistance (in VRB cases the internal resistance is constant). Rinternal is
set to 0.075Ω, which is obtained by estimating 21% losses at a maximum current of 112 A;
- F – the Faraday’s number.
For n cell stacks, Vequilibrium would be equal to n ⋅ Vcell . In this case, 39 cell stacks are
15
needed. This is modeled as a controlled voltage which depends on both the number of cell
stacks and the SOC.
The parasitic losses are separated into fixed losses (are represented as a fixed
resistance) and variable losses (are represented as a controlled current source). The losses are
as follows:
⎛I ⎞ ⎛I ⎞
Pparasitic = Pfixed + k ⎜ stack ⎟ = 127 + 42.5⎜ stack ⎟ (3)
⎝ SOC ⎠ ⎝ SOC ⎠
The parasitic and pump losses are derived as follows:
2
Vstacks 42 2
R fixed = = = 13.889 Ω (4)
Pfixed 127
⎛ ⎛I ⎞⎞
⎜ 42.5⎜ stack ⎟ ⎟
=⎜ ⎝ SOC ⎠ ⎟ = 1.011⎛ I stack ⎞ (5)
I pump
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
42 ⎝ SOC ⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
The pump losses are modeled as a controlled current source that is dependent on the
SOC and stack current in parallel with the fixed parasitic resistance (see Fig. 2).
One way to estimating the VRB state of charge is to update the SOC variable from one
time step to the next, based on the power that goes through the cell stack. The SOC is
computed each cycle based on the previous SOC, using a fixed step simulation.
An important issue in battery modelling is transient behaviour. The ability of the
system to respond quickly to fast changes is especially important for power smoothing
applications. In a VRB battery, the transient effects are related to electrode capacitance.
The model will focus on transient behavior related to electrode capacitance, as shown
in Fig. 2. Rinternal is divided into Rreaction (0.045) and Rresistive losses (0.03). Celectrodes is estimated
to be 0.15 F for a 39 cell stack, where each cell has a 6 F series capacitance.
The VRB SOC can be defined as:
Current Energy in Battery

SOC = (6)
Total Energy Capacity
16
If the VRB is fully charged, SOC = 100 % and if the battery is discharged at the
maximum value, SOC = SOCmin= 20 %. The calculation method used to keep track of the
state of charge is to update the SOC variable from one time step to the next, based on the
power that goes through the cell stack. The change in SOC is implemented as follows:
SOCt +1 = SOCt + ΔSOC (7)
ΔE Pstack ⋅ TimeStep I stack ⋅Vstack ⋅ TimeStep

ΔSOC = = = (8)
Ecapacity Ecapacity Prating ⋅ Timerating
This calculation algorithm uses two variable parameters (Istack, Vstack) and one constant
block (c). With a discrete time–integrator block by accumulation the SOC is thus computed
each cycle based on the previous SOC, depending on the input values.
TimeStep (= Ts ) 0,01
c= = (9)
Prating ⋅ Timerating 6329,11⋅ 4 ⋅ 3600
The developed model was implemented using Matlab/Simulink software

(SimPowerSystems toolbox), as shown in Fig. 3.
Continuous
pow ergui
i
+
-
5000
+
P[W]
Vstack
s
+
v
-
Celectrodes
-
s
Rreaction
+
Voltage
Istack
Ipump
SOC Current
39 Cells Rfixed
-
s
Vcell I pump
Cells
SOC
+
Stack Voltage
Rresistive
K
-C- z-1
Ts/6329/4/3600
SOC
17
Stack Voltage Stack Current
1
1 -K -
1 Istack
Cells
1.3 Vcell
Add
-K - 1
Ipump
Divide 3.02
2 -K - log (u/(1-u))
SOC 2
0.1829 Fcn
SOC
Saturation
Fig. 3. VRB battery model in Simulink
The first way for VRB model validation, is examined by looking at the charging and
discharging cycles of a 5 kW, 4 hour (20 kWh) rated battery.
The discharging of a charged battery (SOC = 100 %) at a constant output power of 5
kW is first considered. In this example, a dc current source sets the output current based on
the output voltage, keeping the output power at 5 kW. It is assumed that 20 kWh of stored
energy can be used of effectively. The simulations are performed in Matlab/Simulink for 4
hours. The results can be seen in Fig. 4.
0.8
SOC [p.u]
0.6
0.4
0.2
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000
60
55
Voltage [V]
50
45
40
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000
150
Current [A]
100
50
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000
Time [s]
Fig. 4. VRB full discharge cycle (100 % SOC, Pout = 5 kW)
The internal discharge power is kept constant to 5 kW after losses. From Fig. 4 can be
seen as the battery model meets the requirements in terms of discharge voltage and SOC
profiles.
The charging a discharged battery (SOCmin = 20 %) at a constant input power of 5 kW
is then considered. The results can be seen in Fig. 5.
18
1
0.8
SOC [p.u]
0.6
0.4
0.2
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000
60
55
Voltage [V]
50
45
40
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000
150
Current [A]
100
50
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000
Time [s]
Fig. 5. VRB full charge cycle (20 % SOC, Pin= 5 kW)
Fig. 6 shows a full charge-discharge cycle. The battery voltage and current can be
observed as the SOC varies between 20 % and 100 %.
0.8
SOC [p.u]
0.6
0.4
0.2
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 2.88
60 4
x 10
55
Voltage [V]
50
45
40
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 2.88
150 4
x 10
Current [A]
100
50
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 2.88
Time [s] x 10
4
Fig. 6. Complete cycle for 5 kW, 4 hour VRB, 20 to 100 % SOC
Another approach that is used to validate the model is to compare the rate of discharge
proportionality factor. The energy content of the system is evaluated in terms of Ah.
For an input average voltage of 48 V, and a discharge power of 5 kW, there is a
current of 105 A. Thus, for 4 hours of operations, 20 kWh is expected. This is verified by
19
discharging the battery at 105 A for 4 hours. Fig. 7 below shows the SOC drop from 100 % to
about 22 %.
0.9
0.8
0.7
SOC [p.u]
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000
Time [s]
Fig. 7. VRB discharge at 105 A for 4 hours (420 Ah)
The rate of discharge is thus:
1 ⋅ 100
Rate of disch arg e = = 0.23 % / SOC / Ah (10)
420
The VRB energy is close to 20 kW (420 Ah), as the VRB is discharged from 100% to
about 23 % in 4 hours.
In this laboratory, a VRB is modeled and validated in Matlab/Simulink. The step-by-
step procedure for deriving the parameters should be easily repeatable for different sized VRB
systems.
3.5. References
[1]. J. Chahwan, C. Abbey, G. Joos, “VRB Modelling for the Study of Output Terminal
Voltages, Internal Losses and Performance”, IEEE Electrical Power Conference –
EPC’07, 25-27 October 2007, Montreal, Canada, pp. 387 – 392.
[2]. J. A. Chahwan, “VRB and Li-Ion Battery Modelling and Performance in Wind Energy
Applications”, Master Thesis, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering,
McGill University, Montréal, Québec, Canada May 2007.
20
[3]. C. Abbey, J. Chahwan, M. Gattrell, G. Joos, “Transient Modeling and Simulation of
Wind Turbine Generator and Storage Systems”, CIGRÉ Canada Conference on Power
Systems, Montreal, 1-4 Oct., 2006.
[4]. L. Barote, R. Weissbach, R. Teodorescu, C. Marinescu, M. Cirstea, “Stand-Alone Wind
System with Vanadium Redox Battery Energy Storage”, IEEE, International Conference
on Optimization of Electrical and Electronic Equipments, OPTIM’08, pp. 407-412, 22-
24 May 2008, Brasov, Romania.
[5]. L. Barote, C. Marinescu, M. Georgescu, VRB Modelling for Storage in Stand-Alone
Wind Energy Systems, PowerTech 2009, 28 June - 2 July 2009, Bucharest, Romania,
IEEE Catalog Number: CFP09815-CDR, ISBN: 978-1-4244-2235-7.
[6]. The VRB Energy Storage System (VRB-ESS) – The Multiple Benefits of Integrating the
VRB-ESS with Wind Energy- Case study, 2 March, 2007,
[7]. VRB Power Systems – VRB Power provides update on its Small Systems, 12 April,
2007.
21
Laboratory 4
4. Lithium – Ion (Li-Ion) Battery
4.1. Li-Ion battery operating principle
Li-Ion battery is the electrochemical cell, based on lithium-metal oxid (LiMO2) as

