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Bread
And
Bread Making
“A practical guide to the technology
of bread making in Australia.”
11th Edition
Electronic Version
Mauri Yeast Australia

Contents
Preface
History of the ‘Bread Book” I
Acknowledgment II
Chapter 1 The Evolution of Bread Making 1
Chapter 2 Ingredients 4
2.1 The Basic Ingredients 4
2.1.1 Yeast 4
2.1.2 Flour 15
2.1.3 Salt 16
2.1.4 Water 18
2.2 Other Essential Ingredients 19

2.2.1 Bread Improvers 19
2.2.2 Shortenings 21
2.2.3 Surfactants 25
2.2.4 Enzymes 27
2.3 Optional Ingredients 29

2.3.1 Malt Extract 29
2.3.2 Malt Flour 30
2.3.3 Sugar 30
2.3.4 Rope and Mould Inhibitors 31
2.3.5 Soya Flour 31
2.3.6 Gluten Softening Agents 31
Bread and Bread Making – “a practical guide to the technology of bread making in Australia.”
Chapter 3 The Bread Making Process 32

3.1 Dough Production Methods 32
3.1.1 Conventional or Straight Dough 33
3.1.2 Sponge & Dough and Brew Systems 34
3.1.3 Chemical Dough Development 35
3.1.4 Mechanical Dough Development 35
3.2 Dough Production and Fermentation 36

3.2.1 The Function of Yeast in Fermentation 38
3.2.2 Gas Production and Gas Retention 38
3.2.3 Fermentation Control 39
3.2.4 Temperature Control 41
3.3 Dough Mixing 41

3.3.1 Dough Mixing Methods 41
3.4 Dough Processing Methods 43

3.4.1 Dividing or Scaling 43
3.4.2 Rounding 43
3.4.3 Intermediate Proofing 43
3.4.4 Moulding 43
3.4.5 Final Proof 44
3.5 Baking 44
3.5.1 The Baking Process 44
3.5.2 Reactions in Baking 44
3.5.3 Baking Conditions 46
3.5.4 Par Baking 47
3.5.5 Depanning 48
3.5.6 Cooling, Slicing & Packaging 49
3.5.7 Retarding Dough’s 51
3.5.8 Freezing Dough’s 52
Chapter 4 Characteristics of Bread 54

4.1 Bread Faults 54
4.1.1 External Faults Charts 55
4.1.2 Internal Faults Charts 59
4.1.3 Dough Maturity Chart 64
Chapter 5 Dough Room Calculations 65

5.1 Formula Balance 65
5.2 Bakers Percentage 66
5.3 Formula Percentage 66
5.4 Water Temperature Calculation Methods 68
5.5 Calculation of Yeast Levels 69
5.6 Calibration and Care of Thermometers 70
Chapter 6 Food Safety, Bakery Hygiene and 71

Rope and Mould Contamination
Chapter 7 Basic Bread Formulations 75

7.1 Basic Bread Formulations 75
7.2 Standard White 76
7.3 Wholemeal Bread 77
7.4 Multi Grain Bread 78
7.5 Hamburger Buns 79
7.6 Fruit Bread 80
7.7 Pizza Bases 81
7.8 Light Rye 82
7.9 Easter Buns 83
7.9 a) Decorating Easter Buns 85
Chapter 8 Glossary of Bakery Terms 87

Preface
History of the ‘Bread Book’
The “Bread and Bread Making” book has its origin set more than 60 years ago,
when the first edition was written by the late Mr. A. J. (Jim) Edwards. It was
designed for use by the School of Food Technology, University of Sydney,
Australia and was published by Mauri Brothers and Thomson Ltd. in 1941.
1924 to 1941 saw the era of the great “Cyco Bread Expositions”, held every year
in The Australian Hall in Elizabeth Street, Sydney, by the Compressed Yeast
Company and Mr. Edwards. Mr. Edwards was a baker with the desire to impart
his extraordinary baking knowledge to others in the bread industry to improve
individual baking skills and the industry as a whole.
From 1941 to 1970 there were 8 editions of the ‘Bread Book’. Each
concentrating on providing a practical source of information for students
and the practising baker plus allowing for an introduction to the bread
industry and the technology of bread production. A ninth edition of the
book, prepared in 1976, failed to reach the final draft and printing stage.
In 1995 the Yeast and Technical Services Staff of the then Mauri Integrated
Ingredients business, produced the “Silver Anniversary” 10th edition by
completely rewriting and updating the information provided.
Burns Philp recognises that a key part of the success of their yeast bakery
business relies upon the technical knowledge and skills of tomorrow’s baker.
Since Mauri Brothers and Thomson’s’ first involvement in supporting the training
and education of current and future baking professionals, the ‘Bread Book’ has
I
always been written to reflect the current state of technology in the bread
industry.
As the changes in technology of the baking methods has advanced, so to has the
delivery medium of the message. Computers and the Internet allow for our
message to be delivered globally plus updated in the most expedient manner.
We trust the students of today and other members of the baking industry will find
this electronic version of the “Silver Anniversary” edition of the “Bread and
Breaking” book as a useful tool to improve their knowledge and skills.
Mr. Richard P. Meagher

Vice President –Yeast / Bakery
Australia, New Zealand, China and East Asia
Burns Philp and Co. Ltd.
April, 2003
Acknowledgements
To the previous contributors to the early editions of this book;

The baking industry in Australia has developed into the strong industry it is today
because of these ‘pioneers’.
To Mr Arthur Aroney;
For his continuos passion for the business of yeast and the baking industry.
To Mr Ken Sparrow;
The driving force behind the last printed edition of this book. His enthusiasm for
marketing of yeast products and the provision of technical information remains a
legacy.
II
Chapter 1
The Evolution of Bread Making
The First Bakers

Bread making can be traced as far back as 8,000 years ago, when man crushed
grains between stones, added water and baked the resulting dough on a flat
stone over a fire. Primitive man may have crushed the grains he gathered
because they were too hard to chew and needed softening in order to digest
them. No matter the arguments as to who may have first developed bread
making and baking, it is certain that the beginnings of bread making came about
through a primitive experiment.
Bread as a Measure of Social Status

The Egyptians took on bread making with great gusto, and considered that bread
was the symbol of their lives. So important was bread to the Egyptians, that the
dead were given some to take with them on their journey into the next life. Bread
was their main food and even wages were paid in bread and wealth was
measured by the number of loaves one was paid.
Yeast produced from beer making was used to ferment and leaven their doughs,
yet it remained a mystery to them as to how fermentation in the dough too place.
The Egyptians developed the loaf of bread into an art form in many shapes and
varieties of flavours.
It is generally accepted that a forgetful Egyptian baker developed the method of

reserving a piece of dough, to add to the next and so on. This gave them an even
lighter bread. Ancient Egyptians exported their excess grains to Greece and the
Greeks learned to make bread from them.
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In Greece and Rome bread became a staple food of the people and was
developed into a luxury, with the addition of enriching agents like eggs and fat.
The finer white breads were reserved for the upper classes and the coarser
breads for the lower classes. Credit is given to a Roman for inventing the first
mechanical mixer using horses as the driving force. Yet, so important was the
humble loaf that bread in Rome was given freely to keep the masses happy.
“Give us this day our daily bread….” Is still to this day used in prayer.
In medieval Europe the Normans used a form of rye as their grain and were
known to have fermented their doughs under the cover of a warm bed. The
Swedes sometimes used reindeer blood and the French, ox blood, mixed into the
flour to produce a bread. Trencher breads were popular because they could be
used as a plate to pick up food and then eaten.
Bakers Guilds
Through the passage of time many cultures formed Bakers Guilds according to
the types of the bread they made. The guilds were established to protect the
honest baker and raise their profile to an important status within the community.
To harm a baker was to invite personal disaster.
A baker who did not follow the Guilds regulations was publicly whipped, dragged
through the streets for his indiscretions, or banned from making bread for life.
The “Bakers Dozen” arose out of the fear that if caught selling bread that was
under weight, such punishments would occur.
The Assize of Bread, established by the English, fixed the weights and prices of
breads for many centuries and some medieval towns had their own community
baking ovens where the poorer population could bring their flour to be processed
and be baked.
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In the early 1800’s a law was passed in England which raised the price of bread
to the equivalent of a week’s wage. Subsequent riots forced the repeal of this
law. Those convicted of stealing a loaf of bread were often sentenced to
banishment to the newly settled colonies of New South Wales.
19th Century Developments

Several dramatic developments took place in the 19th century that propelled the
baking industry into the modern era.
1835 - the scientists Caignard De Latour, Schwann and Kutsing discovered that
yeast reproduced via the ‘budding process’ and concluded that yeast was a living
organism.
1838 - beer yeast was named “Saccharomyces cerevisiae” by Meyer.
1859 - The famous French scientist, Louis Pasteur, discovered that yeast was
the organism that caused fermentation.
1870’s - Oven designs and flour-milling techniques were improved. Emil Christian
Hansen developed a method for the selection of pure yeast strains and this
allowed for the development of more consistent compressed yeast. This
revolutionised the reliability of the yeast supplied to bakeries and breweries and
allowed for a more consistent finished product.
In more recent times the advent of bread making equipment, as well as the
development of bread improvers, better wheat breeding and improved milling
techniques, have brought about more consistent and reliable dough fermentation
and bread production systems. Throughout history bread has been the base of
human gastronomy. In all continents some form of bread is consumed each day
and the development of man, his cultures and societies, can be compared to the
development of the humble loaf.
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Chapter 2
Ingredients
2.1 The Basic Ingredients
Yeast
Flour Salt
Water
2.1.1 Yeast
Man has used yeast to make both bread and alcohol for thousands of years.
Evidence of this has been found in ancient Babylonian wall carvings and
Egyptian hieroglyphics dating back to 2000 BC. The leaving of bread was
considered an art form because man did not understand the fermentation
process.
The late 1600’s could be considered the beginning of the present day baker’s
yeast industry. In 1676 Anton von Leeuwenhoek, using a microscope, identified
Page 4 of 115
that yeast was a cell and that different types of yeast cells could be used for
brewing beer or making wine.
“Spon” (short for spontaneous) yeast was used in the early days of bread
production. This consisted of a liquid brew of potato peelings, old dough, etc,
kept fermenting in a container and used as a yeast “starter” for the production of
bread.
Sometimes a piece of dough from the previous day’s bake was kept and added
to the next day’s dough because it was found that the resulting dough was more
consistent and fermented faster. The piece of dough was called the starter or
“leaven”. It was not until the mid 1800’s that man finally developed an
understanding of the leavening process.
In 1866, Louis Pasteur was asked to examine beer and wine spoilages. He
discovered that alcoholic fermentation took place without oxygen, proving it’s
anaerobic nature (life without air).
In Denmark in the late 1800’s methods were developed for isolating and culturing
pure strains of yeast for use in the brewing industry. These techniques were soon
applied to the selection and propagation of baker’s yeast.
In 1921 a Danish scientist, Soren Sak, developed a new method of yeast

production called “Differential Fermentation”. This technique provided the basis
of the process by which much of today’s yeast is produced.
Development of yeast technology has continued world wide with various factors
such as changes in bread making techniques and the influences of world wars
creating the need to develop new and improved yeast strains and products to
satisfy the demands of the baking industry.
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Today, vast resources are invested in research and development of yeast

technology. There are many large modern commercial yeast plants located
around the world manufacturing yeast suited to the specific requirements of
various markets.
The Manufacture of Bakers Yeast – The Burns Philp Example
Step 1: The Pure Culture

Pure cultures of yeast strains are grown on nutrient slopes and stored at the
Burns Philp Research and Development Centre at North Ryde in Sydney,
Australia.
Fresh sub-cultures of strains are distributed to the company’s manufacturing

centres around the world on a regular basis for the commercial production of
bakers’ yeast.
The pure culture used to start the production of bakers’ yeast is called the
‘inoculum’. A small quantity of this culture is used to produce many tonnes of
bakers’ yeast in the space of a few days.
Molasses provides the necessary sugars that the yeast cells require for growth.
In Australia the molasses is obtained from sugar cane. In some countries the
molasses is derived from sugar beet
The molasses is first sterilised with steam before being passed through clarifiers
to remove any sludge. The sterilised molasses is known as “wort” (wert) and is
stored under sterile conditions in stainless steel holding tanks.
Step 2: Production of Seed Yeast

The pure culture is inoculated into the seed fermenter that contains sterilised
wort together with other nutrients. After the pure culture has grown to the desired
quantity of yeast cells it is transferred to the main fermenter.
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Step 3.Fermentation
Once in the main fermenter the seed yeast is fed molasses wort and nutrients, at
a controlled rate, to ensure a satisfactory growth pattern and quality of the
finished product. At the same time, high volumes of sterilised air are pumped into
the fermenter to provide the necessary oxygen to assist in the rapid growth of the
cell population.
Step 4: Separation and Washing;

At the end of the commercial fermentation stage, the many tonnes of yeast
produced in the main fermenter are harvested from the brew. This is
accomplished with centrifugal separators. The yeast cells are washed with water
several times to produce a light cream-coloured suspension of yeast cells called
“Yeast Cream”.
Step 5: Storage and Packaging;

Yeast Cream is stored under refrigeration in large stainless steel tanks to ensure
that activity is maintained. The yeast cream is either standardised to a specific
activity, in which the yeast is then known as Liquid Cream Yeast, prior to
transportation to large commercial bakeries in stainless steel insulated road
tankers, or further processed to produce Fresh Compressed Yeast or Instant
Dried Yeast.
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FLOW CHART OF YEAST PRODUCTION
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Yeast has three principal functions in dough:
1. Produces carbon dioxide gas that expands the dough to the required volume
and gives it the light sponge-like texture necessary for the production of bread
with good eating properties.
2. Matures or develops the dough through the action of fermentation on the
gluten structure.
3. Provides flavour through the production of complex chemical compounds a
by-products of the fermentation process.
YEAST
a living organism producing enzymes added to
DOUGH
in the presence of
AVAILABLE SUGARS
produces
IN THE DOUGH…
1. Carbon dioxide gas to leaven the dough
2. Conditioning of the gluten
AND IN THE BREAD…

1. A light sponge-like structure with good grain and texture
2. Desirable flavour.
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Types of Bakers Yeast
I/ Liquid Cream Yeast

Yeast Cream is stored and adjusted to carefully controlled and standardised
activity in refrigerated stainless steel tanks at the yeast manufacturing facility
prior to being delivered to the bakery as Liquid Cream Yeast. Delivery to bakeries
takes place in insulated stainless steel road tankers. The Liquid Cream Yeast is
stored on site at the bakery in refrigerated stainless steel tanks.
Large modernised plant bakeries use liquid Cream Yeast and some medium
sized bakeries particularly where bulk handling and storage of product is
required.
Liquid Cream Yeast is a natural product, having easy handling characteristics at

the mixer and uniform dispersion throughout the dough mass in all types of
mixers. It is tolerant to high and low temperatures of dough water, has fast gas
production in dough and provides very consistent gassing activity.
Liquid Cream Yeast requires refrigeration and sanitary storage facilities. The
storage tanks and delivery lines to mixers and ancillary equipment require regular
cleaning and maintenance.
Handling:
Liquid Cream Yeast is stored in large refrigerated stainless steel storage tanks at
2°C - 6°C with a best before time of 10 -14 days prior to manufacture.
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Method of Application:
On a usage basis 1.5 litres of Burns Philp Liquid Cream Yeast is equivalent in
activity to 1kg of Burns Philp Compressed Yeast.
Step 1: Blending
Place all dry ingredients into the bowl of the mixer and blend thoroughly
on slow speed. Add shortening last.
Step 2: Liquid Cream Yeast
Add cream yeast directly to the dry ingredients via the metering system.
Step 3: Water
Add the required quantity of Water
Step 4: Mixing
Mix until dough is fully developed. Process in normal manner.
II/ Fresh Compressed Yeast

