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Sarah Valois
Cherrypharm Inc., 500 Technology Drive,
Geneva, NY, 14456 USA
Olga I. Padilla-Zakour
Department of Food Science Technology
NYSAES, Geneva, NY, 14456 USA
I. INTRODUCTION
A. Origins of Cider and Perry
B. Cider Production and Characteristics
1. Apple Categories
2. Apple Tannins
3. Apple and Cider Flavor Profiles
4. Cider Milling and Pressing
C. Fermentation Techniques
1. Yeast Nutrients
2. Temperature Effects on Cider Fermentation
3. Ciders versus Wines
4. Polyphenolic Amendments in Cider
D. Bottling and Handling Ciders
E. Chemical Characteristics of Ciders
1. Cider Acidity
2. Cider Sugars
3. Cider Tannins
4. Aromatic Flavor Components
5. Cider Appearance
365
c06_1 10/08/2007 366
I. INTRODUCTION
Table 6.1. Cider production/consumption and trends by country and region. Total
estimated sales value worldwide in 2005 were more than US$ 3 billion.
Source: Data from GMID database 2006; Mitchell 2006; and www.info-cidre.com.
c06_1 10/08/2007 370
the remaining portion of cider blends and provides adequate sugar and
acidity (Jarvis 2001; Lea and Drilleau 2003; Desmarest 2004). A few
dozen of the traditional Bittersweet and Bittersharp cultivars from west-
ern Europe are now being planting in the United States and Canada,
mostly in small orchards by local cider-makers who need high-tannin
cultivars to make traditional European-style ciders.
It is difficult to ascertain exactly how many hectares of cider orchard
exist in North America, because statistics on cider plantings by culti-
var in the United States are not available through tree-census sources
such as the U.S. Department of Agriculture, which does not gather
information specifically for fermented cider cultivars. Other cultivars
or species that are grown for ornamental purposes or as pollenizers in
commercial orchards include crabapples such as M. mandshurica or
M. floribunda, which contain relatively high concentrations of phe-
nolic compounds and malic acid compared with dessert apples. These
crabapples can be added to blends for cider but are not used as the
main source of juice, because their elevated concentration of phenol ic
compounds and malic acid may impart too much bitterness and acid-
ity to the cider.
3. Apple and Cider Flavor Profiles. Apart from the source apple
blends, other factors also contribute to the flavor profile of a cider,
including the methods of milling and pressing, the maturity and
condition of source fruit, and the addition of apple juice concentrate
or refined sugar (Le Quere et al. 2006). Various fermentation methods
and conditions can also influence the flavor of the cider, and there has
been extensive research on these techniques in England (Lea and
Drilleau 2003), France (Drilleau 1985; Le Quere et al. 2006), Switzer-
land (Durr 1986), and Spain (Mangas et al. 1994). Important factors in
cider flavor include the amount of added sulfites, yeast species or
strains, yeast-available nutrients, time and temperature of fermenta-
tion, titratable acidity and pH, malolactic fermentation, reduction of
spoilage microorganisms, and addition of other ingredients such as
preservatives, sweeteners, carbonation, or colorants in the final bot-
tling (Beech 1972; Proulx and Nichols 1980; Cabranes-Benduero 1991;
Jarvis et al.1995; Jarvis 2001; Lea and Drilleau 2003; Del Campo et al.
2003). Apart from a substantial number of recent studies involving
phytosanitary issues in fresh cider (to be discussed in more detail later),
little research has been conducted or published on cider flavor in North
America. Most of the published scientific reports from the United
States and Canada have involved cider juice or concentrate quality,
not fermented ciders (e.g., Downing 1989).
c06_1 10/08/2007 374
4. Cider Milling and Pressing. Various types of mills and presses are
used to extract juice from cider apples, and these presses influence the
efficiency of extraction, the extent of tannin extraction from seeds and
skins, and the resultant cider quality (Lea and Drilleau 2003). The most
efficient presses are very large-scale industrial units such as the Bucher-
Guyer horizontal piston press, or continuous belt presses, that can
batch-press many tonnes of apples per hour, mechanically loading
and dumping, at extraction efficiencies around 80% (w/w) (Bump
1989). Addition of pectic enzymes and pressing aids such as wood
shavings or rice hulls can increase juice extraction efficiencies by about
5% and are especially useful with perry because it is more difficult to
press pears than apples. Many small-scale cider-makers use the
hydraulic or screw rack-and-frame press, where successive layers of
milled apples are folded into nylon press-cloths and stacked in a
‘‘cheese’’ of a dozen or so layers that is pressed slowly under increasing
pressures to obtain the juice. The rack-and-frame press is more labor-
intensive and less efficient than the continuous-belt type or Bucher-
Guyer presses, but it is also less expensive and hence is used by many
small-scale producers.