cathode and graphite as anode separated and connected by an electrolyte. The electrolyte
conducts ions but is an insulator to electrons. In a charged state, the anode contains a high
concentration of intercalated lithium while the cathode is depleted of lithium. During the
discharge, a lithium ion leaves the anode and migrates through the electrolyte to the cathode
while its associated electron is collected by the current collector to be used to power an
electric device (illustrated in Fig. 1).
Li +
LiMO2
Fig.1. Li-Ion battery operating principle
Li-ion batteries are characterized by the following:

- high energy density that reaches 400 Wh/L (volumetric energy density) or 160Wh/Kg
(mass energy density);
- high voltage (nominal voltage of 3,6V / 3,7V);
- no memory effect. Can be charged any time, but they are not as durable as NiMH and
NiCd batteries;
- high charge currents (0,5-1A) that lead to small charging times (around 2-4 hours);
22
- flat discharge voltage allowing the device to stable power throughout the discharge
period;
- typical charging voltage 4,2 ± 0,05V;
- charging method: constant current – constant voltage;
- typical operation voltage 2,8V to 4,2V;
- recommended temperature range 0-40oC.
4.2. Li-Ion battery description model
Li-Ion battery systems consists of a series of cells, each capable of storing a fixed
amount of energy.
The energy capacity of a Li-Ion battery is expressed in Ah, which corresponds to its
discharge capacity at the rated current, for 4-hours. The total power available is thus
dependent on the rated output voltage and current.
The Li-Ion battery is one type of storage device of high interest for wind energy
systems. It appears to be well suited for small wind installations, such as the ones found in
remote communities.
The Dynamic lithium battery model, which is shown in Fig. 2, estimates the model to
be a simple electrical circuit. The transients are represented by a capacitor (C), while the
losses are separated into two internal resistances (R1, R2). The internal voltage source,
representing the equilibrium potential, is expected to vary base on the State of Charge (SOC)
of the battery.
Vbattery
Fig. 2. Li-Ion dynamic model
23
4.3. Li-Ion Battery Moddeling
This paper proposes into determining an appropriate electrical Li-Ion model. The
proposed Lithium Ion (Li-Ion) battery model to be implemented will use 14 cells, which will
produce an output power of 5000 W for an initial voltage of 48 V.
Li-Ion batteries are constructed using a series of cells which makes them easily
scalable. The battery internal stack voltage is directly related to the SOC of the battery based
on the following equations:
⎛ 0.9 × SOC ⎞
Vstack = Veq + k ⋅ ln⎜ ⎟ (1)
⎝ 100 − 0.9 × SOC ⎠
For n cell stacks, Veq would be equal to n ⋅ Vcell . In this case, 14 cell stacks are needed.
This is modelled as a controlled voltage source which depends on both the number of cell
stacks and the SOC. The k factor was found to be 0.1829 for regular room temperature.
RT
k = 2⋅ (2)
F
where:
- T – the temperature impact on battery operation;
- R – the Li-Ion battery internal resistance;
- F – the Faraday’s number.
One way to estimating the Li-Ion state of charge is to update the SOC variable from
one time step to the next, based on the power that goes through the cell stack. The change in
SOC for a Li-Ion battery is modelled as follows:
SOCt +1 = SOCt + ΔSOC (3)
ΔE Pstack ⋅ TimeStep
ΔSOC = = (4)
Ecapacity Prating ⋅ Timerating
24
This control algorithm uses two variable parameters (Istack, Vstack) and one constant
block (c). With a discrete time–integrator block by accumulation the SOC is thus computed
each cycle based on the previous SOC, depending on the input values. The simplified control
methods block is shown in Fig. 3.
ΔSOC 1 SOC
z −1
Fig. 3. Simplified SOC control method
An important issue in battery modelling is transient behavior. In a Li-Ion battery, the