Following the production process, Yeast Cream is fed onto a continuous rotary
vacuum filter where the “dewatered” yeast is removed from the filter drum by a
knife blade and the resulting ‘crumbled yeast’ is conveyed to the packaging
operation. In this operation the crumbled yeast passes into an extruder where it
is compressed into 750g or 1kg blocks, wrapped in wax paper and stored under
refrigeration prior to delivery.
Plant bakeries, medium sized bakeries, in-store bakeries, and traditional bakeries
use compressed Yeast. It is a natural product having easy handling
characteristics at the mixer and uniform dispersion throughout the dough mass in
all types of mixers. It is tolerant to high and low temperatures of dough water, has
fast gas production in doughs and provides consistent gassing activity.
Compressed Yeast requires refrigeration for transport and storage, a sanitary

areas and controlled stock rotation.
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Handling:
Transportation and Store in refrigerated condition at 2°C - 6°C. With a best
before time: 26 – 28 days.
Step 1: Blending
Place all dry ingredients and Burns Philp Compressed Yeast into the bowl
of the mixer and blend thoroughly on slow speed. Add shortening last.
Step 2: Water
Add the required quantity of water.
Step 3: Mixing
Mix until dough is fully developed. Process dough in the normal manner.
III/ High Activity Instant Dried Yeast (H.A.D.Y. / IDY)

Following the production process, Yeast Cream is “dewatered” over a rotary
vacuum filter drum and the resulting crumbled yeast is fed via an extruder into
the drier which results in the production of granules of High Activity Instant Dried
Yeast. This is then packaged into 500g and 10kg foil vacuum packs.
High Activity Instant Dried Yeast is generally used where fresh yeast is not
available. The inclusion of rehydration agents allows the yeast to be added
directly to the flour (in most cases) prior to mixing.
High Activity Instant Dried Yeast has a consistent gassing activity. Under ideal
conditions a storage stability of up to 2 years is obtainable. High Activity Instant
Dried Yeast requires no refrigeration.
High Activity Instant Dried Yeast is intolerant to cool or ice dough water and
requires significant hydration time in the dough (MDD process may require the
preparation of slurry or broth for best results).
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Handling:
Store High Activity Instant Dried Yeast in cool, dry area (20°C). Under these
conditions a best before life of approximately 24 months is achievable. Once
opened transfer to an airtight container and use within 7 days.
Method 1
Step 1: Blending
Place all dry ingredients and Mauripan High Activity Instant Dried Yeast
into the bowl of the mixer and blend thoroughly on slow speed. Add
shortening last.
Step 2: Water
Add the required amount of water. Avoid direct contact between High
Activity instant Dried Yeast and cold or ice water.
Step 3: Mixing
Mix until dough is fully developed. Process dough in normal manner.
Method 2
Step 1: Blending
Place all dry ingredients except Mauripan High Activity Instant Dried Yeast
into the bowl of the mixer and blend thoroughly on slow speed. Add
shortening last.
Step 2: Water
Step 3: Mixing
Mix until water is incorporated with the flour (about 30 seconds).
Step 4: Addition of High Activity Instant Dried Yeast.
Add High Activity Instant Dried Yeast and continue mixing until dough is
fully developed. Process in normal manner.
Page 13 of 115
Exhibit 1.1; Typical Usage Ratios Conversion between Yeast Variants
H.A.D.Y / IDY Fresh Compressed Liquid Cream

Yeast Yeast
0.4 kg 1.0 kg 1.5 litres
Active Dry Yeast (A.D.Y.)

An early form of dry yeast which requires rehydration and activation by dissolving
in warm water (38°C-40°C) with the addition of sugar. Characterised by an
extremely long shelf life of several years. Usage rate is similar to Compressed
Yeast. Usually packed in tins or air-tight satchets.
Protected Active Dried Yeast (P.A.D.Y.)

Similar to A.D.Y. except that the presence of rehydration agents allows the yeast
to be added directly to the flour prior to mixing. Also includes a preservative to
extend shelf life. Usually packed in air-tight satchets.
Other Types of Yeast

Around the world there are many types of yeast produced for various applications
such as high sugar yeast, frozen dough yeast, pizza yeast, etc. These yeasts
may be produced in either wet or dry forms.
Page 14 of 115
2.1.2 Flour “A basic understanding”
Flour consists of two main components

Starch – together with added water, provides the bulk of the loaf.
Gluten – (the protein portion of the flour) on hydration in the dough forms a matrix
which retains the gas produced by the yeast in the dough and forms the structure
of the loaf.
The suitability of wheat grain to produce flour with desirable baking properties
depends on a number of factors including; Variety, Locality, Environment, Soil
Fertility.
There are four basic factors which affect flour quality;

1. Milling quality (yield / colour)
2. Grain hardness
3. Protein content
4. Dough Strength
Protein content has a greater influence on overall processing quality than any
other single factor. Although wheat varieties differ in their capacity to accumulate
protein, the environment is the major determinant of the protein level of a
particular wheat grade.
Classes of Australian Wheat

Australian Prime Hard
Prime Hard has excellent milling quality and is marketed at a minimum protein
level of 13%.
Page 15 of 115
Australian Hard
Australian Hard also has excellent milling properties and is marketed at a
minimum protein level of 11.5%.
Australian Premium White

This wheat also exhibits excellent milling properties and is a selection of hard
grained varieties with a guaranteed minimum protein of 10%.
Australian Standard White (ASW)

Protein segregation has been introduced for ASW but each delivery must be of
an approved or recommended variety. Australian Standard White wheat
therefore covers a wide range of protein content, hardness and inherent strength.
Australian Soft
This class consists of typical soft biscuit wheat varieties. The low protein and
weak extensible dough properties make the flour milled from this wheat very
suitable for biscuit and other soft wheat end uses.
2.1.3 Salt
Salt (sodium chloride) controls fermentation, imparts flavour, adds to the keeping
quality of the bread, stabilises the gluten which forms the structure of the dough
and makes a significant contribution to the quality of the final loaf.
Function of Salt in Bread Making

Salt added to the bread dough performs four principal functions:
1. Flavour Enhancement:
One of the most important functions of salt in bread making is its ability to
improve the taste and flavour of the bread. Without an adequate amount of salt
the palate cannot appreciate true bread flavour: Without salt the bread would be
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insipid. Salt moderates the fermentation activity of the yeast, which allows for
better control of the fermentation process. This results in improved crust colour.
Salt-free bread is bland and has a limited market that is primarily those people
who must regulate their sodium intake.
2. Gluten Strengthening:
Salt affects the important changes involved in conditioning the dough by its
binding and strengthening effect on the gluten.
As salt strengthens the gluten it can influence the degree of dough development
achieved, particularly in low speed and some medium speed mixers. In those
cases when the presence of very strong gluten forming proteins in the flour would
require extended mixing of the dough, a long accepted industry practice to aid
dough development, is to withhold the salt until the last few minutes of mixing
(Delayed Salt Technique).
3. Control of Yeast Activity:

The average amount of salt recommended for bread making is 2% on flour
weight.
Salt levels above 2% will inhibit yeast activity and reduce its gassing rate. This
may be important for use in controlling fermentation rates in the bulk fermentation
and “sponge and dough” methods when inadequate temperature control exists.
However high salt levels are a disadvantage under normal circumstances.
4. Bloom (colour) of the Final Loaf
Page 17 of 115
Water
2.1.4
Water plays a vital part in dough making. The amount of water must be carefully
controlled to ensure that the starch and the gluten have available the correct
amount of water to make a dough of proper consistency.
The amount of water absorbed by the flour is primarily determined by protein

content and the amount of starch damage. The amount used should be as such
that the resulting dough will not soften unduly or become sticky during handling
and will have the correct consistency to ensure a finished baked product of the
desired quality. Different types of doughs may vary in their consistency
depending on the nature of the goods being made.
Water provides the following functions in the baking of bread:

1 Gluten Formation (flour into dough).
2 Control of Dough Consistency.
3 Helps to Control Dough Temperature.
4 Dissolves and Distributes Dry Ingredients Evenly.
5 Allows Enzymes or Other Ingredients to be Activated.
Effects of Water Hardness on Dough

The hardness of the water may influence the properties of the final dough, in
particular, fermented and sponge doughs may be affected by water hardness.
The following table compares the various water hardness effects on gas
production and gas retention and how to overcome these issues.
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Exhibit 2.1; Effects of Water Hardness on Dough

Water Type Effect On Treatment
Gas Production Gas Retention
Soft Practically None Poor Increase Yeast Food

Softens Gluten Slight Salt Increase
Sticky Dough
Medium to Hard Normal Good N/A
Increase Yeast
Very Hard Retards Tough Enzyme
Fermentation Non-Extensible Supplements
Gluten Longer Fermentation
Decrease Yeast
Food
Use Acid
Soften Water
2.2 Other Essential Ingredients
2.2.1 Bread Improvers

The term “bread improver” refers to a flour-based mixture of several components
including one or more gluten maturation agents in combination with a blend of
enzymes. In addition various emulsifiers, soya flour and malt flour may be
included for their dough conditioning and improving properties.
Bread improvers enable the rapid development of a dough through to the finished
baked product by reducing the time required to achieve a comparable result form
the traditional long fermented doughs of the past.
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The Function of Bread Improvers

There are 2 primary functions of bread improvers in dough
1. Stimulate & Promote Gas Production by the Yeast.
Carbon dioxide is formed in a dough when the available sugars are broken down
by various enzymes. Bread improvers promote the continuous and constant
production of gas throughout the fermentation period until the yeast activity is
stopped by the high temperatures in the baking oven.
2. Aids in Gas Retention.

Bread improvers are manufactured for the many styles of dough making and
mixing equipment in use today.
Bread improvers rapidly modify the gluten structure in a dough, to produce a

matrix so that the minimum amount of gas can be retained and hence assist the
expansion or leavening of the dough.
Bread improvers may also carry within them a blend of enzymes that assist in the
gluten matrix modification as well as yeast foods or sources of nitrogen for the
yeast to use. It is important for the baker to be aware of the differences between
bread improvers as one used successfully in a particular application may
encourage too much softening or strengthening of the gluten matrix when used in
another. This could lead to major and costly problems in the bakery.
Once the correct bread improver has been selected for an application, it must be
used at the correct usage rate.
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Exhibit 2.2: The Function of Bread Improver Components
FUNCTION COMPONENT
Yeast foods ammonium chloride
ammonium sulphate
phosphate compounds
calcium compounds
Gluten strengthening potassium bromate*
ascorbic acid
enzymes
Enzyme supplements amylases (act on starch)
proteases (act on protein)
Crumb brightness enzyme-active soya flour
Dough strengthener's DATEM
SSL
CSL
Crumb softeners SL
CSL
GMS
*No longer permitted in Australia / New Zealand
2.2.2 Shortenings
Shortening, a name originating in North America for particular types of fat, is
commonly used in Australia to describe everything from a fat emulsion,
margarine or natural fat to a compound blend of fats. The term is used here in
the general sense.
Role of Shortenings
Shortenings are included in bread formulations to give improvement in loaf
volume, crust character, crumb texture and to extend the shelf life of the product.
Although flour has a small, natural fat content which is approximately 1% to 2%
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of its weight, the addition of at least 1% shortening is recommended in bread

which is to be sliced fresh. This assists the slicing operation.
Properties of Shortenings
Shortenings have distinctive properties that can be controlled by the
manufacturer to obtain desired results in bread. These are:
1. Insoluble in Water. Shortenings do not react with the other ingredients
in the dough. Shortenings retain their chemical identity right through to
the finished loaf.
2. Can be Liquid in Appearance at Room Temperature, but nevertheless

contain essential solids. The ratio of solids to liquid in a shortening
depends on the temperature and the blend of ingredients. This ratio
has an important influence on the behaviour of the shortening in
different bread processes.
3. Ability to Create a Fine Lubricating Film of Fats Throughout the Dough.
Function of Shortenings in Bread

Shortenings are used in baked goods to modify the normal properties of the
doughs or finished goods to produce certain and more desirable character. On a
level of usage, it is one of the minor ingredients in bread but, functionally, it is
one of the most important ingredients in modern bread making processes.
Shortening influences dough mixing, handling, final proofing and bread volume.
They also impart better eating and keeping qualities to the finished loaf. It is
emphasised, however, that the improvement in bread resulting from the use of
shortening is dependent, in the first place, on the employment of a properly
balanced dough formula and correct fermentation and development.
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The following functions must be considered with these points in mind:

1. Lubrication Value: The lubricative action of good shortening improves the
extensibility of dough without making them sticky. This has the effect of making
doughs easier to machine and allowing better oven spring, thus improving
volume. In high intensity mixers, such as the Tweedy Mixer, satisfactory volume
cannot be obtained without the use of a suitable shortening.
2.Improving Texture: Although maximum volume is obtained with good

shortening, a fine texture is also imparted because of the tendency to even out
irregularities in the dough. On the other hand, for a fine texture it is important that
excessive amounts of shortening should not be used. Beyond a certain level
crumb texture becomes more coarse.
3.Keeping Quality: Shortening generally contain emulsifiers that act as a crumb

softening and anti-staling agents.
4.Crust Improvement: Shortenings tend to soften the crust giving an attractive

appearance to the loaf and improves eating qualities.
Classifications of Shortenings
Commercially available shortenings may be classified into straight shortenings
and emulsions.
Straight Shortenings;
These are practically 100% fat and, if solid, will melt completely with gentle
heating to form a clear liquid with little or no sediment of separation of water. This
simple test is a worthwhile check which any baker can make to test whether a
product is all fat or a fat-water emulsion.
Hydrogenated vegetable oils, lard and beef dripping prepared by simple

rendering and purification are of this type. There are also proprietary products
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which have been plasticised, with or without additions of other fatty components,
to improve dispersion in dough.
Pumpable fats, which are semi-liquid at normal operating temperatures and can
be accurately metered directly into the mixer, are useful to large users of
shortening. Control of storage temperature is necessary with pumpable semi-
solid shortenings.
Emulsions;
1.Margarines
Margarine was designed as a substitute for butter during the last century. Since
then, tremendous improvements have been made in the manufacture and quality
of margarines. These are emulsions of water in fat, plasticised by physical
techniques to give suitable handling and dispersion properties.
Margarines are widely used in pastrycook products, but not in bread making.
They have specific physical properties and storage life is suitably stored. A
typical composition of margarine is:
Water 15% - 16%

Fat 79% - 80% (including emulsifier)
Salt up to 4%
Stabiliser 1%
2.Soft Emulsions of High Water Content

By inclusion of emulsifying agents and the use of modern homogenising
techniques, soft emulsions of fat and water containing up to 50% to 60% water
can be prepared. Some of these have a consistency resembling whipped cream.
In some cases, non-fat materials such as sugar are also included.
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2.2.3 Surfactants
In the baking industry the term “dough conditioners,” “bread softeners” and
“emulsifiers’ are commonly used to refer to ingredients that are properly classed
as surfactants. Surfactants may be defined as substances that modify the
surface behaviour of the materials in which they are dispersed. Surfactants can
interact with starch or protein, or act as emulsifiers, wetting agents, detergents
and in many other ways. In any given application, many of the uses of
surfactants may overlap.
There is a wide variety of natural surface active agents present in foods. Perhaps
the most recognised of these is lecithin, which is present in eggs, soybeans, and
many other foods. Some ingredients in milk and mustard possess a high degree
of surface activity. In our bodies, bile salts are almost completely surfactant in
composition and lecithin is found in the human brain and liver.
Emulsifiers:
Emulsifiers are materials that allow two immiscible liquids to become intimately
mixed, such as oil and water.
For additives of this type, shortening-like emulsifiers are added. Since they can
attach to fats and also to water, emulsifying agents contribute to a finer
distribution of flour to lipids (fat of the flour) in the aqueous dough phase.
Emulsifying agents also have an influence on the characteristics of the gluten.