The traditional French and English cider milling and pressing
method involved a horizontal circular stone trench into which apples
were dumped while an ox or horse pulled the axle of a large vertical
stone wheel rolling around in the trench (Copas 2001). These mills were
not very efficient at juice extraction, and after the screw press was
invented in the 13th century CE, it gradually replaced the old stone
mills because it was more efficient and could be operated with smaller
batches using human power (Mitchell 2006). To this day, some Spanish
cider-makers still use a very large version of screw or lever press called
the lagar (Fig. 6.1). The lagar relies on lathed oak or metal screws, or
very long levers, to exert a relatively low pressure over many days on
apples milled into fairly large chunks, piled into a single mass that is
contained between stout oak staves in a cubic press measuring 2 or 3
meters (m) in each dimension (Arumburu 1991; Garcia 2004). The tradi-
tional lagar press is not efficient, but it produces a characteristic highly
colored, low-tannin cider with substantial volatile acidity that is pop-
ular in Spain.
C. Fermentation Techniques
Proper control of fermentation through chemical and nutrient additions,
temperature control, and microflora reduction or inoculation allows
for a ‘‘clean’’ and consistent fermentation that is unlikely to produce
c06_1 10/08/2007 375
Fig. 6.1. A traditional Spanish oak lager screw press in operation. Pressing can take
several days, allowing partial mash fermentation, development of volatile acidity, and
binding of tannins on fruit solids, producing characteristic Spanish ciders. Source: Photo
reproduced from Garcia 2004.
Fig. 6.2. Flowchart of typical steps and procedures in modern cider-making. Source:
From Valois 2007.
organic acid present in apples, ranging from 0.1 to 1.4%, with an average
of 0.5% (Beech and Carr 1977). Acid content of the source apples gives
cider its tartness and can be manipulated by the addition of more acid
(usually malic), neutralization of acidity by additions of calcium carbo-
nate, or addition of artificial (usually nonfermentable) or natural sweet-
eners to balance the acidity (Downing 1989). When fermentable sugars
are used to balance acidity, either pasteurization or preservatives may
be necessary to prevent fermentation after bottling (Mitchell 2006).
However, some French and Spanish ciders are intentionally bottled
(in containers that can withstand several atmospheres of pressure) with
residual sugars and active yeast, to provide natural effervescence (Rio
1997; Le Quere 2006).
for cider are recommended to be around 0.5% as malic acid (w/w) (Lea
and Drilleau 2003).
other stress conditions that fruit may incur (Lea and Beech 1978; Lea and
Timberlake 1978; Machieux et al. 1990; Guyot et al. 2003; Boyer and Liu
2004; Valois et al. 2006).
Phenolic compounds are important nutritional or medicinal con-
stituents of many foods and beverages, and have been shown to
possess anticarcinogenic, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant capaci-
ties (Prior and Cao 2000; Sun et al. 2002; Boyer and Liu 2004). The
dietary effects of plant phenolics have been the topic of intense
research activity recently, with hundreds of scientific reports, and
potentially great impacts on cider marketing. A recent pamphlet pub-
lished by the National Association of Cider Makers in the United
Kingdom extolled the health aspects of moderate cider consumption
and provided an extensive list of studies linking dietary antioxidants
with potential health benefits (Russell 2002). The potential benefits of
moderate consumption of ciders and other apple products have been
confirmed in many recent reports (DuPont et al. 2002). However, it is
difficult to quantify or generalize the benefits that may ensue from
consumption of polyphenolics and other antioxidants such as ascor-
bic acid in apples or ciders, because concentrations of secondary
metabolites in fruits are influenced by the terroir, or local site factors,
where they are grown (McGhie et al. 2005; Lila 2006), interacting with
the genetic traits and lifestyles of those who consume these fruit
products (Evans et al. 2006).