transient effects are related to electrode capacitance, and modelled using a single 4F capacitor
per cell, across Rreaction. This amounts to a total Creaction of 0.285 F for 14 cells in series.
Fig. 4 below shows the proposed model. It takes into account the following Li-Ion
properties:
- the SOC, which represents the amount of active chemicals in the system, is modeled
as a variable that is dynamically updated;
- the operating losses are modelled using resistances, separated into resistive (Rresistive)
and reaction (Rreaction) losses. This accounts for the finite conductivities of electrodes
and separators, concentration gradients of ionic species near the electrodes and limited
reaction rates at the electrode;
- the stack voltage (Vstack) is modelled as a controlled voltage source, dependent on the
number of cells and the SOC. The power flow through this source controls the changes
in the SOC;
- transient effects are modelled using a capacitance (Creaction) across Rreaction.
The proposed Li-Ion battery model will be based on a 5 kW – 20 kWh, with an initial
voltage of 48 V.
25
SOC
V stack
Vbattery Creaction R reaction
R resistive
Fig. 4. The proposed Li-Ion model
The developed model was implemented using SMULINK (SimPowerSystems

toolbox), as shown in Fig. 5 below.
Fig. 5. The Li-Ion battery model in Simulink
The Li-Ion battery parameters calculations are based on estimating losses of 5% in the
worse case operating point, for a minimum voltage of 42 V, and a current of 112 A, therefore
the value of the power rating is greater than 5 kW.
Rinternal is then divided into two third Rresistive and one third Rreaction, which amounts to
67.33 mΩ and 33.66 mΩ respectively. The discharging process of a charged battery (SOC =
80%) at a constant output power of 5 kW was considered in Fig. 6. In this example, a dc
current source sets the output current based on the output voltage, keeping the output power at
5 kW (value obtained by subtracting the losses).
26
0.8
0.7
0.6
Li-Ion SOC [%]

0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000 10800
Time [s]
Fig. 6. The Li-Ion battery state of charge (SOC) variation
For safe operation of the battery, the simulation is executed in SIMULINK for 3 hours,
with a time step of 100 µs. The results can be seen in Fig. 7.
The voltage does in fact vary linearly in the 20% to 80% SOC. The battery model
meets the requirements in terms of discharge voltage and SOC profiles.
50
L i-Ion Voltage [V]
48
46
44
42
40
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000 10800
120
Li-Ion Current [A]
110
100
90
80
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000 10800
Time [s]
Fig. 7. The Li-Ion battery current and voltage (Initially 80% SOC, Pout = 5 kW)
The purpose of this laboratory is thus to develop suitable Li-Ion electrical model
battery and to implement into simulation software such as Matlab/Simulink.
4.5. References
[1]. J. Goodenough, H.D. Abruna, and M.V. Buchanan, Basic Research Needs for Electrical
Energy Storage (Washington, D.C.: Office of Basic Energy Sciences, U.S. Department
of Energy, 2-4 April, 2007).
27
[2]. Panasonic – ideals for life, Lithium-ion overview, Technical Handbook, International
English, 2007.
[3]. I. Jurkelo, The Lithium Ion Battery, E – articles, January 2007.
[4]. L. Barote, C. Marinescu, A new control method for VRB SOC estimation in stand-alone
wind energy systems, Proccedings of the IEEE International Conference on Clean
Electrical Power - Renewable Energy Resources Impact, 9-11 June 2009, Capri, Italia,
ISBN: 978-1-4244-2543-3, pp. 248 – 252.
[5]. L. Gao, S. Liu and R. Dougal, Dynamic Lithium-Ion Battery Model for System
Simulation, IEEE Transactions on Components and Packaging Technologies, Volume:
25, Number: 3, Page(s): 495-505, September 2002.
[6]. John A. Chahwan, VRB and Li-Ion Battery Modelling and Performance in Wind Energy
Applications, Master Thesis, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering,
McGill University, Montréal, Québec, Canada May 2007.
28
Laboratory 5
5. Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC)
5.1. PEMFC operating principle
Fuel cells are becoming a more attractive option for many remote power applications.
One of the main well-known problems of a fuel cell system is its slow dynamic response: the
fuel cell system needs significant time to reach a new steady-state condition after a load
change.
A fuel cell stack is a device that converts the chemical energy of hydrogen into
electricity as long as fuel (hydrogen) and oxidant (air) are supplied. In order to operate the
fuel cell stack in an economical way for different power demands, fuel and oxidant flow may
be dynamically adjusted as a function of load demand. The hydrogen fuel may be taken from
a storage tank or generated using a reformer.
The diagram of the PEM fuel cell is shown in Fig. 1. The fuel cell works by reducing
oxygen at the cathode side and oxidizing hydrogen at the anode side. The overall redox
reaction is:
2 H 2 + O2 → 2 H 2O + heat + electricity (1)
Fig. 1. Diagram of a PEM fuel cell

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton_exchange_membrane_fuel_cell)
29
PEMFC are considered to be the most versatile type of fuel cells currently in
production. They produce the most power for a given weight or volume of fuel cell. Because
they are lightweight, have such high power density, and cold start capability, they qualify for
many applications, such as stationary power, transport, portable power and application in
space.
5.2. PEMFC description model and moddeling
This laboratory proposes a combined steady-state and dynamic model of a Polymer

Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC). The equivalent circuit model representing the
static and dynamic behavior of a fuel cell is shown in Fig. 2.
Fig. 2. Equivalent electric circuit model of the PEMFC
The polymer used in a PEMFC is often made from Nafion, which allows protons to
travel through, but prohibits electrons to pass.
Literature indicates two different steady-state models for PEM fuel cells. One of the
models is based on empirical measurements of the output voltage and current, which is most
convenient for creating a specific steady-state description of a fuel cell. The simplified steady-
state equation is:
⎛I ⎞ ⎛ I ⎞
VFC = Erev − A ln⎜⎜ FC ⎟⎟ − R int I FC + B ln⎜⎜1 − FC ⎟⎟ (2)
⎝ I0 ⎠ ⎝ Il ⎠
in which VFC is the output voltage of the fuel cell, IFC is the output current, Erev is the open
circuit voltage, Io is the exchange current, Il is the limiting current, Rint is the internal
30
resistance, A is the activation coefficient and B is the concentration coefficient. Furthermore,
Erev, A, Rint and B are dependent on the operating temperature of the fuel cell.
Open circuit voltages Erev, are almost never measurable, also because the internal
currents of the fuel cell are often higher than the exchange current. As a matter of fact, the
temperature of the membrane and the (partial) pressures of the fuels (hydrogen and oxygen)
influence the open circuit voltage of the fuel cell. If water as a waste product of the redox
reaction (eq. 1) is produced as a liquid product, then the reversible fuel cell voltage can be
calculated using:
⎛ aH aO ⎞
Erev = 1.18 + 43.1 ⋅ 10− 6 ⋅ T ln⎜ 2 2 ⎟ (3)
⎜ aH O ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
where T is the absolute temperature of the membrane, aH2 is the activity of hydrogen and aO2
is the activity of oxygen.
The operating temperature of the PEMFC is assumed to be 60°C, so the reversible cell
voltage can be calculated as being:
( )
Erev , cell = 1.18 + 43.1 ⋅ 10 −6 ⋅ 333 ln 0.21 = 1.2V (4)
The proposed PEMFC model to be implemented will use 100 cells, which will
produce an output voltage of 120 V.
Ecell = 1.2 V ⎯120

⎯⎯ V
→100 cells
The model presented above (Fig. 2) is implemented in Simulink using the Power
Systems Toolbox, as shown in Fig. 3.
31
IFC i
+ -
-
+ IFC
Efc IFC -
- + +
+
Rr 1
Rinf Rdl IFC
-
Cdl +
Cr
Ra
(a) Simulation scheme for implementation in Simulink
1 -C-
IFC
Io
+
120 s
+ 2
1 -
-
2
|u|
ln
0.133
-C-
(b) Implementation of the non-linear voltage source EFC
2
+
Rdl ,inf
+
s
-C- u
e
Rdl .0
1 2 -C-
|u|
IFC
- 0.3418
(c) Implementation of the non-linear resistors RDL
32
2
+
Rr,inf
+
-
-
1
-C- u
e
Rr,0
1 2 -C-
|u|
IFC
-0.2444
(d) Implementation of the non-linear resistors RR
2
+
+
-
s
-C-
RA,0
1 -C-
IFC
-2.624 e-3
(e) Implementation of the non-linear resistors RA
Fig. 3. Simulation schemes in Simulink for analyzed PEMFC
There are two double layer capacitors present, CDL and CR, and an adsorption inductor
LA. The results are fitted with a non-linear least squares method and the results are presented
in Table 1.
Table 1. Fitted results of the impedance spectroscopy to a equivalent circuit model of a

PEMFC
R∞ (Ω) 0.282
CDL (F) 0.220
CR (F) 0.441
LA (mH) 36.1
33
The resistance of the bulk material R∞, can be assumed to be constant. However, the
double layer resistances RDL and RR are certainly not constant. The best numerical fit for these
resistances is found by using:
2
RDL = RDL,∞ + RDL,0 ⋅ e −α DL ⋅I FC
(5)
The values of the additional variables are: RDL,∞ = 75.22mΩ , RDL,0 = 171.1mΩ ,
α DL = 0 .3418 .
2
RR = R R , ∞ + R R , 0 ⋅ e − α R ⋅ I FC
(6)
where: RR , ∞ = 18.44mΩ , RR ,0 = 96.66mΩ , α R = 0.2444 .
The resistances are dependent on the square of the fuel cell output current. The
adsorption resistance RA is fitted with a first order polynomial equation:
R A = R A , 0 − α A ⋅ I FC (7)
where: R A ,0 = 23.52mΩ , α A = 2.624 ⋅10 .

