METHODS OF RESEARCH

PROBLEM Formulation

What is Research?

 The researcher asks a question.

 The researcher collects data.

 The researcher indicates how the data answered the question.

Research adds to our knowledge.

o Addresses gaps in knowledge

o Expands knowledge

o Replicates knowledge

o Adds voices of individuals to knowledge

Research helps improve practice.

 new ideas.

 new insights into approaches.

 connect with other researchers.

Problems with Research Today

 Contradictory or vague findings

 Questionable data

 Unclear statements about the intent of the study

 Lack of full disclosure of the data collection procedure

 Inarticulate rendering of the research problem

The Process of Research

Identify the
Research
Problem

Report and
Review the
Evaluate
Literature
Research

Specify a
Analyze and
Research
Interpret Data
Purpose

Collect Data

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The Process of Research: Identify the Research Problem

• Specify a problem

• Justify a problem

• Justify a problem

The Process of Research: Specify a Research Purpose

Identify the purpose statement

The major intent of the study
The participants in the study
The site of the study

Narrow the purpose statement

Quantitative: Write research questions and/or hypothesis
Qualitative: Identify a central phenomenon and write subquestions.

Scientific Research Process

Identification
Observation of problem
area

Refinement of theory Theoretical framework

(pure research) Or or Network of
Implementation associations
(applied research)

Interpretation Hypotheses
of data

Constructs,
Constructs,Concepts
Concepts
Analysis Operational
Operational
of data definitions
definitions

Data
Data Research
Research
collection
collection design
design

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From research topic to research problem

Research
topic

Research
problem

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 Basic research
Research topic and problem
Applied
research

Explore
Describe
Understand
‘What’
Predict RESEARCH QUESTIONS questions
Change and purpose ‘Why’
Evaluate
questions
Assess
impact

RESEARCH Inductive
STRATEGIES Deductive

Choose a topic
and search the
literature Overview of the research
process
Review the
literature and
define the research
problem/research
questions
Design the
research and
write the
proposal

Collect the
research data

Analyze and
interpret the
research data

Write the
dissertation,
thesis or
research report

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The Research Problem

• Students experience some difficulty in narrowing down their general interest.

• Often referred to as defining the research problem and leads on to setting the research question(s).

• The classic way is to consider the literature and identify any gaps, as these indicate original area to research.

• Many academic articles incorporate suggestions for further research in their conclusions.

You will need to focus your ideas, decide the scope of your research and set parameters. For example, perhaps your
study will investigate a broad financial issue, but focus on a particular group of stakeholders, size of business, industry,
geographical area, or period of time.

A “Problem Statement” is a description of a difficulty or lack that needs to be solved or at least researched to see
whether a solution can be found. It can also be described as either a gap between the real and the desired or a
contradiction between principle and practice.

The ultimate goal of a problem statement is to transform a generalized problem (something that bothers you; a
perceived lack) into a targeted, well-defined problem one that can be resolved through focused research and careful
decision-making.

Writing a Problem Statement should help you clearly identify the purpose of the project you will propose. Often, the
Problem Statement will also serve as the basis for the introductory section of your final proposal, directing your reader’s
attention quickly to the issues that your proposed project will address and providing the reader with a concise
statement of the proposed project itself.

A persuasive problem statement consists of three parts: 1) the ideal, 2) the reality, and 3) the consequences.

• Part A – the ideal: Describes a desired goal or ideal situation; explains how things should be.

• Part B – the reality: Describes a condition that prevents the goal, state, or value in Part A from being achieved or
realized at this time; explains how the current situation falls short of the goal or ideal.

• Part C – the consequences: Identifies the way you propose to improve the current situation and move it closer
to the goal or ideal.

Example 1
Part A

According to the XY university mission statement, the university seeks to provide students with a safe, healthy learning
environment. Dormitories are one important aspect of that learning environment, since 55% of XY students live in
campus dorms and most of these students spend a significant amount of time working in their dorm rooms.

Part B

Students living in dorms A B C, and D currently do not have air conditioning units, and during the hot seasons, it is
common for room temperatures to exceed 80 degrees F. Many students report that they are unable to do homework in
their dorm rooms. Others report problems sleeping because of the humidity and temperature. The rooms are not only
unhealthy, but they inhibit student productivity and academic achievement.

Part C

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In response to this problem, the study proposes to investigate several options for making the dorms more hospitable.
The study plans to carry out an all-inclusive participatory investigation into options for purchasing air conditioners
(university-funded; student-subsidized) and different types of air conditioning systems. The research will also consider
less expensive ways to mitigate some or all of the problems noted above (such as creating climate-controlled dorm
lounges and equipping them with better study areas and computing space).

Example 2
Step 1 (Statement 1)

The government has a goal to industrialize by the year 2030 (quote). In this regard it has encouraged growth oriented
micro and small enterprises (MSEs) that should graduate into medium and large enterprises capable of contributing to
the industrialization goal. There are several sessional papers (quote/cite) that contain specific measures to encourage
and support MSEs.