The major polyphenolic classes in apples are flavonols (quercetin),
flavan-3-ols (catechin and epicatechin), dihydrochalcones (phloridzin),
anthocyanins (cyanidin 3-glycosides), phenolic acids (chlorogenic
acid), and tannins/proanthocyanidins (polymers of catechin and epi-
catechin). Of these polyphenols, the only ones that are true tannins
(forming strong bonds with proteins), and produce an astringent or
bitter taste are the proanthocyanidins (Lea 1990a). Astringency is
defined as drying or puckering of the whole tongue, whereas bitterness
is defined as a sharp or stinging sensation at the sides or back of the
tongue (Lea and Timberlake 1978; Noble 2002). Frequently these terms
are used interchangeably due to sensory panelists and consumers’
inability to distinguish between the two stimuli in a given cider.
Research has shown that phloridzin may also contribute bitterness to
the flavor profile of ciders (Lea 1990b).
Polyphenolic compounds are degraded by oxidation occurring
mainly during milling or grinding, due to mash contact with air in the
presence of the enzyme polyphenoloxidase. Polyphenoloxidase (PPO)
is an enzyme that combines with the phenols creating melanin, better
known for its tanned color appearance. This browning can be prevented
c06_1 10/08/2007 384
reported to range from 1,000 to 6,000 ppm (mg/kg fresh wt) and up to
10,000 ppm for selected cultivars used in cider production (Shahidi
and Naczk 2003). Chlorogenic acid and polymeric proanthocyanidin
content is also higher in cider fruit than dessert fruit (Machieux et al.
1990). Free hydroxycinnamic acids (chlorogenic, caffeic, ferulic, and p-
coumaric acids) are frequently present in cider after fermentation due to
hydrolysis by microbial action (Whiting and Coggins 1975). As noted,
the methods of pressing and fermenting ciders can also influence the
final concentrations of phenolics in the bottled products at the point of
consumption.
Fig. 6.3. A traditional pasture cider orchard at Burrow Hill Cidery in Somerset, England.
Source: Photo from collection of I. Merwin 1998.
c06_1 10/08/2007 387
far apart in pastures on small hillside farms (Sanchez et al. 1991). With
the renaissance of provincial cultural traditions and increased inde-
pendence from the central government in Spain, indigenous cider
traditions have become more important in provinces such as Asturias
and the Basque Country, and the image of old-fashioned orchards and
cider-making techniques has been promoted (Sanchez et al. 1991; Rivas,
2004).
B. Cultivar Characteristics
From an orchard management perspective, many of the Bittersweet and
Bittersharp cider cultivars differ substantially from the common dessert
and culinary apples in such important traits as biennial bearing, uneven
ripening, delayed blooming and ripening, tendencies to set fruit in
heavy clusters, and relative lack of response to chemical thinning treat-
ments (Williams 1987; Fuertes et al. 1997; Merwin, 1999). These differ-
ences may be related to the selection processes imposed by humans
during the domestication of apples primarily used for cider. Many cider
cultivars tend to drop a high proportion of their fruit on the ground
during the maturation and ripening periods. This trait may be advanta-
geous in that it reduces harvest labor requirements and facilitates
mechanical collection of drops in modern large-scale cider orchards
(Sanchez et al. 1991), but it presents a problem in the United States,
where mechanical harvesting equipment is not readily available and
phytosanitary rules developed for fresh or processing apples prohibit
the use of dropped fruit unless the juice is pasteurized or irradiated.
Pronounced biennial bearing is characteristic of many traditional
cider cultivars and is often one of the traits noted in recommending
cultivars for production (Williams 1987; Boré and Fleckinger 1997;
Copas 2001). Fruit size is usually smaller for cider apples compared
with dessert or culinary apples, and the fruit tend to set in compact
clusters with five or more per spur, causing numerous push-offs from
the clusters as fruit gain size approaching harvest. As noted, many of the
cider cultivars bloom much later than common dessert or culinary
apples. Even within the category of cider apples, there are some culti -
vars that bloom along with standards like ‘Golden Delicious’ or ‘Gala,’
while flowering of others is delayed a month or more (Morgan and
Richards 1993; Boré and Fleckinger 1997). Because timing is so
critical for effective chemical thinning, it is important for growers to
consider bloom times when planting cider orchards. Early- and late-
blooming cultivars should be planted together, to provide adequate
cross-pollination and facilitate applications of chemical thinners at
c06_1 10/08/2007 389
the appropriate time for each cultivar. Williams (1987) suggested group-
ing more and less difficult-to-thin cultivars together for purposes of
chemical thinning and stressed the importance of crop load reduction
in the first bearing years, because biennial tendencies of many cultivars
were difficult to break once established.