−3
Since the impedance of the fuel cell is found to be nonlinear, especially because of the
double layer resistances, the steady-state equation presented in (eq. 2) has to be adapted to the
new situation. Therefore, the internal steady-state resistance is written as:
2 2
Rint = R∞ + RDL,∞ + RDL,0 ⋅ e −α DL ⋅I FC + RR ,∞ + RR ,0 ⋅ e −α R ⋅I FC (8)
Note that the adsorption resistance does not play any role in the steady-state resistance,
due to the parallel inductance. Literature indicates that the concentration losses.
Therefore, the only parameter that is not yet fixed is the activation coefficient. Because
the activation coefficient is linearly dependent on the temperature, the assumption is made
that it will be dependent on the square of the output current.
34
The values of the unknown parameters of the steady-state equation are for:
A = a + b ⋅ I FC
2
= 0.133 − 3.25 ⋅ 10 −5 ⋅ I FC
2
[V ] ; I 0 = 3.95 ⋅10 −6 [ A], B → 0 [V ]
This laboratory presents a simulation model for PEM fuel cells, which is capable of
simulating steady-state behavior for both small-signal and large-signal variations. Because the
model is based on empirical electrical measurements, the temperature dependency is
implicitly covered in this model. To cover the temperature dependency in the model, the used
electrical components in the equivalent electrical circuit are made dependant on the (square)
of the fuel cell output current.
5.4. References
[1]. U.S. Department of Energy, Ed., „Fuel cell handbook”, 5th ed. Morgantown: EG&G
Services, 2000.
[2]. J. J. Baschuk and L. Xianguo, „Modeling of polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells
with variable degrees of water flooding,” Journal of Power Sources, vol. 86, no. 1-2,
pp. 181-96, Mar. 2000.
[3]. J. Larminie and A. Dicks, „Fuel cell systems explained”. Chichester: John Wiley &
Sons Ltd, 2001.
[4]. P. J. H. Wingelaar, J. L. Duarte, and M. A. M. Hendrix, „Computer controlled linear
regulator for characterization of polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells (pemfc),” in
2004 IEEE International Symposium on Industrial Electronics, 2004.
[5]. P. J. H. Wingelaar, J. L. Duarte, and M. A. M. Hendrix, „Dynamic characteristics of
pem fuel cells,” in 2005 IEEE Power Electronics Specialists Conference, 2005.
[6]. P. J. H. Wingelaar, J.L. Duarte, M.A. M. Hendrix, „Dynamic and static simulation
tool for PEM fuel cells”, IEEE ISIE 2006, July 9-12, Montreal, Quebec, Canada,
pp.1700-1705.
35
Laboratory 6
6. Energy storage applications
6.1. Study Case 1: LAB implementation
This case analyzes an autonomous single-phase micro-grid (MG) which consists in:
micro-hydro power plant (MHC) with synchronous generator (SG), wind turbine (WT) with
permanent magnet synchronous generator (PMSG) and a photovoltaic panel (PV). MG also
contains an energy storage system with batteries, used when a MHC generator is connected
directly to the MG, contributing to control the frequency in situations of excess energy.
When the battery is fully charged, an additional circuit is used, to maintain the power
balance. It consists in a dump load placed at the battery leads, which has the role to
dissipate the additional power given by both generators. For the system optimum efficiency,
the dissipated power on the dumping resistance can be used in useful purposes such as a
water heating process.
MHC is connected to AC single-phase MG through SG, which is designed to
regulate the MG voltage. WT and PV's are connected in DC link through converters directly
to the battery terminals. The main purpose is to supply single-phase consumers, at 230 V
and 50 Hz. The MG block diagram is shown in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1. MG analyzed structure
36
6.1.1. Simulation results
The proposed autonomous MG based on RES has been modeled and simulated using
the Matlab/Simulink environment. Fig. 2 shows the block diagram.
In order to investigate the system’s operation, the following simulations were carried out:
− Variation of RES power, while the load is constant;
− Load switching, with fixed RES power.
Wind speed variation

Generator speed (pu)
wm
Tm (pu)
Wind speed (m/s)
9
m
WT
Constant value
Tm
A Vabc
A Iabc
m A In + Out + dc + LAB + +
B B a +
b B
C C dc - LAB - -
c - In - Out -
PMSG C
Bidirectional Lead Acid Battery
WT Boost Converter+ Charge (LAB - 120 V)
MPPT Controler
+ In + Out +
- In - Out -
PV PV Boost Converter+MPPT
Pm
Gate PWM
HT Frequency
regulator g +
Pm m
A
SSM 1 2
-
N A B
Inverter
SG
Resistive AC Loads
Fig. 2. Simulink block diagram
Variation of the RES power, while the load is constant
In the first example a wind speed decreases from 9 m/s (at t=2s) to 5 m/s (at t=4s).
The PV power is calculated at temperature of 250C and irradiation of 1000 W/m2. The
hydraulic power is considered being constant at 3 kW. The entire energy load demand is
4 kW. During this process, the output voltage, current and SOC variation for the LAB are
shown in Fig. 3.
The considered initial battery state of charge (SOC) is 80 %. The SOC slope changes
when the wind speed drops, which means that the battery passes from charging to discharging
37
mode. As can be seen in Fig. 4, the power produced by the MHC (3 kW) cannot supply the
entire energy load demand (4 kW), therefore the WT and PV will supply the difference. The
excess power (before the wind speed starts to decrease) is stored in the battery bank (see
Fig. 4).
125 4
LAB Voltage [V]
6.000
120
4.000
115
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Active Power [W]

20 Loads
LAB Current [A]
2.000
10 LAB
0 PV
0
-10
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
MHC
LAB SOC [%]
80.01 -2.000
WT
80
-4.000
79.99
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 Time [s]
Time [s]
Fig. 3. The LAB voltage, current and SOC Fig. 4. The active power balance of the MG
variation
Load switching, with fixed RES power
In this case, the RES power is maintained constant. As in previous case, the PV
power is calculated at temperature of 250C and irradiation of 1000 W/m2, the wind speed is
constant, 9 m/s and the MHC is considered being constant at 3 kW. A 2 kW load is initially
connected to the MG. At t=2 s, an additional 3 kW load is connected and then subsequently
disconnected at t=4 s. The LAB voltage, current and SOC are presented in Fig. 5.
Before the additional load to be connected in MG, the 1 kW difference between the
power produced by the SG (3 kW) and the one demanded by the loads (2 kW) flows through
the inverter to the battery, together with power produced by the WT and PV (about 2.8 kW),
(see Fig. 6). The LAB stored energy is released when the additional load is connected, thus
the load supply being ensured.
38
125
LAB Voltage [V] 6.000
120
115 4.000
Loads
110
Active Power [W]

1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
30
LAB Current [A]
2.000
20
LAB
10 PV
0 0
-10
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
80.1 -2.000 MHC
LAB SOC [%]
WT
80.05
-4.000
1 2 3 4 5
80 Time [s]
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Time [s]
Fig. 5. The LAB voltage, current and SOC Fig. 6. The active power balance of the MG
variation
6.1.2. Conclusiuons
This study case have proposed to develop a system for producing electrical energy
based on RES and energy storage system, forming a autonomous micro-grid.
The frequency stabilization is obtained by using a energy storage system based on a
battery bank. LAB always ensures the safe supply of the loads (households), regardless of
the problems caused by RES or loads variations, by switching between the charging and the
discharging mode.
Simulation results show that the active power balance of the system proves to be
satisfied during transient loads and variable RES conditions.
6.1.3. References
[1]. L. Barote, C. Marinescu, Autonomous micro-grid based on RES, 8th International