Step 2 and 3 (Statement 2)

Despite the said government efforts there is slow growth of micro into small enterprises and even slower growth of
small into medium scale enterprises (quote, show statistics). The government has officially acknowledged that there
exists a ‘missing middle’ in the country meaning that there is a gap between small and large enterprises in the country
(cite, quote).

Statement 3

Should the ‘missing middle’ gap persist then the industrialization goal may be difficult to achieve. Need therefore arises
to investigate why despite government efforts there is a persistent ‘missing middle’

Example 3
Statement 1

In order to accomplish their missions public universities need motivated workforces.

Statement 2

There are however frequent and severe disciplinary actions, absenteeism as well as various forms of unrests in public
universities which affect the accomplishment of the set missions. Our preliminary investigation reveals to both non-
management and management staff are not adequately motivated.

Statement 3

Without effective motivational packages and procedures the said vices are likely to continue and retard the achievement
of the universities missions. Need arises to examine the public universities motivation systems and procedures hence
this proposed research.

Example 4
Statement 1

The Commission on Youth is dedicated to allocating enterprise development funds to both the youth and women. These
funds are made available in order to start entrepreneurial ventures that create and expand employment. (provide
relevant statistics and quote)

Statement 2

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One of the main focuses of the commission is consistency. Unfortunately, consistency in allocating funds to the next
generation of recipients requires prior knowledge of previous allocations and established practices. The current
continuous disbursement method does not allow for adequate analysis of previous disbursements before a current
disbursement is done.

Statement 3

Continuing with this current disbursement method prevents consistency and causes decisions to become grossly
political, which in turn inhibits the achievement of the goals of the funds. Developing a more informed disbursement
system could help better implement the consistency focus of the commission and better monitoring and evaluating its
funds.

Statement 4

This proposed research aspires to explore options for a new funds disbursement system that would focus on
consistency. To do this, the researcher will carry out a full stakeholder analysis and use it to propose appropriate policy
interventions.

A Research Question Must Identify

1. The variables under study

2. The population being studied

3. The testability of the question

Variables in Research
• Independent variable:

– has a presumed effect on the dependent variable (outcome)

– May or may not be manipulated

• Dependent variable:

– Something that varies with a change in the independent variable

– Outcome variable

Examples of Good Research Problems

(in the form of questions)

• Does client-centered therapy produce more satisfaction in clients than traditional therapy? (experimental
design)

• Does behavior modification reduce aggression in autistic children? (single-subject experimental design)

• Are the descriptions of people in social studies discussions biased? (grounded theory design)

• What goes on in an elementary school classroom during an average week? (ethnographic design)

• Do teachers behave differently toward students of different genders? (causal-comparative design)

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 • How do parents feel about the school counseling program? (survey design)

• How can a principal improve faculty morale? (interview design)

Your Research Problem

• What is your area of interest?

• Where could you look for help in deciding upon a specific research problem?

• What criteria will you apply when deciding upon a specific research problem?

• How could you narrow down your research problem?

• How might your value-judgments (preconceived ideas) affect your research endeavors?

What is a Research Question?

~ is a statement that identifies the phenomenon to be studied

REASONS WHY RESEARCH QUESTIONS ARE CRUCIAL

• Guide your literature search

• Guide your decisions about the kind of research design to employ

• Guide your decisions about what data to collect and from whom

• Guide analysis of your data

• Guide writing-up of your data

• Stop you from going off in unnecessary directions

Steps in Formulating the Research Questions

• Ask these questions

– Do I know the field and its literature well?

– What are the important research questions in my field?

– What areas need further exploration?

– Could my study fill a gap? Or lead to greater understanding?

– Has a great deal of research already been conducted in this topic area?

– Has this study been done before? If so, is there room for improvement?

– Is the timing right for this question to be answered? Is it a hot topic, or is it becoming obsolete?

– Will the study have a significant impact on the field?

Research Questions and Hypotheses

A process of asking a question, or a series of related questions, and then initiating a systematic procedure to obtain valid
answers to that question.

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Formulating Research Question / Hypotheses

• A well-thought-out and focused research question leads directly to your hypotheses.

• Hypotheses are more specific predictions about the nature and direction of the relationship between two
variables.

• Hypotheses,

– Gives insight into a research question

– Are testable and measurable by the proposed experiments

• Each hypothesis is matched with a specific aim and has rationale.

Directional vs. Non-Directional Hypotheses

• Directional hypothesis

– Specifies the direction of the relationship between independent and dependent variables

• Non-directional hypothesis

– Shows the existence of a relationship between variables but no direction is specified

Research Objectives

• The research objectives are pursued in order to answer the research questions.

RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE

• State clearly why this research is important, what the benefits will be and how your work will contribute to
knowledge in your field. This may include commercial benefits, changes in current practice, a new perspective
on an old issue or other benefits to the community. You need to

• indicate why it is significant and how it advances understanding of the issues under discussion.

Summary Points

 Preliminary steps in the research process include forming a research problem, questions and hypotheses
 A hypothesis attempts to answer the question posed by the research question
 Research questions illustrate a relationship between variables, identify independent and dependent variables,
include a population, and imply that a problem is testable

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