One of the authors of this review (Merwin) has been assessing cultivar
responses to chemical thinners for the past six years in a high-density
orchard with 25 traditional English and French cider cultivars on M.9
and Bud.9 rootstocks, trained in vertical axe form. This work is still in
progress, but it indicates to date that even with properly timed appli-
cations at recommended concentrations using carbaryl, napthaleneace-
tic acid, and benzyladenine fruit thinners (Agnello et al. 2005), many of
the traditional cider cultivars are difficult to thin adequately and som e
may crop biennially even when they are hand-thinned. There has been
little research published on this topic in Europe; most of the cider-apple
growers whom the authors have interviewed expect and accept sub-
stantial year-to-year variation in production from some of the traditional
cultivars. However, the list of recommended cultivars for modern plant-
ings in Europe does reflect biennial-bearing tendencies, and growers are
encouraged to plant the more annual-bearing cultivars when feasible
(Williams 1987; Boré and Fleckinger 1997; Fuertes et al. 1996).
Fig. 6.4. Breton farmer enjoying cider in the traditional drinking utensil of that region,
around 1898. Source: Photo from collection of I. Merwin, taken at Cider Museum in
Pleudihen, France, 1998.
and current situation for cider in each of these countries and world
regions.
A. France
Cider apples first appear in the written history of northern France in the
11th century CE, and widespread cider production began during the
c06_1 10/08/2007 393
Fig. 6.5. Selection of local artisanal ciders on the menu at a restaurant in Normandy,
France. Source: Photo courtesy of Pays de Normandie Magazine (May-June 1997).
following century (Warcollier 1926). These apples were notable for their
high polyphenolic or tannin content, in contrast to the more acidic and
less tannic native M. sylvestris crabapples. The early French cider
apples were probably not indigenous landraces and may have origi-
nated elsewhere in Europe during the 10th century or earlier. The
French historian Chevalier (1921) speculated that the Basque Country
in northeast Spain was a probable site of origin for cider cultivars,
noting that the Basque peoples were one of the oldest ethnic groups in
Europe, preceding the Celtic inhabitants of northern Spain, and that the
word for cider in Basque is sagara, which may have provided the root for
the Latin word sicera, connoting sidra in Spanish, cidre in French—
hence cider in the English language (French 1982; Boré and Fleckinger
1997).
The systematic study of cider apples in France began in earnest
during the late 1500s, when Jacques Cahaignes described 65 different
cider cultivars grown in Normandy. When Duhamel de Monceau pub-
lished his ‘‘Treatise of Fruit Trees’’ in 1768, there were about 300 named
cultivars in that region. In the 1950s, Fleckinger and his colleagues in
France proposed a systematic method for describing and classifying
cider apples, and began to collect and study the French cultivars first at
c06_1 10/08/2007 394
Versailles and then at the INRA facility in Angers. Among the 1,000 or
so cultivars that were collected, characterized, and observed over many
years, they have published detailed physical and chemical descriptions
of 350 main cultivars (Boré and Fleckinger 1997). About 70 elite culti-
vars are now recommended for cider production in France (Table 6.2),
differentiated by region based on their high juice yields, tree produc -
tivity and reliability, disease and pest tolerance, and the useful qualities
they impart to ciders.
Four main regions represent 95% of the cider production in France
today: Upper and Lower Normandy, Bretagne, and the Loire Valley.
There are three main categories defined for cider in France: Cidre
fermier (farm-style cider) is produced on-site from apples grown at the
farm itself (as in the estate-winery concept); cidre bouche´ is produced
by regional artisans from traditional cultivars of each region, and usu-
ally is bottle-conditioned with some residual sugars and natural effer-
vescence. Many artisanal cider-makers market their products under
appellation d’origine controle´e (AOC) labels, following rules that pro-
hibit chaptalization (additions of refined sugar to the fermentation), the
Table 6.2. List of cultivars recommended for cider production in Asturias, Spain,
with growing characteristics and im
blending categories.
2007-10-16 21:11:12
Recommended Cultivars Growth Characteristics Blend Category
--------------------------------------------
Blanquina 3 High
(thisvigor
table is incorrectly numbered, and is out of sequence in relation
Full Sharp
Cristalina to the text).