Conference on Electromechanical and Power Systems – SIELMEN 2011, 13-15
October, Chişinău, Rep. Moldova, 2011, pp. 202-207.
39
6.2. Study Case 2: VRB implementation
The proposed wind stand-alone system for a residential location is a 3 kW wind turbine
system with a permanent magnet synchronous generator (PMSG), rectifier bridge, buck-boost
converter, bidirectional charge controller, VRB storage device, inverter, transformer and
loads.
In a studied stand-alone wind turbine system, the AC energy source voltage is rectified
to DC and coupled at the VRB battery, and an inverter is used to provide AC electricity for
the consumers (see Fig. 1). Our purpose is to supply domestic appliances through a single-
phase 230V - 50Hz inverter.
Fig. 1. System configuration
The proposed system has been modeled and simulated using the Matlab/Simulink
environment. Fig. 2 shows the block diagram. The configuration includes the PMSG, a three-
phase rectifier bridge, a buck-boost converter, a bidirectional charge controller, 5kW VRB
battery, inverter, transformer, resistive loads and a block that models the wind turbine.
Measurement blocks are also included.
In order to validate proper system operation with the developed VRB model, the
following simulations were carried out:
− variation in wind speed with a fixed load;
− transient change in load with a fixed speed.
40
Variation in wind speed with a fixed load
In the following example a wind speed drop from 10 m/s (at t=10s) to 7 m/s (at t=15s)
has been considered in steady state conditions. The rated capacity of the VRB is 5kW,
20kWh, and 56 Vdc, with an initial voltage of 48V assumed during these simulations.
The output voltage and current for the VRB are shown in Fig. 3. The 3 kW wind
turbine cannot supply the entire energy for the load (4kW), therefore the difference will be
ensured by the VRB (1 kW). Fig. 4 shows that the power balance of the system is maintained
with the VRB operating in its discharge mode. Therefore when I VRB > 0 the VRB is charging,
and when IVRB < 0 the VRB is discharging.
50 5000
4000
VRB Voltage [V]
48
3000
46 Loads
2000
44
1000
Power [W ]
VRB
42
5 10 15 20 0
0 -1000
VRB Current [A]
-20 -2000
-40 -3000
-60 -4000
Wind turbine
-5000
-80 5 10 15 20
5 10 15 20
Time [s] Time [s]
Fig. 3. The VRB current and voltage Fig. 4. The power balance of the system
The initial VRB SOC is considered 0.8 (p.u.). When the VRB battery is discharging
41
( IVRB < 0 ), the battery SOC decreases in order to ensure the stable supply for the loads. The
results can be seen in Fig. 5. Because the VRB is used in charging and discharging cycles of 4
hours, the 20 s simulation is irrelevant in analyzing the VRB SOC variation.
0.8
VRB SOC [p.u.] 0.7999
0.7998
0.7997
0.7996
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Time [s]
Fig. 5. The VRB state of charge (SOC) variation
Transient change in load with a fixed wind speed
For the following simulation, the wind velocity is assumed constant at 10 m/s. The
VRB voltage and current, along with the system power balance, are provided in Fig. 6 and
Fig. 7, respectively. A 1kW load is initially connected to the system. At t=10s, an additional
3kW load is connected until t=15s. In Fig. 6, it can be seen that the VRB operating mode
changes from charge to discharge during the transient event, as power flow becomes negative
(is discharging).
Because the initial load is 1kW, the difference in power supplied by the wind turbine
is stored in the battery (2 kW). The VRB stored energy is used when the 3kW load is
connected, in this way the supply of the load is ensured. Consequently, Fig. 7 shows that the
power balance of the system is maintained.
50 5000
48
VRB Voltage [V]
4000
46
3000
Loads
44
2000
42
Power [W ]
1000
40
5 10 15 20 VRB
0
60
-1000
VRB Current [A]
40
20 -2000
Wind turbine
0
-3000
-20
-4000
-40 5 10 15 20
5 10 15 20 Time [s]
Time [s]
Fig. 6. The VRB current and voltage Fig. 7. The power balance of the system
42
In order to ensure a permanent supply for the loads, the battery will pass from
charging to discharging mode, as shown in Fig. 8.
0.8003
0.8002
0.8002
VRB SOC [p.u.] 0.8001
0.8001
0.8
0.8
0.7999
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Time [s]
Fig. 8. The VRB state of charge (SOC) variation
6.2.2. Conclusions
Simulation case studies show that the power balance of the system proves to be
satisfying during transient loads and variable wind speed conditions. VRB battery always
ensures the safe supply of the loads (households) regardless of the problems caused by wind
speed and loads variations. In conclusion, the system’s stability can be easily ensured by
using the proposed configuration.
6.2.3. References
[1]. L. Barote, C. Marinescu, M. Georgescu, VRB Modelling for Storage in Stand-Alone