The gluten becomes smoother, more extensible and also more elastic. The effect
of an emulsifying agent is reinforced through intensive mixing, which leads to a
better cohesiveness of the gluten in the dough.
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Over Emulsification
It is often said that surfactants and emulsifiers soften bread. During the staling
process the starch granules crystallise and as a result the crumb begins to firm
and the dry appearance and feel associated with this process becomes apparent.
Rather than simply soften the bread, some emulsifiers extend the shelf life of the
bread by inhibiting the action of the staling process while others add to the
strength of the crumb structure.
As most bread improvers and shortenings contain some emulsifiers there is the
possibility that over-use of these ingredients may result in unintentionally high
levels of emulsifiers in the dough. This is particularly so when excessive levels of
bread improvers and shortenings are used either alone or in conjunction with one
another, To try and retard the staling process some bakers intentionally add
more emulsifiers than recommended and as a result the bread can become “over
emulsified”.
The correct use of surfactants and emulsifiers in a formula must be carefully

observed as over use of these ingredients will contribute to poor quality bread.
Excess quantities of emulsifier added to the formula tend to produce bread
having a brittle, biscuit like crust and fragile, dry crumb characteristics. The
crumb of sliced bread may also “ball-up” and the crust “tear-away” during the
slicing operation. Over-use of emulsifiers is also a cause of “side-wall collapse”.
Dough Conditioners (Dough Strengtheners)

Dough Conditioners (Dough Strengtheners) are substances that possess the
ability to strengthen the gluten structure of the dough. This results in improved
machinability and gas retention, thereby improving the volume, grain, and
symmetry of the final loaf. Common Dough Conditioners are SSL, CSL and
DATEM.
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Crumb Softeners
Crumb Softeners are a group of compounds that extend the shelf life of breads
by retarding and/or reducing the rate of crumb firming. During baking, the starch
in dough gelatinises and some of the amylose migrates into the water phase in
the dough structure. Amylopectin remains within the starch granules, but it swells
and loses its crystallinity.
During cooling of the bread, the amylopectin recrystallises causing firming of the
bread crumb enabling the loaf to be sliced once it has cooled to below 35°C.
Staling of bread occurs as the result of the slower recrystalisation of the

amylopectin over several days and its progress can be reduced by the addition of
compounds such as GMS. This effect is produced regardless of whether or not
the bread contains shortening.
Commonly used emulsifiers for bread making are:

SSL Sodium Stearoyl Lactylate
CSL Calcium Stearoyl Lactylate
GMS Glycerol Monostearate
DATEM Diacetyl Tartaric Acid Esters of Monoglycerides
2.2.4 Enzymes
Enzymes are proteins formed by living cells that act as biological catalysts.
Enzymes bring about chemical changes without themselves being changed as a

result of the chemical reaction. They are extremely specific in their action, each
enzyme being designed for one reaction only and a relatively small quantity of an
enzyme is capable of converting large quantities of materials.
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Exhibit 2.3: Enzymes Involved in Bread Making
Enzyme Sources Function
Alpha Amylase Flour, malt Converts damaged

bacterial extracts starch to dextrin’s
Beta Amylase Flour, malt, Converts dextrin’s to

bacterial extracts, maltose
fungal enzymes
Proteases Flour, malt, yeast Conditions gluten

extracts extensibility,
flavour
Maltase Yeast Converts maltose to

glucose
Invertase Yeast Inverts sucrose to

glucose & fructose
Zymase Complex Yeast Converts inverted

sugars to alcohol &
CO2, flavour
Lipase Yeast Converts fats to

fatty acids
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2.3 Optional Ingredients
2.3.1 Malt Extract

Malt extract has long been used in bakery products. Its superiority as a dough
improver was recognised in Vienna in the early 1890’s. In addition to the sugar
(maltose), malt extract contains mineral salts, soluble protein, dough conditioning
enzymes and adds flavour and aroma to the finished product.
While malt and malt extract can be made from a variety of cereals, barley and
wheat are the most commonly used grains. Malt extracts offered to the baking
industry may differ considerably in composition because of variations in
processing procedure, differences in barley or other grains used, etc.
Types of Malt Extract and Their Advantages in Bread Making
1.Non-Diastatic Malt Extract especially valuable because it can be

advantageously used in liberal amounts, regardless of whether the flour used is
low or normal in enzymatic activity. It assures volume, excellent grain and
texture, good crust colour and helps to prolong freshness in the finished loaf and
imparts a distinct and nutty flavour.
2.Medium Diastatic Malt Extract; was formerly used in the production of

fermented doughs to assist correct dough conditioning during the fermentation
process. This product has little application in today’s bread making process.
3.High Diastatic Malt Extract; is suited to those applications where the flavour
and traditional malt attributes are important such as “Sticky Malt Bread”.
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2.3.2 Malt Flour

There are two types of malt flour use the production of bread;
The first type has no enzymatic activity and is milled from grain that has been
allowed to germinate and then roasted to varying degrees to give different colour
grades. Trumalt is an example of this product and is used to add colour and
flavour to the bread.
The second type is available in varying degrees of enzymatic activity and is used
to aid bread manufacture when the flour is low in natural maltose. Malt Flour
products are available in medium and high enzymatic activity levels and are
examples of this product.
2.3.3 Sugar
The addition of sugar is not normally required in bread making, however it can be
useful when the flour is deficient in natural fermentable sugars. Some recipes
require the addition of sugar (e.g. hamburger buns) for the purposes of
sweetening and shortening of the crumb and crust. It should be appreciated that
even 1% added sugar effects the natural characteristics of bread.
The Function of Sugar in Bread Making

During fermentation added sugar supplements the natural sugars present in the
flour to ensure adequate yeast fermentation is maintained throughout all stages
of dough processing until the yeast activity ceases in the oven. During baking,
the presence of sugar results in additional crust colour through the “browning”
reaction of sugar with other components of the dough.
Effect of Sugar Levels in the Dough

Typical bakers’ yeast used in Australia performs best at sugar levels below 5%
and is significantly retarded at sugar levels above 10%. High sugar strains of
yeast used in some countries perform best at sugar levels above 15% and are
severely retarded at sugar levels below 5%.
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In Australia, when the formulation requires higher levels of sugar, (e.g.

hamburger buns) it is necessary to increase the yeast level to maintain the
activity, as well as adjust water addition, baking temperature and time.
2.3.4 Rope & Mould Inhibitors

Rope and mould inhibitors are frequently included in dough formulations where
the resultant bread will be sliced and wrapped.
Summer time usage levels are typically 0.2% on the flour while in winter time a
lower level (or none at all) is typical. Commonly used rope and mould inhibitors
are sodium diacetate (for rope) and sodium propionate and calcium propionate
(for mould). Vinegar is sometimes included in dough formulations for it’s rope
inhibiting properties.
2.3.5 Soya Flour

For centuries soya flour and oils have been a staple diet in China. In recent years
the advantages to be gained from the use of soya flour in bread making have
become more widely known.
Initially soya flour was used only in specialty breads, such as rye and health
breads, in fairly large percentages and it is still extremely useful for such
purposes. Now it is known that beneficial results can be gained by using it in all
white breads, to make a better and whiter loaf.
Being fully enzyem active, soya flour contains an enzyme (lipoxidase) which acts
on the coloured compounds in the flour, giving a whiter crumb.
2.3.6 Gluten Softening Agents

Gluten Softening Agents are used in conjunction with bread improvers to reduce
the mixing time of doughs in low or medium intensity mixing processes. These
compounds are generally l-cysteine or sodium metabisulphite.
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Chapter 3
The Bread Making Process
3.1 Dough Production Methods
The Bread Making Process consists of dough mixing, dough processing and
baking to produce the finished loaf. Dough making has evolved from the
conventional or straight dough process, through a number of techniques to the
dough making methods used today.
Dough Mixing
Dough mixing is a combination of the basic ingredients, flour, water, yeast and
salt – along with other essential ingredients. (such as bread improvers and
shortenings) mixed by mechanical means into a well developed homogeneous
pliable mass.
Dough Processing and Baking

The steps involved in dough processing are common world wide and consist of
dividing the dough into individual (small) pieces, rounding of those pieces prior to
intermediate proof to relax the dough, followed by final moulding to improve
texture and to obtain the final shape of the resultant baked loaf.
The dough pieces are then placed into pans or onto trays, given adequate final
proof to leaven the dough to the desired volume and then baked to form the final
product known as bread.
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Exhibit 3.1: Evolution of Modern Dough Making Process
Conventional / Straight Dough
Sponge and CDD MDD

Dough / Chemical Dough Development Mechanically Developed
Brew Systems Or Dough’s
Australian Rapid Dough Process
Sponge & Flour Chorleywood Continuous

Dough Brew Bread Process Mix
(UK) (USA)
3.1.1 Conventional or Straight Dough

Conventional or Straight Doughs consist of a single mixing process and is the
basic method form which all other processes are derived. After adding all
ingredients in the normal manner, the dough is mixed to suitable development.
The dough is generally produced to a firm consistency to allow for softening of
the dough during the bulk fermentation period.
When compared to other dough making methods, this method relies on less
yeast and longer fermentation times to fully develop the dough. Prior to
processing, the dough is “knocked” to release the gas built up during the
fermentation period. This allows the yeast access to further nutrients in the
dough and contributes to the conditioning of the gluten structure. It is generally
accepted that this method of bread making gives the loaf a characteristic flavour
and aroma.
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3.1.2 Sponge & Dough and Brew Systems

The Sponge and Dough method is a two step method of dough mixing and
requires that some proportion of the flour, yeast, water and other ingredients is
used in the “sponge” stage, which is fermented for a period of time. This
fermentation step promotes rapid gluten development. The fermented sponge is
then remixed with the remaining ingredients to form the final dough.
The consistency of the sponge can vary greatly from soft to stiff depending on
the doughmaker’s preferences. Typically, for a soft sponge, the Sponge & Dough
method would involve the mixing of 70% of the flour with 90% of the dough water
plus the yeast and bread improver to form a soft, sponge-like dough. This sponge
is allowed to ferment for up to 4 hours at 26°C. At the end of this time the
fermented sponge is mixed with the remaining ingredients (flour, water,
emulsifiers, fat, etc.) to form a dough. After mixing, the dough is given a second
(shorter) fermentation period prior to processing in the normal manner.
Flour Brew systems (Liquid Ferments) consist of varying amounts of flour and
water and are typically batter-like in consistency. These flour brews are
fermented in bulk and then combined with the other ingredients to form the final
dough. The fermented flour mixture is added to the final dough stage using a
variety of methods either in separate batches or on a continuous basis.
For the Flour Brew method, the process would typically consist of mixing 40% of
the total flour with 90-100% of the dough water plus yeast and bread improver
(and possibly some salt and sugar) to form a batter-like liquid ferment at 26°C.
This flour-brew is then allowed to ferment for 2-2.5 hours after which time it is
chilled and stored at 4°C. Portions of this fermented brew are then added to the
remaining flour and other ingredients in either a continuous mixer or a batch
mixer to form the finished dough at 30°C. After mixing, the dough may be given
some additional bulk fermentation time prior to further processing in the normal
manner.
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3.1.3 Chemical Dough Development (CDD)

The Australian Rapid Dough Process (No-Time Dough Process) typifies
Chemical Dough Development (CDD). This method uses the addition of reducing
agents such as l-cysteine and sodium metabisulphite to assist in the gluten
softening process. This reduces the time required for the mixing of the dough.
These reducing agents are generally included in specific CDD Bread Improvers
due to their low level of addition and are used in conjunction with the usual bread
improver components which include ascorbic acid and enzymes to develop
(mature) the dough.
3.1.4 Mechanical Dough Development

The Chorleywood Bread Process (CBP) from the U.K. and the Continuous Mixing
Process that was developed in the United States typifies mechanical Dough
Development (MDD). In this process the natural development of the dough
usually achieved over a significant period of time in the conventional or straight
dough process can be greatly reduced to a shorter period of time.
This is achieved by increasing the intensity of the work on the dough during the
mixing process. Once the rate of energy input reaches a critical level
(approximately 11 KwH/kg of dough), the development of the dough can be
achieved in a shorter period of time (less than 3 minutes) without the use of
reducing agents. In the Chorleywood Bread Process vacuum is also applied to
the mixing chamber. This is used to control the size of the air cells incorporated
into the dough which, in turn, control the cell structure and texture in the finished
loaf of bread.
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3.2 Dough Production and Fermentation
Correct fermentation is the groundwork for good bread. The most important point
in fermentation is to get the dough into the oven at the precise stage of maturity
required to produce the best loaf possible with the ingredients and process used.
Any divergence from this point, either one way or the other, will affect the quality
and flavour of the bread. If this divergence is too great the bread will be either
noticeably immature (“green”) or over-mature (“over-wrought”).
The ideal loaf is produced by allowing the dough to reach the peak of its maturity
and processing the dough before there is any perceptible sign of over-maturity.
When a dough is fully matured there is a period during which no noticeable
change takes place. This is known as the “period of tolerance”, after which the
dough begins to deteriorate very rapidly.
The period of tolerance will vary with different dough making methods. For
example, with bulk fermented doughs the period of tolerance will be longer in a
cool dough than in a warm one; longer in a dough with plenty of salt than in one
with little and much longer in a long process than in a short process one.
If, for instance, dough takes 3 hours to mature and its period of tolerance is 15
minutes (it may be less); a dough taking 9 hours to mature would have a
corresponding period of tolerance of 45 minutes. In the first case, it would be
necessary to “tin up” the last of the batch within 15 minutes of the first, whereas
in the second, 45 minutes could be allowed for the same work; providing the
batch was not composed of a variety of shapes requiring different periods of
proof in the tins. This also assumes that the dough is taken at perfect maturity.
If there were a slight delay it would be possible for a quick dough to be past its
period of tolerance before it was taken. With a longer dough there would be
considerably more time allowed for processing. Similar considerations apply to
the more modern dough making methods like MDD and CDD.
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Bulk fermentation is a highly skilled and scientific part of bread making as it is

during this period that major chemical and physical changes take place in the
dough. The enzymes in the yeast and flour immediately commence their work of
converting some of the damaged starch into sugar, which in turn is consumed as
food by the yeast. This enables the yeast to produce the carbon dioxide gas (and
alcohol) which raises and aerates the dough. During this period of fermentation
the gluten is developed and matured, causing it to soften and become extensible,
thus bringing a physical as well as a chemical change in the dough mass.
Enzymes are organic compounds having the ability to convert one substance into
another without becoming part of that change. Such compounds are called “
catalysts”. The following chart shows the various enzymes in flour and yeast and
the result of their action in the dough.
Exhibit 3.1: Enzymes in Yeast and Flour

Substance Enzyme Provided by Produces
Starch Alpha & Beta Flour & Maltose &

Amylase (Diastase) Malt Flour Dextrin Formation
Maltose Maltase Yeast Glucose
Sucrose Invertase Yeast Invert Sugar

(Cane Sugar) (Glucose & Fructose)
Glucose & Zymase Yeast Carbon Dioxide Gas

Invert Sugar (which raises the dough)
and
Alcohol
(which mostly vanishes
during baking)
Protein Protease Flour and Modifying effect on

Malt Flour Gluten
*Note: Glucose &Fructose were formally known as Dextrose & Levulose.
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3.2.1 The Function of Yeast in Fermentation

Water is an essential requirement for yeast metabolism and the yeast cells are
dispersed in the water phase of the dough. Also dissolved in the water phase are
salt, sugar, soluble proteins etc. These dissolved nutrients are transported
through the cell membrane into the yeast cell.
During the fermentation process yeast converts the sugars using enzymes to
produce carbon dioxide, alcohol and energy (as heat). During dough mixing, the
action of the yeast commences. The carbon dioxide and other products produced
during this fermentation process are released into the dough.
As fermentation proceeds the rate of gas production increases. For a long

process dough only low levels of yeast are required to produce sufficient gas to
leaven the dough during the final proof. In a shorter process dough higher yeast
levels must be used to leaven the dough in the shorter time available.
The Role of Yeast in fermenting dough is;