Vigorous Semi-Sharp
De la Riega Med. vigor Semi-Sharp
Limón Montés Med. vigor Full Sharp
Marialena High vigor Semi-Sharp
Regona Low vigor Full Sharp
Panquerina Low vigor Sharp
Prieta Med. vigor Sharp
Raxao High vigor Full Sharp
Solarina Med. vigor Semi-Sharp
Teorica Low vigor Sharp
Durón Arroes Med. vigor Sweet
Perezosa Med. vigor Sweet
Verdialona Med. vigor Sweet
Peau de Chien Low vigor Bittersweet
Coloradona Med. vigor Bittersweet
Picona Rayada Med. vigor Mild Bittersweet
Collaos Med. vigor Mild Bittersharp
Perico High vigor Mild Bittersharp
Xuanina Med. vigor Mild Bittersharp
Source: Adapted from Sanchez 1991; Fuertes et al. 1996.
c06_1 10/08/2007 395
added for increased activity. The PME removes methyl groups from the
pectin molecule, allowing other divalent ions such as calcium to bond
in the methyl group’s place. The de-methylated pectin can then com-
bine with calcium, proteins, or asparagines in the juice, forming a gel
(known in French as the chapeau brun, or ‘‘brown hat’’) that floats to the
top of the barrel as CO2 gas is released during incipient fermentation. At
the same time (if all goes well), some solids settle to the bottom of the
barrel leaving a clear juice in the middle, which has been diminished in
nitrogen. This practice involves some risk, because it increases the
likelihood of reduced sulfides and other off-flavors caused by metabolic
stress of yeasts coping with low N levels (Le Quere et al. 2006). How-
ever, keeving is customary in artisanal cider-making, and when suc-
cessful it can produce naturally sweet and effervescent ciders with
enhanced fruity volatiles. French cidre bouche´ drinkers have come to
accept and appreciate this type of finished product. Another French
technique that enhances residual sugars and slows yeast fermentation
involves repeated centrifugation or ‘‘biomass reduction’’ to remove
and suppress the remaining yeast in traditional cider styles (Lea and
Drilleau 2003). These practices are necessitated by restrictions on the
use of additives or amendments in artisanal French ciders and are part
of the reason for its renewed market appeal.
The French also produce Calvados (in Normandy) and similar dis-
tilled apple ‘‘brandies’’ in other regions (Robin and de la Torre 1987). As
in the distinction between Cognac and brandy, or Champagne and other
sparkling wines, the term Calvados, strictly speaking, refers exclusively
to a distilled cider produced from the fermented juice of selected apple
cultivars traditionally grown in Normandy (Mattson 2005). Distillation
can only be done in alembic copper stills, and requires successive
passes through these stills to obtain the desired alcohol level and
fractionation of volatiles. The distilled product is then aged in barrels
of French oak for a designated number of years, diluted to 40% (v/v)
ethanol with water, and marketed as Calvados at premium prices. The
predominant flavors and amber color of Calvados and similarly pro-
duced apple brandies are derived from the oak barrel aging as well as
from the cider.
A different fermentation and distillation process produces eau de vie
that retains many of the characteristic aromatic traits of the source fruit
cultivars (Ortner 1996). The best apple eau de vies are made by ferment-
ing crushed fruit or pomace as a mash, without pressing off the juice
(Tanner and Brunner 1982). By definition, most aromatic flavors are
volatile, and in fermenting cider much of the characteristic aroma of the
varietal blend is lost to the head space in fermentation vessels and
c06_1 10/08/2007 397
B. Spain
Traditional cider apples are grown primarily along the north coast of
Spain, in the cool maritime climate regions north of the Picos de Europa,
a western extension of the Pyrenees mountain range. Unlike the rest of
Spain, these northern provinces were not conquered by the Moors, and
they retain a distinctly Celtic culture to this day. Spanish and Basque
cider apples may be some of the most ancient local M. × domestica
lineages in Europe, and Asturian cider orchards were first mentioned in
records of the monastery of San Vicente in Oviedo in the year 781 CE
(Sanchez et al. 1991). To this day, Spain retains a unique and distinctive
cider culture and industry, with its own local cultivars, its own cider
styles, and a vibrant cultural scene that draws Spanish and other tou-
rists to the cool north coast to visit sidrerias and enjoy the local cuisine
and splendid rural scenery while the rest of Spain endures scorching
summer heat. A research center devoted primarily to cider apples and
fermentation is located at Villaviciosa in Asturias, where Spain’s largest
industrial cider-maker (El Gaitero, Spanish for bagpiper) is located.