Wind Energy Systems, Proccedings of the IEEE International Conference – PowerTech
2009, 28 June - 2 July 2009, Bucharest, Romania, pp. 1078-1083.
43
6.3. Study Case 2: Li-Ion implementation
The proposed wind stand-alone system for a residential location is a 3 kW wind turbine
system with a permanent magnet synchronous generator (PMSG), rectifier bridge, buck-boost
converter, bidirectional charge controller, Li-Ion battery storage device, inverter, transformer
and loads.
In a studied stand-alone wind turbine system, the AC energy source voltage is rectified
to DC and coupled at the Li-Ion battery, and an inverter is used to provide AC electricity for
the consumers. A model of the studied configuration with Li-Ion battery energy storage is
provided in Fig. 1.
The proposed system has been modelled and simulated using the Matlab/Simulink
environment. Fig. 2 shows the block diagram. The 3kW PMSG is sinusoidal flux distribution,
4 pairs of poles and 2300-RPM, 14.2 Nm machine.
In order to validate proper system operation, the following simulations were carried
out:
- variation in wind speed with a fixed load,
- transient change in load with a fixed wind speed.
44
Signal 1
Generator speed (pu)
wm
Tm (pu) Wind speed Continuous
Wind speed (m/s)
powergui
m
10
3 kW Wind turbine
Tm
Vabc
A
A
Iabc
m A
a + In + Out + +
B B In + Out +
b B
C
C In - Out - -
c In - Out -
PMSG -
C
Buck-Boost Bidirectional Li -Ion Battery
Rectifier Bridge
Charger
Converter
i
+
-
+ 1 2
v -
Inverter
Resistive Loads
Variation in wind speed with a fixed load
In the following example a wind speed decrease from 10 m/s (at t=10s) to 7 m/s (at
t=15s) has been considered. The rated capacity of the Li-ion battery is 5kW, 20kWh, and 56
Vdc, with an initial voltage of 48V assumed during these simulations. The output voltage and
current for the Li-ion battery are shown in Fig. 3.
The 3 kW wind turbine cannot supply the entire energy for the load (4kW), therefore
the difference will be ensured by the Li-Ion battery (1 kW).
Fig. 4 shows that the power balance of the system is maintained with the Li-Ion
battery operating in its discharge mode. Therefore when I Li−Ion > 0 the battery is charging, and
when I Li −Ion < 0 the battery is discharging.
50 5000
Li-Ion Voltage [V]
4000
48
Load
3000
46
2000
44
Power [W ]
1000
42
5 10 15 20
0
0 Li-Ion
Li-Ion Current [A]
-1000
-20
-2000
-40 Wind turbine
-3000
-60
-4000
-80 5 10 15 20
5 10 15 20
Time [s] Time [s]
Fig. 3. The Li-Ion battery current and voltage Fig. 4. The power balance of the system
45
The initial Li-Ion SOC is considered 0.8 (p.u.). When the battery is discharging
( I Li −Ion < 0 ), the battery SOC decreases in order to ensure the stable supply for the loads. The
results can be seen in Fig. 5.
Because the Li-Ion battery is used in charging and discharging cycles of 4 hours, the
20 s simulation is irrelevant in analyzing the battery SOC variation.
0.8001
0.8
0.7999
Li-Ion SOC [p.u.]
0.7998
0.7997
0.7996
0.7995
0.7994
5 10 15 20
Time [s]
Transient change in load with a fixed wind speed
For the following simulation, the wind velocity is assumed constant at 10 m/s. The Li-
Ion battery voltage and current, along with the system power balance, are provided in Fig. 6
and Fig. 7, respectively. A 1kW load is initially connected to the system. At t=10s, an
additional 3 kW load is connected until t=15s. In Fig. 8, it can be seen that the battery
operating mode changes from charge to discharge during the transient event, as power flow
becomes negative (is discharging).
5000
50
Li-Ion Voltage [V]
48 4000
46 3000
Loads
44
2000
42
Power [W]
1000
40
5 10 15 20 Li-Ion
0
60
Li-Ion Current [A]
40 -1000
20
-2000
Wind turbine
0
-3000
-20
-40 -4000
5 10 15 20 5 10 15 20
Time [s] Time [s]
Fig. 6. The Li-Ion battery current and voltage Fig. 7. The power balance of the system
Because the initial load is 1kW, the difference in power supplied by the wind turbine
is stored in the battery (2 kW). The Li-Ion stored energy is used when the 3 kW load is
46
connected, in this way the supply of the load is ensured. Consequently, Fig. 7 shows that the
power balance of the system is maintained.
In order to ensure a permanent supply for the loads, the battery will pass from
charging to discharging mode, as shown in Fig. 8.
0.8006
0.8005
0.8004
Li-Ion SOC [u.r.]
0.8003
0.8002
0.8001
0.8
5 10 15 20
Timp [s]
6.3.2. Conclusions
The purpose of this study case is thus to develop suitable Li-Ion electrical model
battery (see Laboratory 4) and to implement into a 3 kW PMSG wind system. The simulations
results will be use to demonstrate the advantages of using battery storage in wind energy
systems during wind speed variation as well as transient performance under variable load.
6.3.3. References
[1]. L. Barote, C. Marinescu, Li-Ion Modeling for Storage in Stand-Alone Wind Energy
Systems, 7th International Conference on Electromechanical and Power Systems –
SIELMEN’09, October 8-9, Iaşi – Chişinău, Rep. Moldova, 2009, pp. 347-353.
47
6.4. Study Case 4: LAB-VRB-PEMFC comparison
The studied configuration is depicted in Fig. 1 and is composed from PMSG, rectifier
bridge, buck-boost converter, voltage regulator, dump load, battery bank, inverter, transfor-
mer and loads.
It supplies single-phase consumers, at 230 V and 50 Hz. The buck-boost regulator
controls the electromagnetic torque by means of wind speed, in order to extract optimum
from available power. The battery bank, charged by the rectifier bridge, ensures an uninter-
rupted feeding of loads, no matters the wind speed.
The proposed system has been modeled and simulated using the Matlab/Simulink
environment. Fig. 2 shows the block diagram. The configuration includes the PMSG, a
three-phase rectifier bridge, a buck-boost converter, the storage elements (LAB, VRB and
PEMFC), the voltage regulator and a block that models the wind turbine. Measurement
blocks are also included. The main library used for system modeling was SimPowerSystem.
The buck-boost converter and its regulator will work as a maximum power point tracker for
the wind turbine. The input voltage varies with the wind speed, while the output voltage is
kept constant by the storage devices.
48
The storage’s charging current is given by the difference between the buck-boost’s
and inverter’s currents. Also, the storage devices charging state is controlled by the buck-
boost converter, therefore no additional charging converter is required - which would
increase the system’s cost.
In order to establish the reliability of such a system, simulations were carried out
following several situations:
− the PMSG’s behavior assuming a variable wind speed;
− the system’s dynamic behavior under variable load conditions.
Dynamic performance during wind speed variation
The studied regime assumes that the wind speed decreases from 10 m/s to 7 m/s,
beginning with t = 1 s. During this period, the system works in steady state regime – the
total load is constant. For this regime, two storage devices are employed; LAB (see
Laboratory 2) and PEMFC respectively (see Laboratory 5). During this process, the average
LAB - VRB current falls from 5A to about –4.5A and the average PEMFC current decreases
from 6.5A to about -2A, as shown in Fig. 3. In order to ensure a permanent supply for the
loads, the storage devices will pass from charging to discharging mode.
49
10
Average Current [A]