1. Increase dough volume by the evolution of carbon dioxide during fermentation
of the available carbohydrates in the flour.
2. Develop structure and texture in the dough by the stretching of the gluten
caused by the expanding gas bubbles.
3. Improve flavour through the fermentation of the by-products of the
fermentation process.
3.2.2 Gas Production and Gas Retention

The leavening of dough is the combined result of two essential processes. These
are the production of gas by the yeast and the retention of gas by the dough.
Gas production is the result of the interaction of the yeast with nutrients (in
particular sugar) in the dough at an appropriate temperature. This is covered in
more detail in the next section on fermentation control.
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Gas retention is the result of properly developed dough having an extensible

gluten matrix capable of holding the gas as it expands during fermentation.
In the traditional bulk fermented dough process it was the prolonged period of
fermentation coupled with “knocking back” of the dough (to bring more nutrients
into contact with the yeast) that resulted in the formation of an extensible gluten
matrix capable of retaining the gas produced by the yeast.
In the modern rapid dough process greater use is made of dough-modifying

agents to assist in the formation of the extensible gluten matrix without the need
for prolonged periods of fermentation.
3.2.3 Fermentation Control

Factors Which Affect Fermentation Control:
Yeast Level
The quantity of gas produced in a dough is directly related to the amount of yeast
used at any given dough temperature. By way of comparison the yeast level in a
rapid dough is typically 3% on flour weight, whereas for a 3 hour bulk fermented
dough only 1.7% yeast on flour weight is required.
Temperature
The temperature of the dough directly affects the rate of yeast activity. As dough
temperature increases so does the rate of gas production.
Nutrients (sugar)
For good gas production sugar (in particular glucose) is the most important
nutrient required by the yeast. Some natural fermentable sugar is available from
the flour, whilst further sugar is provided by the action of flour enzymes (amylase)
acting on the damaged starch to produce maltose.
Sugar levels of up to 5% increase gas production. Above this level gas

production decreases due to the effects of osmotic pressure on the yeast. This is
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why much higher yeast levels are required in bun doughs (typically 10% - 15%
sugar) compared with bread doughs (0% - 1% sugar).
Other Factors
Salt - exerts a strong osmotic effect on the yeast cell. Higher levels of salt
significantly decrease the rate of gas production. This is why yeast should never
be allowed to come in direct contact with salt prior to dough mixing.
Water - The correct level of water is essential to achieve an optimum

fermentation rate. Insufficient water (tight dough) retards the rate of gas
production, whilst excessive water (slack dough) results in uncontrolled rates of
gas production.
pH - The initial pH of dough is normally between 4 and 6. This range has no

adverse effect on the yeast. However, outside this range activity is reduced.
Nitrogen - In long bulk fermented doughs nitrogen compounds (ammonium

chloride) are included in the bread improver as a “yeast food”. The role of this
yeast food is to provide nutrients for the yeast to produce new cell materials
during the extended fermentation process. In modern rapid doughs the addition
of nitrogen compounds are not required as the fermentation time is too short for
significant yeast growth.
Shortening - The addition of shortening to dough (1% - 3%) does not directly
affect fermentation. However, at a higher shortening levels the dough water level
is decreased to counteract the dough-softening effect of the shortening. This
lower water level results in reduced yeast activity.
Spices - have an adverse effect on yeast activity and should be added with care.
Manufactures instructions regarding the use of spices should be followed.
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Mould and Rope Inhibitors - retard the activity of the yeast, so extra yeast is used
to compensate for this effect. As a general rule, an equal amount of yeast is
added to offset the effect of the inhibitor.
3.2.4 Temperature Control

Dough temperature directly affects the rate of yeast fermentation. As dough
temperature increases so does the rate of gas production until the optimum is
reached at about 40°C, after which there is a progressive thermal inactivation of
the yeast cells and therefore a decrease in gas production, until they are all
inactive at around 60°C. Conversely, as the dough temperature decreases, so
does the rate of gas production until it almost stops at around 4°C and use of this
is made in the retarding and deep-freezing of fermented goods.
As a guide 1°C increase in dough temperature makes it necessary to reduce the

yeast level by 6% - 7% to achieve the same rate of fermentation. A 1°C decrease
in dough temperature means a 6% - 7% increase in yeast level.
3.3 Dough Mixing
3.3.1 Dough Mixing Methods

The need for increased efficiency and capacity in modern dough making
processes has resulted in a wide variety of dough mixing equipment. Dough
mixers of various designs and sizes exist for use in all bakery operations. They
may be classified into three groups in terms of their “Speed”. (In this context
“speed” refers to the rate of input of energy by the particular mixer, rather than
the speed at which the machine operates.)
Low Speed
Often referred to as “slow speed” mixers, the single and two arm machines are
commonly used. These mixers develop the dough slowly by gently kneading,
stretching and folding the dough. The doughs produced from low speed mixers
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usually require some period of bulk fermentation or floor time to allow the dough
to mature correctly
Medium Speed
Spiral, planetary and horizontal mixers develop the dough with a higher rate of
energy input and result in shorter mixing times. They generate more friction
within the dough and therefore higher dough temperatures are experienced,
requiring the baker to monitor water and finished dough temperatures more
closely.
High Speed
High Speed mixers such as the Tweedy mixer and continuous MDD machines
achieve optimum dough development in a very short period of time. The friction
developed in theses machines as a result of the high energy input raises the
dough temperature quickly. To compensate for this temperature rise the dough
water must be chilled, or reduced substantially, to prevent dough temperature
becoming too high.
The higher rate of energy input eliminates the need for bulk fermentation.
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3.4 Dough Processing Methods
Regardless of the method used for mixing the dough, once mixed the dough
requires processing through to the final baked product.
3.4.1 Dividing or Scaling

This can be done by hand or through a specialised machine depending on the
bakery and it’s requirements. Baking losses (yields) must be considered at this
stage and the extent of these depends on the variety, size and shape of the
products (such as pan bread).
Generally losses are greater in smaller, less dense products and are reduced in
larger, more dense products. It is important to remember that dough piece weight
must be proportional to it’s final size. For example breads that are too long in
length for the weight of the dough piece look unbalanced.
3.4.2 Rounding
After dividing or scaling the dough piece is shaped. This is performed to expel
gas thus reducing the size of the cells, give the dough piece a smooth surface
and to provide a shape that can be easily handled through to the next stage.
Rounding gives the dough piece a uniform tension throughout.
3.4.3 Intermediate Proofing

This stage allows the dough to partly ferment, relaxing the dough and it’s surface
so that the final moulding can be undertaken without damage to the dough
structure. This proof stage usually takes from 5-15 minutes to achieve sufficient
relaxation in the dough to allow final moulding to take place.
3.4.4 Moulding
After immediate proof, the dough is then moulded to its final shape. This can be
carried out by hand of machine. Correct expulsion of the gas built up by the
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action of the yeast in the dough and alignment of the cell structure is essential to
achieve a symmetrical product.
3.4.5 Final Proof

After moulding, the dough pieces are allowed to relax and ferment until they
reach the final desired volume prior to baking. This usually takes place in a
cabinet or chamber, where temperature and humidity of the final proofer are
controlled to allow the dough to recover from the stresses undergone during
moulding.
3.5 Baking
3.5.1 The Baking Process

It may well be considered that “the baking process is the heart of good bread
making”. It is during the baking process that the biochemical activities have
occurred throughout the final proofing period are halted and the dough is
transformed into a light porous food which is readily digestible and flavoursome.
During the baking process the quantity of heat supplied to the dough and the
duration of the bake are fundamental factors affecting the bread characteristics.
Therefore, all the reactions involved in baking the bread must occur in their
proper sequence and under controlled conditions.
3.5.2 Reactions in Baking

The baking process is divided into five principal stages:
1.The formation and expansion of gas
2.The trapping of gas in the gluten network
3.Changes to the properties of the starch
4.Changes to the properties of the protein
5.Crust formation and browning (caramelisation)
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During the baking process the temperature within the dough piece increases
dramatically and the yeast is stimulated to increased activity. A considerable
quantity of carbon dioxide gas (CO2) is produced in a short time and released
into the dough. As the temperature in the dough piece rises (to around 50°C)
yeast activity begins to slow and gas production ceases when the yeast is
inactivated at around 60°C.
At the same time the gases produced (CO2 + Ethanol) are being expanded by
the heat and, as the internal temperature of the inside of the dough piece
increases, some of the free water in the dough piece is converted into steam. As
a result of these combined actions in the oven the loaf increases considerably in
size. This is known as “oven spring”.
During this period of baking some of the starch becomes swollen and gelatinised.
The action of the relevant enzymes upon the gelatinised starch converts it into
maltose and other sugars. As the temperature continues to rise within the dough
piece the enzymes are inactivated and cease to catalyse further reactions. This
increase in temperature also causes the gluten to become denatured and set. It
is this initial formation of the gluten network that retains the carbon dioxide and
other gases which finally determines the texture of the bread.
The exterior of the loaf is subjected to more intense heat than the interior and is
changed in character by the formation of the crust. Soon after the dough piece
enters the oven there is a rapid evaporation of water from the surface of the
dough piece which gradually decreases with baking time. As this baking time
increases other changes also occur, most notably with the colour of the crust
(caramelisation).
Under the influence of the oven heat the sugars present within the crust surface
are transformed (caramelised) into compounds that vary in colour from a pale
yellow to a golden brown colour. This reaction also contributes greatly to the
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characteristic flavour of the crust which may vary from a pleasant mild caramel to
a burnt bitter flavour.
3.5.3 Baking Conditions

A well-controlled oven has an important influence upon the overall quality of a
loaf of bread. Oven conditions require the heat transfer mechanisms of
convection, conduction and radiation. The effectiveness of these mechanisms
may influence the choice of oven design and type and play an important role in
considering the style of bread to be baked. However, regardless of the oven
design, problems may be encountered during the baking process when incorrect
baking conditions are applied. Common baking problems include:
Poor Heat Distribution

Unevenly baked bread can be the result of an oven that does not distribute heat
properly. Evenly distributed top and bottom heat is an essential requirement of
good baking conditions in order to avoid faults such as “side wall collapse”.
Insufficient Oven Heat

Insufficient oven heat (cool oven) will produce bread that has excessive volume,
harsh texture, poor crumb colour, poor crumb softness and a thick pale crust.
The shelf life of the bread may also be affected. In order to avoid or reduce some
of these faults, bread baked in these types of ovens will usually require a
reduction in final proof time.
Excessive Oven Heat

Excessive oven heat (hot oven) will produce bread having reduced volume; dark
and brittle top, bottom and side crusts; unevenly baked sides; harsh crumb
characteristics; poor crumb softness and poor keeping quality.
Incorrect Pan Spacing

For even and thorough baking of the loaf correct spacing of the baking pans is
essential. Regardless of the oven design, pans placed closely to one another
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restrict the circulation of heat within the baking chamber. This will generally result
in unevenly baked bread. A space of approximately 5-25 mm between the baking
pans is usually sufficient for adequate heat circulation.
Steam
Bakers have used the introduction of steam into the baking oven, with the
primary purpose of modifying crust characteristics, for many generations. The
injection of steam ensures that an attractive crust is achieved whilst also
assisting oven spring and loaf volume. An oven having low steam levels or no
steam at all usually results in the bread having tough leathery crust
characteristics, poor crust colour and bloom, poor oven spring and a tendency for
the top crust to separate easily from the crumb.
Excessive quantities of steam may result in “blisters” forming on the surface of

the crust of the bread. Therefore, the correct time, temperature and amount of
steam introduced into the oven will vary according to the type of oven. Care
should be taken to ensure only the correct steaming conditions are applied to the
bread. During the baking period the bread will also produce it’s own steam
ensuring a humid atmosphere exists within the baking chamber. To utilise this
some ovens have been designed to make use of this principle and usually do not
require additional steam injection.
3.5.4 Par-Baking
“Par-Baked” bread is that which has been formed, proofed and partially baked to
its final shape and size needing only crust browning and final flavour
development in either a commercial or domestic oven.
The purpose of par baked bread is to provide the end-user with a range of bakery
products that can be simply baked “fresh” and served hot at any time of the day
without the need for specialised baking equipment. This type of bread had found
considerable acceptance throughout the commercial food industry and is utilised
by restaurants, fast food outlets, some retail bakery stores and even sold through
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service stations. Par-Baked bread can also be purchased by the domestic

consumer from supermarkets and other food stores where the final baking and
crust browning can be finished at home.
In manufacture the Par-Baked bread is baked in a cool oven, approximately

120°C-150°C, until rigidity and volume is attained but no crust formation has
taken place. The control of final proof is important in order to avoid excess oven
spring due to the low temperature of baking.
Whilst normal baking equipment may be used some modifications to the water
absorption and dough formulation may be required to compensate for the final
proofing, baking and packaging processes.
At the completion of baking, the bread may be cooled and packaged either loose
in plastic bags or placed into specialised packaging which is gas flushed and
hermetically sealed. In some cases the Par-Baked bread may be immediately
frozen after baking, packaged, stored, and distributed and sold.
3.5.5 Depanning
The efficient removal of bread immediately after baking is required if associated
faults are to be avoided. e.g. “sweating” and side wall collapse. Baking pans
which have been correctly oiled and cared for will have a long and useful life in
the bakery and allow easy removal of the bread during the depanning operation.
Damaged baking pans, on the other hand, are usually the result of careless
depanning techniques or poor maintenance and will contribute to production
problems and poor bread quality.
In small baking operations depanning may be carried out by hand whilst in plant
bakeries it is carried out using specialised equipment. When depanning bread by
hand a properly designed “knock out” table having a heavy rubber cushion along
one side should be used. The action of turning the tin almost upside-down on this
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cushion allows easy removal of the bread and prevents damage occurring to the
baking pan and to the loaf.
In plant bakeries the depanning operation is achieved by firstly injecting jets of air
between the bread and the baking pan to facilitate easy release of the bread.
Rubber suction cups then attach to the top crust of the loaf and lift it from the
baking pan finally transferring the bread onto a conveyor leading to the cooler.
3.5.6 Cooling, Slicing & Packaging

The three operations of cooling, slicing & packaging are closely related and
regardless of the bakery size each operation should be planned and co-
ordinated. Bread which is to be sliced and packaged must be cooled sufficiently
to prevent difficulties occurring that may contribute to mould development/
Therefore, adequate and controlled cooling of the bread is necessary to ensure
satisfactory quality and shelf life.
Cooling of Bread
On leaving the oven bread may have a crust temperature exceeding 200°C and a
crumb temperature of approximately 100°C. Whilst the moisture of the crust is
almost zero, a large amount of steam (moisture) is present within the crumb. To
reduce the possibility of slicer damage occurring during slicing, the entire loaf
must be cooled to an internal temperature of approximately 30°C.
Bread cooling may be undertaken using several different techniques. For small
baking operations it is most common to place the hot loaves on stationary racks.
In some instances large fans may be placed in front of these racks providing a
uniform movement of cool air across the surface of the bread. For plant bakery
operations controlled cooling conditions using large volumes of forced air are
employed. In these purpose-designed coolers (which may utilise a spiral
conveyor or suspended tray systems as the means of transfer to the slicer) the
bread is retained for a specific period of time during which the cool air is directed
over the surface of the loaves.
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Slicing of Bread
The slicing operation should produce bread slices of uniform thickness with a
smooth cut surface. It is essential that the bread be correctly cooled before
slicing. Several different types of bread slicers are available with the most
common being the “reciprocating slicer” and the “continuous band slicer”.
Blunt or hot blades will result in rough cut surfaces, torn crumb and other similar
faults. Regardless of the type of slicer used, if consistent quality bread is to be
produced with very little waste, it is important to ensure that the slicing blades are
correctly tensioned and maintained to ensure a sharp cutting tip and uniform
shape (conformation). To ensure that little heat is generated through friction, the
slicing blades and guides must also be aligned correctly.
Bread which has been inadequately cooled will usually produce a rough, harsh
texture with excessive “crumbing”, commonly referred to as a “balling-up of the
crumb”. Bread with a hard crust is difficult to slice and results in tearing and
shattering of the crust and premature wearing and blunting of the blades.
Packaging of Bread
Almost all food requires some form of packaging and bread is no exception.
Packaging is required to provide one or more of the following functions:
1.Protect the bread from external contamination.
2.Protect the bread from external damage.
3.Provide a suitable medium for containment, handling, transportation and use of
the bread.
4.Retain the moisture and natural qualities of the bread.
5.Provide a suitable method by which labelling for identification, promotion and
information can be achieved.
Bread may be packaged in several types of material but the most common are:
A. Plastic films sometimes referred to as poly-bags, eg. Polyethylene and
polypropylene.
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B. Cellulose films, either regenerated or acetate.

C. Paper, plain or wax coated to suit the type of bread and storage period.
3.5.7 Retarding Dough’s

The use of dough retarders in the Australian baking industry has flourished in
recent years, to the extent that most bakers have had some exposure to this
method of dough processing.
To retard dough is to delay the fermentation process for a period of time. This
involves reducing and maintaining the temperature of the dough in a controlled
humidity and temperature environment.
Generally, moulded dough pieces are placed into a retarder for a set period of
time, e.g. 48 hours. This enables a bakery to produce a product to a stage where
it can be stored in the retarded state. It can be withdrawn from the retarder unit to
be fully fermented and baked off at a time to suit.
Some retarder units have programmable facilities to allow automatic switching on

and recovery to a fully proofed product, combining retarding and proofing
functions.
Formulations for retarded doughs vary greatly depending on the type of product
being made, but generally most formulations are suitable for retarding for some
period of time. However, some changes to formulations, such as yeast levels,
may be necessary.
Recovery time will vary according to the formulation used, the size of the dough
piece and the temperature and times chosen for retarding the products. These
factors should be carefully monitored.
Enriched doughs are more receptive to retarding and can be given shorter
recovery periods.
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For consistent quality it is important that the retarder unit humidity level be
maintained at a relative humidity of at least 85%. This will assist in the prevention
of “skinning” on the surface of the product.
3.5.8 Freezing Dough’s

In most countries where a wide range of fermented goods are produced, freezing
has been an accepted practice for many years. In North America and much of
Europe, fermented goods are produced extensively with freezing as part of the
production processes.
Freezing of a baked or unbaked product occurs when the free water in the
product has been converted to ice. In this state the product is free from microbial
deterioration and the process of ageing or staling is suspended, although some
enzymic activity may continue at a reduced rate.
To compensate for the effect of freezing on the activity of yeast, some

adjustment to yeast levels may be made.
For the production of frozen doughs a finished dough temperature of 18°C - 22°C
is desirable. Typically a high speed mixer with a refrigerated jacket is used and
often the flour is precooled. A short floor time is preferred prior to processing of
the dough.
Although freezing adds cost without improving baked products, in a commercial

operation this cost is offset against more economic use of labour and equipment,
i.e. full volume production in normal working hours.
Three Principal Methods of Freezing Units used in Bread Making:

1.Blast freezing chambers.
2.Fast freezing chambers.
3.Combined freezing and frozen storage chambers.
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The Benefits of Freezing

- Freezing surplus production in baked or unbaked form for future needs,
allowing full production loads to be produced and resources to be used to the
optimum.
- Holding in frozen state fully baked items that will later be defrosted and offered
for sale.
- Selling frozen items, baked or unbaked, to wholesale customers such as
catering operations.
Freezing Procedures
A temperature of -20°C or lower is recommended for normal to long term
freezing. For short holding items of up to one week, -10°C to -20°C may be
satisfactory provided this temperature, within the core of the product, is reached
quickly.
Baked products should reach the freezer without delay. Pre-cooling to 30°C or
lower is desirable whether of not the baked product is to be sliced. Per-cooling
reduces condensation on the product and the transfer of moisture to the cooling
coils of a mechanical freezer.
Rate of Freezing
There is an optimum rate of freezing for most baked products. As the heat
conductivity of these products is poor, very rapid freezing may cause stresses
which may result in surface cracking of the product. A freezing rate which is too
slow can lead to problems with water migration, crumb staling and the formation
of large ice crystals that can damage the product.
Baked products stale most rapidly at temperatures close to their freezing point.
The freezing point of bread is approximately -6°C and bread staling is most rapid
from +10°C to -6°C, with a peak rate of firming near +2°C.
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Chapter 4
Characteristics of Bread
4.1 Bread Faults

The correct diagnosis of a production fault will assist in minimising the frequency
of poor quality bread and help to prevent the frustration of future problems.
Unfortunately some faults may be the result of a number of possible causes and
considerable attention and diligence over a period of time may be required by the
baker to rectify the fault. To eliminate the fault or faults a systematic approach is
required and the steps taken recorded for future reference. Ensuring that the
faults have not returned require frequent examination of the bread by the baker.
The following charts highlight external and internal characteristics of bread and
may be used as a guide for identifying some probable causes of bread faults in
traditional bulk fermented and more recent short process doughs. For bulk
fermented doughs a Dough Maturity Chart is also provided to allow assessment
of a dough maturity from the bread characteristics.
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Bread and Bread Making – “ a practical guide to the technology of bread making in Australia.”
4.1.1 External Faults
Some Probable Causes Some Probable Causes

Characteristic Satisfactory Faults for for all
Fermented Dough’s Dough Making Methods
1.Volume too 1.Incorrect fermentation in the 1. Incorrectly balanced formula.

Attractive to the eye. large or too small. dough bowl and during the final
proofing period. Incorrect pan size 2. Flour type not suited to process.
Loaf should have; 2.”Caving in” of to dough weight ration.
Volume, side of crusts. 3. Incorrect dough development,
General Appearance a bold appearance, 2.Under-baking or bread made consistency or finished dough
And Symmetry 3.Prescence of from high maltose flour. temperature.
uniform oven spring. crust blisters.
3.Wet final proofer or too much 4. Incorrect bread improver and /or
no “ragged break”, 4.”Flying top”. steam in the oven. ingredient choice.
be well shaped and 5.Uneven 4.Dry final proofer or oven. 5. Incorrect moulding and /or panning
proportioned. symmetry (shape). procedures.
5.Poor moulding. Under or over
6.Flat top. proofing in pans. 6. Incorrect humidity and temperature
control during final proofing and
7.Protruding sides 6.Slack or immature (green) baking.
or ends. dough.
7. Incorrect slicing, packaging or
7. Over proofing in pans. handling procedures.
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1.Hard and brittle. 1,2.Cool oven, overbaked, Incorrectly balanced formula.

Attractive to the eye, 2.Lacking uniform doughs overworked. Flour type not suited to process.
tender, not tough thickness. 3.Overmixing or development, Incorrect dough development,
Crust Characteristics and leathery. 3.Tough and slack or immature (green) dough. consistency or finished dough
Uniform thickness. leathery. 4.Wet final proofer of too much temperature. Incorrect bread improver
Absence of crust 4.Prescence of steam in the oven. and /or ingredient choice. Incorrect
blisters or ragged crust blisters. 5.Over handling of doughs. moulding and /or panning procedures.
torn areas. 5.Torn or cracked Skinning of dough piece during Incorrect pan size to dough weight
top and sides. final proof. Dry oven. ratio. Incorrect humidity and
6.”Wild oven 6.Under mixing or development, temperature control during final
break, ragged immature dough. Underproofing proofing and baking.
edges”. of dough piece. Over matured
dough. Incorrect final moulder
adjustment.
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1.Pale tending to 1.Insufficient available sugar or Incorrectly balanced formula.

Crust of loaf should straw colour top, oven too cold. Flour type not suited to process.
have a natural side and bottom. 2.Excess sugar or oven too hot. Incorrect dough development,
Bloom and Crust Colour brightness, be 2.Dark top, side 3.Over matured doughs. consistency or finished dough
evenly baked to and bottom. 4.,Immature (green) doughs. temperature. Incorrect bread improver
golden brown colour 3.Dull greyish and /or ingredient choice. Poor
with no light or burnt colour. intermediate proofing conditions.
areas. 4. Reddish foxy Incorrect moulder settings
brown Underproofing of dough piece.
Incorrect humidity and temperature
control during baking.
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4.1.2 Internal Faults

1.Open crumb. 1,2.Hot, slack or over-matured Incorrectly balanced formula.

Cellular structure 2.Harsh crumb. doughs. Excessive final tin proof. Flour type not suited to process.
should be of uniform 3.Irregular grain. 3.Flours not blending. Under Incorrect dough development,
Grain shape and size with 4.Rounded mixing and/or dough consistency or finished dough
thin walls. Cells shaped cells and development. Incorrect moulder temperature. Incorrect bread improver
should be thick cell walls. adjustments. and /or ingredient choice. Incorrect
elongated. 4.Immature (green) dough. intermediate proofing conditions.
Excessive dusting flour usage.
Incorrect moulding and/or panning
procedures. Incorrect humidity and
temperature control during final
proofing.
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1.Harsh. 1.Immature or over-matured Incorrectly balanced formula.

Crumb of loaf should 2.Irregular. dough. Under or over mixing. Flour type not suited to process.
be soft and silky 3.Stodgy/doughy. 2.Flours not blending. Incorrect dough development,
Texture having good stability 4.Fragile and 3.Underbaking. Maltose content consistency or finished dough
and not crumble inclined to crumble of flour too high. temperature. Incorrect bread improver
when cut. when cut. 4.Over matured dough, poor and /or ingredient choice. Excessive
5.Prescence of mixing and moulding. use of dusting flour and/or divider oil.
streaks and cores. 5.Over or under mixed doughs. Skinning of dough piece during
Over matured dough. Slack intermediate proof. Incorrect moulding
dough. Excessive dusting flour. and /or panning procedures. Incorrect
humidity and temperature control
during final proofing and baking.
Incorrect cooling and slicing
procedures.
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1.Holes may be 1.Flour not blended. Incorrect Incorrectly balanced formula.

The crumb of the present at the top fermentation or incorrect mixing Flour type not suited to process.
loaf should be void of the loaf and development. Over matured Incorrect dough development,
Holes of holes. (handbagging), at dough. consistency or finished dough
the bottom of the 2.Incorrect final moulder temperature. Incorrect bread
loaf or present adjustment. Dough pieces improver. Excessive usage of dusting
throughout the skinning. Over proof or cold oven. flour and/or divider oil. Skinning of the
crumb. dough piece during intermediate
2.Sizes and shape proof. Incorrect moulding and/or
will vary but most panning procedures. Incorrect
will be inclined to humidity and temperature control
follow the during final proofing and baking.
moulding pattern. Incorrect cooling and/or blunt slicing
blades.
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1.Greyish. 1.Over matured dough. Incorrectly balanced formula.

For white bread the 2.Dirty colour. 2,3.High colour grade flour or Flour type not suited to process.
crumb colour should 3.Dull, lacking ingredients not blended or Incorrect dough development,
Crumb Colour and be white to creamy. brightness. dissolved. Under mixed and/or consistency or finished dough
Brightness The cut surface 4.Prescence of developed dough. temperature. Incorrect bread
should be bright with streaks. Under matured (green) dough. improver. Excessive usage of dusting
good sheen and 4.Over matured dough. Excessive flour and/or divider oil. Skinning of the
absence of streaks. use of dusting flour. dough piece during intermediate
proof. Incorrect moulding and/or
panning procedures. Incorrect
humidity and temperature control
Incorrect cooling and/or blunt slicing
blades.
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1.Yeasty. 1,2,3.Mainly caused by hot over- Incorrectly balanced formula.

Varying from 2.Cheesy. worked doughs. Incorrect dough development,
Flavour and Aroma pleasant to sweet 3.Sour. 4.Immature (green) or cold consistency or finished dough
and sharp, slightly 4.Flat and dull. doughs. temperature. Incorrect bread improver
acidic and 5.Musty, mouldy. 5,6.Old or damp flour. Bacterial or ingredient choice. Incorrect
pronounced. 6.Ropy (fruit like). infection. humidity and temperature control
Incorrect cooling, slicing and/or
packaging procedures. Poor bakery
hygiene.
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Sliced bread should 1.Damage to the slice 1,2.High maltose flour or bread Incorrectly balanced formula. Flour
have slices of equal such as squashing, underbaked. Loose slicing not suited to process.
thickness. The slices “rubbing or balling up blades. Incorrect dough development,
Slicing and Packaging should be intact and of the crumb”. Other 3.Blunt or incorrectly tensioned consistency or finished dough
have a clean cut faults may include slicing blades. temperature. Incorrect bread improver
surface free from “tearing away” of the 4.Blades not cleaned after or ingredient choice. Incorrect
loose crumbs. top crust or sharpening. intermediate proofing conditions.
Packages should be “handbagging”. 5.Bread sliced hot. Loaf Incorrect moulding and/or panning.
clearly labelled, 2.Slices fail to underbaked or crust Incorrect humidity and temperature
sealed, free of separate easily. overbaked. control during final proofing and
excessive crumb 3.Poor slice thickness baking. Poor cooling and slicing
and crust particles. and uniformity. procedures.
The package should 4.Dark streaks on cut
not be damaged. surface of crumb.
5.Prescence of
excessive crumbs
and crust in package,
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4.1.3 Dough Maturity Chart
Dough Maturity
Dough Maturity Bread Characteristics
High crust colour

Poor oven spring and volume
Wild cracks on top and sides of crusts
Immature Dough
Sharp crust edges
- “green dough” Irregular and rounded cell structure
Thick cell walls
Fragile crumb characteristics
Greyish dull crumb colour
Bland flat uninteresting flavour
Poor shelf life
Golden crust colour
Good bloom
Uniform oven spring and volume
Matured Dough
Even crust characteristics
- “slightly young dough” Uniform elongated cell structure
Thin cell walls
Soft smooth crumb characteristics
Strong resilient crumb characteristics
Bright crumb colour, good sheen
Flaky pile
Excellent bread flavour
Excellent shelf life
Pale crust colour
Poor oven spring and volume
Harsh torn or cracked crust
Over-Matured
Irregular cell structure
- “old dough” Irregular cell wall thickness
Harsh fragile crumb characteristics
Open texture
Strong over-wrought aroma
Strong over-wrought flavour
Poor shelf life
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Chapter 5
Dough Room Calculations
5.1 Formula Balance

Bakeries around the world have their own formulations that are used to produce
a consistent product on any given day. Bakers do not want to use any more of
one particular ingredient than necessary to achieve the desired result. However,
choosing good quality ingredients is the basis of producing a quality product.
It is more important that each formula used is correctly balanced and adheres to
the Food Standards Code. Formulations used in bread making are very precise
and great care is required when weighing ingredients that are to be used in
dough. This is because variations will change the characteristics of the product. If
a loaf varies from one batch to another, product consistency is lost. Some
bakeries prefer to use premixes to overcome these types of variations.
Bakers Percentage is used so that individual ingredients can be varied or

adjusted to suit, whilst keeping the remaining ingredients in the same proportion
to the flour. Formula Percentage adjustments mean that the total formulation
must be recalculated.
Breads possess a distinctive flavour, largely brought about by correct and

sufficient fermentation. Ingredient balance in a formula is critical to product
flavour. It is important then to achieve a product with no single ingredient
dominating the loaf (e.g. too salty, too sweet) to the detriment of the overall
flavour and aroma.
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Balanced flavour and aroma, as well as good keeping properties in a product and
eye appeal, are important attributes to aim for when considering ingredients.
Once a formula is balanced, good bakery practices in dough development,
fermentation and baking will help achieve the desired results. No amount of good
bakery practice will overcome a poorly balanced formula using poor ingredients.
Each bakery has its own formulation procedures and methods through which it
produces saleable breads. Obtaining consistency and improving products can
only be achieved through balancing each stage of the process from formula
selection through to baking the dough into the bread.
Bakery operators can adjust plant and equipment within small variances to
achieve improvements. Without an understanding of each stage and its effects
on the next, bread quality will deteriorate and be inconsistent. It is important for
the baker to be in control of each step and not have the process dictate catch-up
work or behaviour by the bakery staff. Baking quality of a dough is improved with
correct balances of fermentation and temperatures.
5.2 Bakers Percentage