5
PEMFC
0
LAB - VRB
-5
0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4
Average Voltage [V] 150

LAB - VRB
140
130
120
PEMFC
110
0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4
Time [s]
Fig. 3. Average current and voltage comparison between LAB - VRB and PEMFC
Transient behavior under variable load
For the following simulation, the wind velocity is assumed constant at 10 m/s. The
initial load’s values are P=500W and Q=100var and the generator is operating in steady –
state conditions. At t=2s an initial load is suddenly connected and disconnected at t=3s.
Because the mechanical power delivered to the PMSG is constant, the power balance is
maintained by varying the storage device’s charging current, as shown in Fig. 4.
It can be seen that the average voltage of the LAB-VRB remain constant, to about
135 V, while the PEMFC voltage presents a significant drop of about 7 V.
10
Average Current [A]
LAB - VRB
5
PEMFC
0
-5
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
150
LAB - VRB
Average Voltage [V]
140
130
PEMFC
120
110
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Time [s]
Fig. 4. Average current and voltage comparison between LAB - VRB and PEMFC
50
6.4.2. Conclusions
The LAB is dominant energy storage technology for wind stationary applications,
but in the recent years the VRB research, demonstrate to be better in remote areas. Applying
the VRB electrical energy storage in conjunction with a wind generator removes the
fluctuations of power generation. The VRB storage system is characterized by having a high
efficiency, high energy capacity and lowest ecological impact of all energy storage
technologies.
The PEMFC can also be used as storage element, only it has a lower dynamic
behavior than the VRB, as was shown in the simulation results section. In conclusion, the
VRB can replace the classical LAB as storage devices in small power wind systems.
The load variations are well managed and the dynamic performances are good. As
results, the system’s stability can be easily ensured by using the proposed control.
6.4.3. References
[1]. L. Barote, I. Serban, Performance Comparison of a LAB – VRB – PEMFC for a wind
stand-alone system, Proccedings of the 6th International Conference on
Electromechanical and Power Systems, October 4-6, Chişinău, Rep. Moldova, 2007,
pp. 328-333.
51

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Transilvania University of Brasov

Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science

Șef Lucr. Dr. Ing. Luminița BAROTE

Electrical Energy Storage

1. Introduction in Electrical Energy Storage Systems

Table 1. Functionality of the storage systems in terms of time response

1.2. Energy Storage Applications

Energy storage devices can accommodate a number of network requirements. These

In [1], different types of energy storage devices currently available is presented

[1]. D. Connolly, M. Leahy, An investigation into the energy storage technologies

2. Lead acid battery (LAB)

2.1. LAB operating principle

2.2. LAB description model and modelling

Internal voltage Eb depends on several factors, such as state of charge, temperature,

In the model there are some simplifications:

where: Qn is the battery rated capacity.

Table 2. LAB characteristics:

Table 3. Battery voltage variation depending on the state of charge:

Fig. 2. SOC expressed as a first degree function

By considering: F(105)=0 and F(127)=1, we will determine the values of a and b.

Using the values of a and b the function (Fcn) becomes: f(u)=1/22u-4.77.

Controlled Voltage Source

Integrator Add1 Gain

Fig. 3. The Simulink implementetion of the LAB model

[1]. P. Lailler, „Investigation on Storage technologies for Intermittent Renewable

3. Vanadium Redox Flow Battery (VRB)

3.1. VRB operating principle

A VRB is an electrochemical cell divided into two compartments, positive and

Fig. 1. VRB operating principle

3.3. VRB Moddeling

R fixed losses I pump losses

Fig. 2. Studied VRB model

The parasitic and pump losses are derived as follows:

Current Energy in Battery

SOCt +1 = SOCt + ΔSOC (7)

ΔE Pstack ⋅ TimeStep I stack ⋅Vstack ⋅ TimeStep

3.4. Simulink Implementation

The developed model was implemented using Matlab/Simulink software

Fig. 3. VRB battery model in Simulink

Fig. 4. VRB full discharge cycle (100 % SOC, Pout = 5 kW)

Fig. 5. VRB full charge cycle (20 % SOC, Pin= 5 kW)

Fig. 6. Complete cycle for 5 kW, 4 hour VRB, 20 to 100 % SOC

Fig. 7. VRB discharge at 105 A for 4 hours (420 Ah)

The rate of discharge is thus:

4. Lithium – Ion (Li-Ion) Battery

4.1. Li-Ion battery operating principle

Li-Ion battery is the electrochemical cell, based on lithium-metal oxid (LiMO2) as

Fig.1. Li-Ion battery operating principle

Li-ion batteries are characterized by the following:

4.2. Li-Ion battery description model

Fig. 2. Li-Ion dynamic model

SOCt +1 = SOCt + ΔSOC (3)

Fig. 3. Simplified SOC control method

An important issue in battery modelling is transient behavior. In a Li-Ion battery, the

4.4. Simulink Implementation

Vbattery Creaction R reaction

Fig. 4. The proposed Li-Ion model

The developed model was implemented using SMULINK (SimPowerSystems

Fig. 5. The Li-Ion battery model in Simulink

Li-Ion SOC [%]

Fig. 6. The Li-Ion battery state of charge (SOC) variation

5. Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC)

5.1. PEMFC operating principle

2 H 2 + O2 → 2 H 2O + heat + electricity (1)

Variation of the RES power, while the load is constant

Load switching, with fixed RES power

Variation in wind speed with a fixed load

Transient change in load with a fixed wind speed

Variation in wind speed with a fixed load

Transient change in load with a fixed wind speed

Dynamic performance during wind speed variation

Transient behavior under variable load