In calculating “Bakers Percentage”;
- Each ingredient used in a formula is expressed as a percentage of the total
flour weight.
- When using this method, flour is always equal to 100%.
- All flours used in a formula must be added together and equal 100%.
- The total of all ingredients used will always be more than 100%.
5.3 Formula Percentage

In calculating the “Formula Percentage”;
- Each ingredient used in a formula is calculated as a percentage of the total
weight of that formula.
- The total of all ingredients used will always be equal to 100%.
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Both methods are related and this can be shown by the following example
formula.
“Example Bakery” – Dough Formula

Raw Ingredients Bakers Percentage (%) Formula Percentage (%)
Flour (s) 100 59.523
Salt 2 1.190
Bread Improver 1 0.595
Bread Shortening 2 1.190
Burns Philp
Compressed Yeast 3 1.785
Water 60 35.714
TOTAL 168 99.997 (100)
For example:
a) To calculate the “Formula Percentage” of Burns Philp Compressed Yeast used
as a percentage of the total dough weight:
3 x 100 = 1.785%
168 1
b) The Conversion of “Formula Percentage” to “Bakers Percentage”:
1.785 x 168 = 2.998% (3%)

100 1
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5.4 Water Temperature Calculation Method
APPROXIMATE TEMPERATURE TABLE

Finished Dough Temperature (FDT) Combined Temperature
Requirement (of flour & water) should be
23°C 35°C
24°C 37°C
25°C 39°C
26°C 41°C
27°C 43°C
28°C 45°C
29°C 47°C
Required Water Temperature:
As water is the easiest of these variables to adjust, in order to arrive at the required finished
dough temperature (FDT) the following formula may be used to calculate the required water
temperature:
1/ Add the temperature of the dough room to the temperature of the flour being used.
2/ Calculate the Average Temperature by dividing this total by 2.
3/ Subtract the Average Temperature from the Combined Temperature (from the above table).
4/ The resulting temperature is the Required Water Temperature.
Example: For a Finished Dough Temperature of 25°C

Part 1/
Dough Room Temperature 16°C
Flour Temperature 18°C
Total 34°°C
Part 2/
Average Temperature (total divided by 2) 17°°C
Part 3/
Combined Temperature (from table for 25°C FDT) 39°C
Minus Average Temperature 17°C
Part 4/
Required Water Temperature 22°°C
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5.5 Calculation of Yeast Levels
BULK FERMENTED DOUGHS

Rapid
FLOUR TYPE Bowl Time – (minutes)
Dough
Wholemeal Flour 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150 165 180 195
Bakers Flour 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150 165 180 195 210
Bakers flour plus 2.5kg

to 5.0kg dry gluten per
45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150 165 180 195 210 225
100kg flour.
Protein increased flour
plus 3.0kg to 5.0kg dry
60 75 90 105 120 135 150 165 180 195 210 225 240
gluten per 100kg flour
Burns Philp Kilograms / 100kg Flour
Recommended
Compressed Yeast 3.00 4.75 4.25 3 75 3.25 2.90 2.50 2.40 2.20 2.00 1.85 1.70 1.50 1.30
Usage
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5.6 Calibration & Care of Thermometers

All too often in bakeries the humble thermometer is used and abused with little or
no thought to it’s care and calibration.
The thermometer is a most useful and under rated piece of equipment in the
bakery and can indicate not only dough temperature, but other bakery variations
such as water and cool room temperatures.
Calibration is the regular checking and correction of an instrument that can and
will change it’s resulting indicated readings over a period of time. It is important to
have thermometers recalibrated regularly against a known accurate,
standardised and certified thermometer.
Many bakeries own an electronic thermometer and these may have self-
calibration facilities built in.
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Chapter 6
Food Safety / Bakery Hygiene /
Rope and Mould Contamination
Traditionally, ‘quality’ of food was considered in terms of the taste, appearance

and standards of raw materials used in a finished product. Now quality is taken in
broader terms and encompasses the food safety elements in food production,
food handling and food preparation.
The food industry standards for food safety have set rigid expectations. Federal,
state and local governments as a minimum standard requirement in the food
industry are discussing hazard and Critical Control Points (HACCP) analysis and
implementation.
Food safety is a primary focus of the major supermarkets and, more directly,
bakery franchises. Food manufacturers and distributors to these sectors are
required as a minimum to have independent audits of the manufacturing,
warehousing and logistics operations in order that they meet these rigid
expectations. When considering the purchase of raw materials, these
considerations should weighted to their appropriateness to the bakery.
The principal baked food, such as bread, biscuits and cakes are, because of their
nature and the baking processes that they undergo seldom associated with food
poisoning. However these foods are not completely immune form dangerous
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contamination and all people involved with the preparation of handling of food
should understand the basic rules of hygiene and good operating practices.
The more common forms of food poisoning, known as gastro-enteritis are caused
by the ingestion of foods which contain either large numbers of living bacteria or
toxin produced by bacteria. In either case, a large number of organisms is usually
involved before food is eaten.
A small initial contamination can multiply rapidly and become a large

contamination within a few hours when conditions are favourable. Some other
forms of infectious illnesses, such as hepatitis, which is caused by a virus, may
be spread by contaminated food. Mycotoxins from fungal growth on foods can
also cause severe illness if ingested repeatedly. Contamination by metallic salts
derived from corrosion of equipment, for example zinc or cadmium plating, can
cause poisoning and illness of short or long term severity.
As food safety is a large and broad topic, further, HACCP analysis of bakeries is
specific to individual bakeries; it is difficult to fully devote the appropriate time to
discuss. However, some general guidelines for the hygienic condition of the
bakery premises are listed below and we suggest contacting local and/or state
food bodies to discuss more specific requirements of the area.
- The siting, construction and condition of the bakery must be such that there is
no exposure of food to risk of contamination.
- Areas in which food is prepared must be kept in good order, condition and
repair, so that it is easy to keep them clean and to prevent risk of infestation
by rodents and insects.
- Sanitary conveniences should be sited well away from food preparation areas
and must be kept clean at all times. Notices requiring users to wash their
hands after using the conveniences must be fixed in a prominent and suitable
position.
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- Sufficient wash basins must be provided and must be supplied with hot and
cold water, soap, nailbrushes and clean towels or other suitable drying
facilities.
- Bandages, dressings and antiseptic for first aid treatment must be provided
and sited in a readily accessible position for use by the food handlers.
- Suitable and sufficient cupboard or locker accommodation must be provided
for clothing and footwear not worn during the working hours.
- All food rooms should be suitably lit and ventilated.
- Accumulations of refuse must not be allowed to occur in food preparation
areas.
- All equipment or containers coming into contact with food must be kept clean
and in good repair.
Rope & Mould Contamination

The occurrence of mould in bread is the result of post baking contamination from
free air spores or contaminated equipment. Temperatures reached by the dough
piece are sufficient to destroy most mould however rope spores will survive the
baking process.
‘Rope’ in bread is caused by Bacillus mesentericus bacteria, usually in the

warmer months of the year. Its spores are resistant to baking temperatures
producing a nauseous odour and sticky crumb in the loaf. The rope bacteria lives
in soils, and is carried to the flour through the wheat grain.
The heavier denser breads with high moisture content, such as wholemeal and
grain breads, are more susceptible to infection than other breads. Rope takes
from 24-48 hours to develop, at temperatures or 35°C-50°C.
Rope and mould inhibitors are added to the dough to prevent the formation of
rope or mould in the finished loaf. These inhibitors consist of sodium diacetate,
propionic acid and/or it’s salts – sodium propionate and calcium propionate.
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Manufacturer’s instructions regarding the use of these substances must be

followed.
Rope and mould inhibitors also retard the activity of the yeast. Additional yeast is
used to compensate for this effect. As a general rule, add the equivalent amount
of extra yeast as the amount of inhibitor used.
To assist in the prevention of rope and mould, it is important that all breads be
baked correctly and spaced well when cooling. Avoid slicing and wrapping
breads that are underbaked or too warm. The addition of some sour dough or
vinegar to a dough can assist in mould prevention by raising the acidic level
(lowering the pH) in the product, Flavour of the products may be affected.
Strict hygiene in the bakery assists in preventing rope occurring. If rope and
mould infections do occur, the entire bakery and equipment must be thoroughly
cleaned. Returned breads must be disposed of and not allowed to enter the
bakery.
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Chapter 7
Basic Bread Formulations
7.1 Bread Formulations

Flour, water, yeast and salt form the basis for any bread formulation. To these,
other ingredients can be added to enhance certain characteristics that contribute
to the identification of the bread, eg. Multi Grain.
To ensure the desired characteristics are achieved throughout production and in

the finished baked product the formula must be correctly balanced.
The following formulae are given as a guide only. They have been thoroughly
tested and found to produce a good quality product. The ingredient usage rate
has been based on the total flour weight and other farinaceous matter which is
taken as 100%.
The quantities given for the yeast level are suitable for use in the Australian
Rapid Dough Process. However, variations to the formulations may be made to
suit individual preferences, different bread manufacturing techniques or
variations in ingredients.
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7.2 Standard White
Ingredients Bakers % Kilograms

Flour (Bakers) 100 10.000
Salt 2 0.200
Burns Philp Compressed Yeast 3 0.300
Burns Philp Bread Improver 1 0.100
Burns Philp Shortening 1.5 0.150
Water (Variable) 58 5.8 litres
Method
Combine flour, Burns Philp Compressed Yeast, Bread Improver and other
ingredients in the bowl of the mixer and blend thoroughly. Add Shortening last.
Mix until dough is fully developed. A finished dough temperature of between

28°C-30°C is recommended. Allow 10-15 minutes floor time (rest time) before
processing in the normal manner.
Bake for approximately 30 minutes in a moderate oven (220°C-240°C).
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7.3 Wholemeal Bread

Flour (Wholemeal) 90 9.000
Salt 2 0.200
Burns Philp Shortening 1 – 1.75 0.100 – 0.175
Method
Mix until dough is fully developed. A finished dough temperature of between

28°C-30°C is recommended. Allow 10-15 minutes floor time (rest time) before
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7.4 Multi Grain Bread

Flour (Bakers &/or Wholemeal) 80 8.000
Kibbled Wheat Grains 8 0.800
Kibbled Rye Grains 7 0.700
Rolled Oats 5 0.500
Salt 2 0.200
Burns Philp Shortening 1.5 – 2 0.150 – 0.200
Dry Gluten (Optional) 3 0.300
Method
Mix until dough is fully developed and of a good workable consistency. A finished
dough temperature of between 28°C-30°C is recommended. Allow 10-15 minutes
floor time before processing in the normal manner.
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7.5 Hamburger Buns

Salt 2 0.200
Burns Philp Shortening 5 - 10 0.500 – 1.000
Sugar 6 0.600
Method
Mix until dough is fully developed. For best results the finished dough should be
soft but not slack in consistency. A finished dough temperature of between 28°C-
30°C is recommended. Allow 10-15 minutes floor time (rest time) before
Bake for approximately 8-12 minutes in a moderate oven (200°C-220°C).
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7.6 Fruit Bread

Salt 1.5 0.150
Burns Philp Shortening 5 – 10 0.500 – 1.000
Sugar 12 1.200
Dried Fruit (washed) 30 3.000
Citrus Peel (optional) 5 0.500
*Dried Fruit can consist of sultanas, raisins, currants etc, and should be washed and thoroughly
drained of excess water prior to addition to the dough in the last few minutes of mixing.
Method
ingredients, with the exception of the dried fruit, in the bowl of the mixer and
blend thoroughly. Add Shortening last.
Mix until dough is almost fully developed. Add dried fruit and continue mixing until
dried fruit is thoroughly incorporated throughout the dough. A finished dough
temperature of between 28°C-30°C is recommended. Allow 10-15 minutes floor
time (rest time) before processing in the normal manner.
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7.7 Pizza Bases

Ingredients Bakers % Kilograms Bakers % Kilograms
Flour (Bakers) 100 10.000 100 10.000
Salt 2 0.200 2 0.200
Burns Philp Compressed Yeast 2 0.200 3 0.300
Burns Philp Bread Improver - optional 0.5 0.050 0.5 0.050
Burns Philp Shortening 5 - 10 0.500 – 1.00 5 - 10 0.500 – 1.00
Sugar 2 0.200
Milk Powder 2.5 0.250
Water (Variable) 58 5.8 litres 54 5.4 litres
* Pizza bases can be made from a wide variety of doughs ranging from a lean bread dough
which will produce a “chewy” bread-like base, to an enriched dough which will produce a soft
eating base.
Method
Mix until dough is fully developed.

A finished dough temperature of between 26°C-30°C is recommended. Allow a
floor time (rest time) after mixing of between 10-30 minutes before processing in
the normal manner.
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7.8 Light Rye

Rye Flour or Meal 30 3.000
Salt 2 0.200
Burns Philp Shortening 1 – 1.5 1.000 – 1.500
Dry Gluten 2.5 0.250
Caraway Seed (Optional) 0.5 0.500
Method
Mix until dough is fully developed and of a good workable consistency. A finished
dough temperature of between 28°C-30°C is recommended. Allow 10-15 minutes
floor time (rest time) before processing in the normal manner.
Bake for approximately 30-40 minutes in a moderate oven (200°C-2420°C).
*Mould into desired shapes. For best results place into floured “wicker” baskets, or perforated
“Rye Pans”, onto perforated trays or boards covered with semolina.
*To prevent splitting in the oven dough pieces should be fully proofed. Prior to baking “Vienna”
shaped dough pieces may be given several cuts or “docked” along the top and side surface.
*After cutting or ‘docking” the dough pieces may be transferred directly from baskets or boards
onto the sole of the oven or onto preheated trays. Dough pieces proofed in perforated pans or
trays can be transferred directly to the oven.
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7.9 Easter Buns

Salt 1 – 1.5 0.100 – 0.150
Burns Philp Compressed Yeast 6–8 0.600 – 0.800
Burns Philp Shortening 5 - 10 0.500 – 1.000
Sugar 8 – 12 0.800 – 1.200
Dry Gluten (optional) 1 0.100
Currants 1.5 0.150
Sultanas 10 1.000
Mixed Peel 5 0.500
Buns Spice To Taste To Taste
Method
ingredients, with the exception of the dried fruit, in the bowl of the mixer and
blend thoroughly. Add Shortening last.
Mix until dough is fully developed. Add dried fruit and continue mixing (on slow
speed) until dried fruit is thoroughly incorporated throughout the dough. Avoid
over-mixing the dough and damaging the fruit. A finished dough temperature of
between 28°C-30°C is recommended.
Allow 10-15 minutes floor time before dividing, moulding and proofing in the
normal manner. Pipe the crosses onto the Easter Buns towards the end of the
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final proof (at approx. 3/4 proof) before baking (see Decorating Easter Buns
below for suitable piping recipes).
Bake for approximately 20 minutes at 200°C-220°C. Apply the bun glaze to the
surface of the buns as soon as they are removed form the oven (see Decorating
Easter Buns below for suitable glaze recipes).
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7.9 a) Decorating Easter Buns
Hot Cross Bun Mixture

The cross should be applied towards the end of the final proof. The following is a
suitable mixture for piping crosses:
Scratch Mixture
Flour 100 1.000
Salt 2.5 0.025
Cake Margarine 35 0.350
Water 175 1.750
Method
Sieve and mix dry ingredients together, mix in shortening. Add water gradually
and beat to a smooth batter. Pipe onto proofed bun in normal manner.
Bun Glaze
The bun glaze should be applied to the surface of the buns as soon as they are
removed from the oven.
Scratch Mixture
Water 100 1.000
Sugar 50 0.500
Powdered Gelatine 2.5 0.025
Bun Spice Essence 0.8 0.008
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Chapter 8
Glossary of Bakery Terms
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Glossary of Bakery Terms
Absorption
In bread making, refers to the ability of a flour to hold water in the required
amounts to form a dough of a workable consistency. Expressed as a percentage
of the total flour weight.
Acetic Acid (Ethanoic acid)

The organic acid responsible for the acidity of vinegar, which contains 4% acetic
acid.
Acidic
A substance with a pH less than 7.0 is said to be acidic. The lower the pH value
the more acidic the substance.
Acid Fermentation
Caused by bacteria e.g. vinegar production.
Acidity (see also pH)

Sourness is the taste caused by the presence of acids in solution. Different types
of fermentation produce different acids. When milk sours, lactic acid is formed
and when vinegar is made from apples or grain, acetic acid is formed. Sour rye
bread is made by the addition of sours or ferments containing bacteria, which
produce various acids, but mostly lactic and acetic acids.
Activity (yeast) see also Gassing Activity

The amount of Carbon Dioxide gas produced by a known quantity of yeast over a
period of time under strictly controlled conditions. (Usually tested in a laboratory).
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Aerobic Respiration
Cellular respiration requiring oxygen where glucose is broken down to release in
a series of steps.
Air Classification
Refers to flour milling whereby the flour particles are separated according to size
and density by the use of air currents.
Alcohol (ethanol)
Formed during fermentation of sugar by yeast in bread making.
Alcoholic Fermentation
The conversion of a carbohydrate source such as glucose into alcohol (ethanol),
carbon dioxide and some energy in the absence of oxygen.
C6 H12 O6 → 2CH3 CH2 OH + 2CO2 + 168kJ energy.
Alkaline
A substance with a pH greater than 7.0. The higher the pH value the more
alkaline the substance.
Amino Acid
The basic component of proteins composed of an amino group (NH2), a
Carboxyl group (COOH) and which posses both alkaline and acidic properties.
Ammonium Chloride
An ammonium salt frequently added to bread improvers as a source of nitrogen
for yeast.
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Ammonium Phosphate
for yeast.
Ammonium Sulphate
for yeast.
Amylase
An enzyme which breaks down starch to maltose and dextrins.
Amylase, alpha:
An enzyme that attacks long starch chains at random producing shorter chains
called dextrin’s.
Amylase, beta
An enzyme in flour which attacks specific linkages of short starch chains
(dextrin’s), converting them into maltose.
Amylase, fungal
Amylase derived from a mould.
Amylograph
An instrument used for the determination of the amylase activity of flour, by
measuring the effect of the flour amylase in reducing the viscosity of a flour-water
paste.
Anaerobic Respiration
A type of cell respiration that takes place in the absence of oxygen where energy
is released from the metabolism of glucose and other carbohydrates. Yeast is
capable of growing in the presence of oxygen or in its absence. Under anaerobic
conditions yeast growth and multiplication is minimal.
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Antioxidant
A material which, when added to a shortening, extends shelf life by protecting it
against oxidation. In biscuit baking antioxidants may be used to extend the
storage life insofar as rancidity is concerned.
Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C)

A water soluble organic compound found in citrus fruits and some vegetables. In
the absence of oxygen may be used as a reducing agent or oxygen scavenger to
prevent oxidation of foodstuffs. During bread making, in the presence of oxygen,
ascorbic acid is converted to an oxidant (dehydro-ascorbic acid) whereby it then
quickly interacts with the protein groups to link and form the gluten network.
Ash Content (of flour)

Inorganic matter is left in food after it has been thoroughly burned. Used as a
specification for flour, bread and other foodstuffs.
Bacillus mesentericus
The bacteria known to cause “Rope” in bread.
Baking
The transformation of dough by the use of heat application into a light porous
product which is palatable and digestible.
Baking Quality
Flour that has a high capacity for water absorption and retains more gas
produced by yeast in fermenting dough is said to have good baking quality.
Barm
A liquid mixture of flour and other ingredients in which yeast is grown. Often
added to dough as a source of leavening and flavour.
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Base
Bottom portion of the loaf.
Best Before date code

On most products with this coding, the product exhibits its best performance
characteristics before the “Best Before” date on the product when handled and
stored correctly.
Bloom
The bright golden plum colour found on the crust of a well-developed loaf.
Body
Firmness and response of the crumb to pressure.
Boiling Point
The temperature at which the vapour pressure of a liquid equals the absolute
external pressure at the liquid-vapour interface. When this happens the liquid
boils.
Bran
The outer portion of the wheat grain.
Bread Improvers
Essential ingredients in the manufacture of bread, containing various substances
which modify the gluten and condition the dough so that an optimum loaf can be
produced from a given flour. Bread improvers vary widely in constitution,
depending on the type of process which may be used.
Break
The portion of the crust formed during oven spring. It may be on one or more
sides of the loaf.
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Bucky
‘Bucky’ dough is one that exhibits a certain resistance; causing excessive spring
back after the dough has been stretched or worked.
Budding
Refers to the growth process of yeast cells. When a yeast cell (“mother “ cell)
utilises sugars it forms a protrusion on one side of the cell, this protrusion
develops into a full size call (“daughter” cell) and breaks away from the parent
cell to continue the growth process.
Buffer (see also pH)

A solution or material which changes very little in pH when quantities of acid or
alkali are added to it. Whereas a minute amount of a strong acid will change the
pH of distilled water from pH7 (neutral) to pH1 (strongly acid), the same amount
of acid will not change the pH of a buffer, such as milk, enough to measure it. In
a bread dough the flour exerts a very considerable buffering action. Some bread
improvers contain buffering salts.
Calcium propionate
A preservative derived from propionic acid and used to control mould and rope in
bread.
Calcium sulphate
A calcium salt commonly found in bread improvers. Chemically both gypsum and
plaster of paris are forms of calcium sulphate.
Calorie
Heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1°C. 1,000 calories
equal one great calorie or kilo calorie. The calorie used in diet calculations is the
kilo calorie.
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Carbohydrate
Substances that contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Simple sugars through to
complex starches and cellulose. One of the major groups of organic compounds.
Carbon dioxide
A gas produced by the action of yeast on sugar, or by baking powders. It is the
same gas found in carbonated beverages. When dissolved in water it forms
carbonic acid, which is partially responsible for the increase in acidity of a dough
or sponge caused by fermentation.
Carrier
An ingredient, usually flour, used as a base that allows accurate measuring of
another ingredient or combination of ingredients contained within the carrier in
minute amounts.
Catalyst
A substance that increases the speed of a reaction in the chemical change of
other substances without itself undergoing change. Enzymes are examples of a
catalyst.
Centigrade
A thermometric scale, in general use in many countries, in which 0° represents
the freezing point and 100° the boiling point of water at sea level. To convert
Fahrenheit degrees to centigrade degrees multiply the Fahrenheit reading, less
32, by five-ninths.
Clear
A final stage of dough development. When the dough has achieved a smooth
silky texture and translucent appearance.
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Clearing time
A term used to describe the time elapsed from the underdeveloped stage of
mixing until the point where the dough has achieved a smooth silky texture and
translucent appearance.
Compound
A substance composed of two or more elements, substances or products, with
constant composition. A compound is never a simple material.
Consistency (of dough)

The handling characteristics of dough. Consistency is the “feel” of a dough and is
the criterion by which proper absorption is judged.
Continuous Dough Process

The continuous metering of dough ingredients and continuous mixing,
development and extrusion of the dough.
Crumb
All of the bread except for the crust.
Crumb Softener
Popularly used to designate a glycerol monostearate or a similar compound,
used to assist in the retention of crumb softness.
Crust
The surface of the baked loaf. Including all the portions caramelised or
dehydrated during baking.
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Damaged Starch
Starch granules that have been broken during the milling. The damaged starch
granules are now available for conversion to yeast nutrients by the amalase
enzymes. The amount of starch damage in flour varies and also influences water
absorption.
Datem
An emulsifier more correctly known as diacetyl tartaric acid esters of
monoglycerides.
Delayed Salt
A technique whereby during mixing the salt addition to the dough is withheld for a
specific period of time in order to aid dough development and fermentation.
Denaturation
The transformation of a protein by the application of heat into an insoluble form.
Developed (Dough)
Optimum beneficial condition obtained from mixing and fermentation of dough
ingredients, resulting in bread of maximum volume with impairment of crumb
character.
Development
In dough refers to the further application of force, usually mechanical, after a
dough has been formed allowing the gluten structure of the dough to be
stretched and hydrated to a practical optimum where good gas retention is
obtained. Fermentation development refers to achieving the proper conditioning
of the gluten and other flour fractions during fermentation.
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Dextrin
A polysaccharide carbohydrate, primarily a product of the break down of starch
by amylase enzymes.
Dextrose
See glucose
Diastase
An enzyme mixture of amylases (alpha and beta) in breaking down starch into
dextrins
Disaccharide
A double sugar made up of monosaccharide molecules linked together. Maltose,
Lactose and Sucrose are disaccharides.
Dough Mixing
Is the combination by mechanical force of flour, salt, yeast and water (and other
ingredients). This mechanical force allows insoluble fractions of the flour proteins
(Glutenin and Gliadin) to combine as gluten, forming the structure of the dough
and the hydration of starch, which forms the bulk of the dough.
Dough Conditioner
A general term which sometimes refers to bread improver, yeast food or dough
improver: an ingredient added to the dough for specific quality improvement
purposes.
Elasticity
Dough has an elastic limit of approximately 30%, contributed in dough by
developed gluten. See development above.
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Emulsification
Formulation of a dispersion of small droplets of one liquid in another, in which it
does not dissolve.
Emulsifiers
Emulsifiers reduce surface tension between two immiscible substances such as
oil and water enabling them to form a stable mixture or emulsion.
Enzyme
A protein molecule that catalyses a biochemical reaction. Enzymes are usually
specific to particular substrates and are sensitive to pH and temperature. There
are many enzymes which enter into the process of bread making. Enzymes
usually have a name ending in “ase”. Thus the enzyme which changes the sugar
maltose is called maltase.
Enzyme, fungal
An enzyme prepared form a mould.
Extensibility
The amount of pressure applied to the stretching of a dough without causing
rupture or tearing. Usually this test is applied to a dough using the extensograph.
Farina
Wheat middlings - coarse endosperm particles containing the starchy portion of
the wheat. Farina can be further processed into white flour.
Farinagraph
A small recording dough mixer in which the consistency of a flour-water dough or
other dough may be measured throughout the entire mixing process.
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Fat
Fat has the same type of composition as an oil, the difference being that a fat
has a higher melting point and is a plastic-solid at room temperature. Both are
triglycerides made up of three molecules of fatty acid and one molecule of
glycerine.
Ferment (see also liquid)

Mixture of flour, water, yeast and other ingredients which is allowed to undergo a
fermentation step prior to it being added to a dough or itself being made into a
dough with the addition of other ingredients.
Fermentation
Derived form the Latin fermentare (to cause rise). In bread making fermentation
is a biological process caused by yeast whereby the fermentable sugars are
broken down to produce carbon dioxide and alcohol.
Fermentation room
A room in which humidity and temperature are carefully controlled so that
fermenting doughs will be uniformly fermented.
Flavour
The total sensation experienced when bread is taken into the mouth, including
taste, odour and mouth feel.
Floor time
The actual time, generally expressed in minutes, between the moment the dough
is removed from the mixer until it goes to the divider.
Foxy colour
Tendency toward red colour in a bread crust.
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Freezing point
Temperature at which a given liquid substance will solidify or freeze. The freezing
point of water is 0°C (32°F).
Fructose (Levulose)
A monosaccharide usually found together with glucose in many fruits. Also
combines with glucose to form sucrose. It is one product of the action of the
enzyme invertase on cane sugar.
Fungal Amylase
An enzyme which when used correctly, can produce a loaf of superior
characteristics. Excessive use can result in a gummy or sticky crumb.
Gas Retention
The amount of gas which is actually retained by the dough during fermentation.
Gassing Power (see Activity (Yeast) )
Gassing Activity
The amount of gas (CO2) produced by a dough in a specified time. This is
usually used to indicate the fermentative ability of yeast and is gauged by
measuring the gas produced in a small dough made and held under controlled
temperature and standardised conditions.
Gelatinisation
The swelling and bursting of a starch cell in solution when heat is applied usually
above 60°C, with the resulting uptake of free water to form a paste or gel.
Germ, wheat
The embryonic wheat plant found in each grain of wheat. The germ is high in oil
content, but contains compounds which have a retarding effect on bread doughs.
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Gliadin
One of the main proteins found in wheat flour. It is insoluble and combines with
glutenin and to a lesser extent, globulin in a dough to form gluten. Present in
approximately equal proportion to glutenin. See Gluten.
Globulin
A group of proteins that are soluble in salt solutions and coagulated by heat.
They combine with gliadin and glutenin to form gluten. See Gluten.
Glucaose
Another name for dextrose. A single sugar unit (C6H12O6).
Glucose Syrup
A solution of glucose, maltose and dextrins, made by the breakdown of starch.
Also know as corn syrup.
Gluten
A mixture of proteins that provides the framework for the characteristics of bread
dough and bread. Gluten is primarily divided into two main groups of proteins,
gliadin and glutenin which have different functions in bread making. To a much
lesser extent a third group of proteins, globulins, also makes up gluten.
Glutenin
One of the main proteins found in wheat flour. It is insoluble and combines with
gliadin and to a lesser extent, globulin in a dough to form gluten. Present in
approximately equal proportion to gliadin. See Gluten.
Glycerine (glycerol)
A water soluble liquid manufactured form fats and oils. Glycerine is used in the
baking industry to retain moisture in baked goods.
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Glycerol Monostearate (GMS)

A monoglyceride, made up of one molecule of a fatty acid (stearic acid)
combined with one molecule of glycerol.
Grain
The character of the cell structure and size of crumb cells. The grain should be
moderately close, even and firm, with small, elongated, thin-walled cells. The
“grain” should be uniform in size and the greatest diameter should be vertical
rather than horizontal.
Green Dough
Refers to a dough that is immature. Bread made form a green dough is
characterised by high crust colour, poor oven spring, wild crust cracks, poor
crumb colour and structure and lacks flavour.
Homogenise
The process of making a stable suspension of oil in water or water in oil. In the
homogenising process either the water or the oil droplets are divided so finely
that separation is slow. Broadly used in the baking industry, homogenising refers
to the fine dispersion of ingredients. Emulsified shortenings, salad dressings and
ice cream are examples.
Humidify
To add water vapour to the atmosphere; add moisture to any material.
Humidity
Water vapour content in the atmosphere, at ambient temperatures.
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Humidity, Relative
The ratio of the amount of water vapour present in the air to the amount of water
vapour present in saturated air, at the same temperature and barometric
pressure. This ratio is usually expressed as a percentage.
Hydrogen Ion
The chemical entity which is responsible for the acidity of acids. A substance
which forms a high concentration of hydrogen ions when dissolved in water is
considered to be strongly acidic.
Hydrogenated Fats/Oils
Fats and oils treated with hydrogen to give types of shortenings which have a
higher melting point. Hydrogenated fats and oils also have less tendency to
become rancid by oxidation.
Hydrophilic – Lipophilic Balance (H.L.B.)

Low H.L.B. surfactants are Lipophilic, of “fat loving”. H.L.B. value: 2-4. High
H.L.B. surfactants are Hydrophilic or “water loving”. H.L.B. value: 13-20.
Surfactants in the mid range exhibit little tendency to form emulsions.
Hygrometer
A device for measuring the humidity of air gasses. Used frequently in the bakery
as a guide for the control of the moisture in the air coming in contact with
fermenting doughs or sponges.
Hygroscopic
Absorptive of moisture; readily absorbing and retaining moisture.
Inoculum
The collection of pure yeast cells used to begin fermentation in the production of
commercial yeast.
Page 102 of 115

Invertase
An enzyme occuring in yeast which converts sucrose (cane sugar) into inverted
sugar.
Kilojule
The metric unit used to express the energy value of food.
Lactic Acid
An edible acid formed by bacterial action on milk or many other types of
fermentation. Lactic bacteria are the rye souring organisms that give rye bread its
distinctive flavour.
Lactose
Disaccharide (glucose and galactose) found in the milk of mammals. Lactose is
converted to lactic acid by bacteria present in milk.
Leavening
Refers to the fermentation of yeast in dough creating carbon dioxide which
causes the dough to rise resulting in the light spongy texture characteristics of
leavened bread.
Leavening Agent
A compound or mixture of compounds which produces a leavening action to
aerate baked products. In bread, yeast is the leavening action to aerate baked
products. In bread, yeast is the leavening agent, in cakes it is baking powder and
in certain types of biscuits ammonium bicarbonate provides the leavening action.
Lecithin
An emulsifying agent found in several bakery ingredients such as egg yolk and
soya flour or oil. The lecithin sold to bakers is mostly soy lecithin. Chemically
lecithin is a fatty substance containing phosphorus.
Page 103 of 115

Lipase
An enzyme that breaks down fat into free fatty acids and glycerol.
Lipoxidase.
Anenzyme which acts on certain types of fats or fatty acids to produce a
peroxide. From a baking standpoint lipoxidase destroys yellow pigment, thereby
bleaching flour or bread dough. Certain varieties of soyabeans are very rich in
lipoxidase. Soya flour is now widely used as a crumb whitener and to improve the
keeping qualities of bread.
Liquid Ferment
A mixture of water, sugar and yeast. Other ingredients such as flour, bread
improver, salt, skim milk and mould inhibitor are added. The predominant
reaction in such a mixture is alcohol fermentation.
Make-Up
The processing of doughs after mixing and before final proofing. Includes
dividing, intermediate proof, moulding and panning.
Malt Extract
A viscous liquid product made from malted wheat, milled to a fine flour and
containing natural amylases. Reliable suppliers are able to offer malt flour with
amylase activity adjusted to baking flour specifications.
Maltase
An enzyme that converts maltose to glucose.
Maltose
A disaccharide carbohydrate consisting of two glucose units. It is fermentable by
yeast and not as sweet as cane sugar (sucrose). During fermentation maltose is
converted to glucose by the enzyme maltase.
Page 104 of 115

Matured Dough (slightly young)

Good oven crust, good oven spring, healthy shiny crumb, good keeping qualities
and excellent flavour.
Matrix – gluten matrix

Formed by combination of glutenin and gliadin (insoluble proteins found in flour)
and water. Developed into a network of strands through the stretching action of
the mixer on the dough etc.
Monoglyceride
A simple emulsifier comprising one molecule of a fatty acid combined with one
molecule of glycerol. The resulting compound has a water soluble (“hydrophilic”)
end – the glycerol end – and the other end is oil soluble (“lipophilic”) – the fatty
acid end.
Monosaccharides
Simple sugars, such as glucose and fructose. They are the basic units of more
complex sugars. (C6H12O6)
Mould
An infection (for example of the bread or cake) caused by contamination after the
product has been baked. Yellow, green, black, white and red bread moulds
occur. Moulds are related to fungi.
Mould Inhibitors
Compounds which can be added to bread or cake doughs or batters prior to
baking, to delay or inhibit mould development.
Oil (see fat)

A triglyceride which is liquid at ambient temperatures.
Page 105 of 115

“Oil in Water” Dispersion

A term used to describe the dispersion of oil in water where the proportion of
water exceeds the proportion of oil and in which the water is the continuous
phase.
Optimum
The best or most favourable conditions.
Osmosis
The transfer of liquid through a permeable cell wall without rupturing of the cell
wall, resulting in an equalising of pressures across the cell wall.
Oven Spring
The difference in the size of the loaf from the end of the proofing time to the
maximum size attained in the oven.
Over-matured or Old Dough

Torn and cracked crust, pale crust colour, grey or streaky crumb, weak texture
(crumbs easily), open grain, strong odour (acid), poor keeping quality, poor
flavour.
Oxidant
A compound that brings about the chemical change known as oxidation.
Oxidation
The addition of oxygen to a substance to increase the proportion of oxygen in its
structure. In bread making oxidation strengthens the gluten matrix in doughs by
promoting the formation of disulphide linkages by the combining of sulphydryl
bonds in the developing dough, through the input of energy by the dough mixer.
Oxidising agents lose electrons.
Page 106 of 115

Oxidising Agents
Refers to the additives that maintain the gluten structure and strengthen the
dough by inhibiting the action of protein splitting enzymes which otherwise would
weaken the gluten structure.
Pasteurisation
A method devised by Louis Pasteur of partially sterilising certain foods such as
milk by heating to approximately 62°C for 30 minutes. Modern methods utilise
higher temperatures and shorter times (72°C for not less than 15 seconds).
Peptide
Compound formed by the combination of two or more amino acids.
pH
The pH scale 1-14 describes the degree of acidity or alkalinity of a substance.
Acid substances fall below 7.0, alkaline substances fall above 7.0 with water
being neutral, at 7.0.
Pile
Term used to describe the texture or structure of the crumb of bread.
Plasticity
When pressure is applied to a substance, which changes the shape of the
substance, and that force is removed yet that substance retains the new shape
permanently, it is said to be plastic. Under pressure, plastic substances behave
like fluids, otherwise they behave like solids. Over mixing of a dough breaks the
gluten coils which can result in a more plastic characteristic in the dough than
may be desired. Starch contributes to plasticity in doughs.
Page 107 of 115

Polyasaccharides
Contain many monosaccharide units. Starch, gums and cellulose are examples
of disaccharides joined together in chains and branches to form complex
molecules.
Porosity
The openness or closeness of a grain.
PPM
Parts per million (abr).
Proof
A stage of fermentation where the dough rests or recovers from stresses and
strains placed upon it during processing. The period when the dough is rising in
the baking pans before entering the oven is recognised as final proof.
Proofer also Final Proofer, Proof Box

A room or box in which bread dough is proofed. In most bakeries the proofer is
designed to maintain a temperature of approximately 38°C-42°C with a controlled
humidity.
Protease (Proteinase)
An enzyme that acts upon the proteins in the dough to produce greater dough
extensibility.
Protein
Nitrogen containing compounds occurring in all living matter. Chemically proteins
are chains of amino acids, combined through peptide linkages. Examples are
gluten (from wheat), casein (from milk), gelatin (from skin) and albumen (from
egg and soya).
Page 108 of 115

Pure Culture
A group of yeast cells that has no contaminant organisms growing on it.
Rancidity
A condition of being rancid usually applies to fats and fatty foods. The main type
of rancidity is oxidative. It is manifested by the appearance of an objectionable
odour. This type may be responsible for off-flavour in bakery products, especially
under long storage. Anti-oxidants have the effect of delaying the onset of such
rancidity.
Rapid Dough
A bread making process whereby the dough is ready for processing immediately
after mixing. In this process the fermentation period has been reduced from
hours to a period ranging from 0 minutes to 30 minutes.
Recipe
The precise formula of ingredients, quantities and method required to produce a
particular product.
Reduction
The reverse process of oxidation. Disulphide bonds are broken (softening) and
teased out, opening the gluten strand, so that it will subsequently link up to
reform disulphide bonds in a three dimensional network. Reducing agents gain
electrons.
Retarding
The temporary suspension or slowing of fermentation in the dough stage, by
cooling rapidly and storing at low temperatures for various periods of time to
enable recovery, final proof and baking to take place at a more suitable time.
Page 109 of 115

Ripeness
A condition of the dough at the completion of correct fermentation where the
maximum amount of elasticity and maturity exists in the dough.
Rope
A disease of bread characterised by the appearance in the bread of a sharp
acidic, fruity odour and then by the formation of slimy strings in the crumb. Rope
may be caused by any of several species of bacteria, but the one responsible for
the majority of rope is the common soil bacteria, Bacillus mesentericus.
Rope Inhibitor
A compound added to doughs to prevent the development of rope, e.g. Calcium
Propionate.
Shell Top
A top crust separated from the loaf by a deep, long, crack, giving the appearance
of a cap over the loaf.
Sheen
Reflection from the cell surfaces of the crumb.
Shortening
A fat, or fatty preparation, used in the production of bread, cakes and other
bakery products. It derived its name from its effect in making the product short
and tender.
Shred
Character of surface within the break. It (the break) may be smooth, ragged or
broken.
Page 110 of 115

Sodium Propionate
A mould and rope inhibitor.
Solubility
The extent to which a substance may be dissolved in a liquid to form a solution.
Sours
Ferments, usually containing lactic and acetic acids as well as other flavouring
materials, which are added mostly to rye bread but occasionally to wheat bread
for the benefit of their distinctive flavours.
Specific Gravity
Density of a liquid or batter compared to density of water.
Sponge and Dough Method

A method of making bread in which a “sponge” is made by mixing a part of the
total flour amount with all or part of the water amount, and usually with all of the
yeast and bread improver. This mixture is allowed to ferment until judged ready
for incorporation with the balance of the flour and water and other ingredients to
make the “dough”.
Staling
Refers to the drying out of fresh bread over a period of time. Starch crystallisation
over time contributes to a dry eating character that is no longer perceived as
fresh.
Starch
The starches are carbohydrates and are derived from plant sources. Starch is the
major component of wheat flour, being present to the extent of 70% in bakers’
flour. The starch molecules are large and consist of straight and branched chains
of glucose units. There are two kinds of molecules in natural starches-amylose
Page 111 of 115

(straight chain) and amylo-pectin (branched chain). When they are acted on by
the alpha amylase dextrins are formed and when by beta amylase the
fermentable sugar maltose is formed.
Steam
Water in the vapour phase at boiling point (100°C).
Steam, Superheated
Steam at a temperature higher than the saturation temperature corresponding to
the pressure.
Steam, Wet Saturated

Steam at the saturation temperature corresponding to the pressure and
containing water particles in suspension.
Straight Dough
A method of bread making where all the ingredients are incorporated at one time
and then fermented.
Strain
In commercial yeast manufacturing refers to a group of yeast cells within a
species or a variety distinguished by one or more minor characteristics.
Substrate
A substance on which another is grown. Molasses is a substrate for the
production of yeast.
Sucrose (see sugar, cane)
Sugar, Beet
Sugar derived from beet; identical to cane sugar.
Page 112 of 115

Sugar, Cane
Sugar derived from sugar cane
Sugar, Invert
Sugar of an equal mixture of glucose and fructose resulting from the hydrolysis of
sucrose.
Surfactants
Are surface active agents, which inhibit staling of bread products. Lecithin, mono
and diglycerides, diacetyl tartaric acid esters of mono and diglycerides are
surfactants. Surfactants may also strengthen the dough structure and soften the
bread crumb.
Temperature
The measure on a scale (°C) of heat intensity.
Temperature, Dry Bulb

Temperature by ordinary thermometer. (The term used only to distinguish from
wet bulb temperature.)
Temperature, Room
Temperature of any room as, for example, a dough room for the purpose of
calculating dough temperature or a room being conditioned for the comfort of
occupants.
Temperature, Wet Bulb

The temperature registered by a thermometer with the bulb covered with a wet
cloth or wick and exposed to freely moving air. The difference between the wet
bulb and dry bulb temperatures can be used to measure humidity.
Page 113 of 115

Texture
The feel of the crumb of a baked product. A good texture is one which is soft, yet
resilient and elastic. In bread scoring procedures grain and texture are often
grouped together. However, grain properly refers to the size and shape of gas
cells and texture refers to the feel of the crumb.
Thermometer
Instrument for measuring temperature.
Tin Crust
That part of the crust that has come in direct contact with the tin during baking.
Top Crust
That part of the crust above the tin and above the break.
Viscosity
The resistance to flow. Thus a dough of 60% absorption will have a higher
viscosity than a dough made from the same ingredients at 64% absorption.
Vitamins
Substances required in animal and human diets in very small amounts for the
normal and proper functioning of the body.
Water in Oil – see Emulsifiers

A term used to describe the dispersion of water into oil where the proportion of oil
exceeds the proportion of water and in which the oil is the continuous phase.
Wort
The sterilised sugar solution used to feed the yeast cell in the production of
commercial bakers yeast.
Page 114 of 115

Yeast
A single-cell microorganism used in bread making which is capable of fermenting
certain sugars to produce carbon dioxide and alcohol.
Yeast, Active Dry (A.D.Y.)

Yeast having a low moisture content and extended shelf life but having a lower
activity than compressed yeast. Must be rehydrated before use.
Yeast, Compressed
Fresh yeast having a firm consistency and formed into a block. Requires
refrigeration but can be added directly to the dough.
Yeast, Cream
Fresh yeast in liquid form. Primarily used by plant bakeries and stored in large
refrigerated stainless steel tanks. Normally added directly to the dough via
metering equipment.
Yeast, High Activity Instant Dry (H.A.D.Y. / IDY)

Yeast having a low moisture content and extended shelf life. Can be added
directly to the dough without hydrating.
Yeast Food (see Bread Improver)

Refers to all the substances necessary to support the growth of the yeast cell.
Yeast, Protected Active Dry (P.A.D.Y.)

Yeast having a low moisture content and extended shelf life, similar to A.D.Y. but
does not have to be hydrated before use. Not as active as H.A.D.Y.
Zymase
A collective name for the group of enzymes in yeast that convert sugar to
alcohol, carbon dioxide and water.
Page 115 of 115

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Zki133
eng.freedom@gmail

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‫ ‬ ‫

Mauri Yeast Australia

Chapter 1 The Evolution of Bread Making 1

2.2 Other Essential Ingredients 19

2.3 Optional Ingredients 29

Chapter 3 The Bread Making Process 32

3.2 Dough Production and Fermentation 36

3.3 Dough Mixing 41

3.4 Dough Processing Methods 43

Chapter 4 Characteristics of Bread 54

Chapter 5 Dough Room Calculations 65

Chapter 6 Food Safety, Bakery Hygiene and 71

Chapter 7 Basic Bread Formulations 75

Chapter 8 Glossary of Bakery Terms 87

Mr. Richard P. Meagher

To the previous contributors to the early editions of this book;

The First Bakers

Bread as a Measure of Social Status

It is generally accepted that a forgetful Egyptian baker developed the method of

19th Century Developments

1838 - beer yeast was named “Saccharomyces cerevisiae” by Meyer.

2.1 The Basic Ingredients

In 1921 a Danish scientist, Soren Sak, developed a new method of yeast

Today, vast resources are invested in research and development of yeast

The Manufacture of Bakers Yeast – The Burns Philp Example

Step 1: The Pure Culture

Fresh sub-cultures of strains are distributed to the company’s manufacturing

Step 2: Production of Seed Yeast

Step 4: Separation and Washing;

Step 5: Storage and Packaging;

FLOW CHART OF YEAST PRODUCTION

Yeast has three principal functions in dough:

AND IN THE BREAD…

Types of Bakers Yeast

I/ Liquid Cream Yeast

Liquid Cream Yeast is a natural product, having easy handling characteristics at

II/ Fresh Compressed Yeast

Compressed Yeast requires refrigeration for transport and storage, a sanitary

III/ High Activity Instant Dried Yeast (H.A.D.Y. / IDY)

Exhibit 1.1; Typical Usage Ratios Conversion between Yeast Variants

H.A.D.Y / IDY Fresh Compressed Liquid Cream

0.4 kg 1.0 kg 1.5 litres

Active Dry Yeast (A.D.Y.)

Protected Active Dried Yeast (P.A.D.Y.)

Other Types of Yeast

2.1.2 Flour “A basic understanding”

Flour consists of two main components

There are four basic factors which affect flour quality;

Classes of Australian Wheat

Australian Premium White

Australian Standard White (ASW)

Function of Salt in Bread Making

3. Control of Yeast Activity:

4. Bloom (colour) of the Final Loaf

The amount of water absorbed by the flour is primarily determined by protein

Water provides the following functions in the baking of bread:

Effects of Water Hardness on Dough

Exhibit 2.1; Effects of Water Hardness on Dough

Soft Practically None Poor Increase Yeast Food

Medium to Hard Normal Good N/A

2.2 Other Essential Ingredients

2.2.1 Bread Improvers

The Function of Bread Improvers