Apart from El Gaitero—which produces carbonated, semisweet ciders
with substantial acidity that are marketed as an inexpensive substitute
for sparkling wine throughout Spain and South America —most
Spanish cider-makers on the north coast are small-scale regional pro-
ducers using traditional methods and local cultivars (Rivas 2004). An
excellent museum for Spanish ciders is located in La Nava, Asturias
(www.museodelasidra.com). As in France, most of Spain’s cider apples are
traditional landrace selections that have been grown locally for many cen-
turies. A list of the main Asturian cider apples and their characteristics is
presented in Table 6.3 (Sanchez et al. 1991; Fuertes et al. 1996).
Traditional-style Spanish ciders are sold primarily through a network
of regional sidrerias—pub-style restaurants that feature the ciders of a
few local producers in combination with regional cuisine. These ciders
are usually still (fermented to dryness without effervescence), with
relatively low tannin content; they are relatively tart, with substantial
volatile acidity due to exposure to oxygen and the presence of acetic
acid-forming bacteria during fermentation (Suarez et al. 1996). They are
sold in 750-milliliter (ml) bottles that can usually be distinguished only
by the producer’s stamp on the corks, and individual sidrerias often
feature the ciders of a just a few local producers.
c06_1 10/08/2007 399
Table 6.3. List of nationally and regionally recommended cultivars for cider
production in France, by regionim and blend category of apple. Some AOC designations
require use of certain cultivars 2007-10-16
within these21:12:46
broad categories.
--------------------------------------------
Blending Blending
Cultivar 2 (this tableCultivar
Category is incorrectly numbered,and should be moved forwardin
Category
the manuscript closer to its first mention in the text describing
Generally Recommended French cider apples).
Avrolles Sharp Frequin Rouge Bittersweet
Bedan Bittersweet Judor Sharp
Binet Rouge Bittersweet Judeline Sharp
Bisquet Bittersweet Kermerrien Bittersharp
Cidor Bittersweet Locard Vert Sharp
Clos Renaux Sweet Marie Menard Bittersharp
Douce Coet Ligne Sweet Petit Juane Sharp
Douce Moen Bittersweet
Regionally Recommended
Amere Saint Jacques Bittersweet Guyot Roger Sweet
Antoinette Bittersweet Herbage Sec Bittersweet
Armagnac Bittersharp Juane de Vitré Sharp
Avalou Belein Bittersweet Jeanne Renard Bittersweet
Belle Fille de la Manche Bittersweet Joly Rouge Bittersweet
Bergerie de Villerville Bittersweet Judin Sharp
Binet Blanc-Doré Bittersweet Maltot Sweet
Binet Violet Bittersweet Mariennet Bittersharp
Blanchet Sharp Marin Onfroy Gros Bittersweet
C’huero Briz Bittersweet Mettais Bittersharp
Cartigny Bittersweet Monnier Dur Bittersweet
Chevalier Juane Bittersweet Moulin a Vent Bittersharp
Chuero Ru Bihan Bittersharp Muscadet de Dieppe Bittersweet
Cimetiere de Blangy Bittersweet Noel des Champs Bittersweet
Clozette Douce Bittersweet Omont Bittersweet
Crollon Bittersweet Petit Amer Bittersweet
Diot Roux Sharp Rambault Sharp
Domaines du Calvados Bittersharp René Martin Sharp
Douce Bloc Hic Sweet Rouge de Trêves Sharp
Doux au Gobet Sweet Rouge Duret Sweet
Doux Eveque Juane Sweet Rousse de la Sarthe Sweet
Doux Joseph Bittersweet Saint Philbert Bittersweet
Doux Lozon Bittersweet Sebin Blanc Sharp
Doux Veret de Carrouges Sweet Solage a Gouet Bittersweet
Ègyptia Bittersweet Saint Martin Bittersweet
Fil Juane Sharp Sorte Petite de Parc Dufour Sweet
Grise Dieppois Bittersweet Taureau Bittersweet
Groin D’Âne Bittersweet Teint Frais Bittersharp
Gros Bois de Bayeux Bittersweet Tesnières Sharp
Guillevic Sharp Tête de Brebis Bittersweet
Source: Primault 1993; Bore and Fleckinger 1997; CTPC Web site at http://ctpc.cidre.net.
c06_1 10/08/2007 400
Fig. 6.6. Sampling a barrel-fermented Asturian cider in the traditional manner, at the
Sidreria Miravalles in Villaviciosa, Spain, prior to blending among barrels for quality and
consistency. Source: Photo from collection of I. Merwin 1998.
c06_1 10/08/2007 402
Fig. 6.7. Mechanical harvest of apples from the ground in a modern English cider orchard
(photo courtesy of NACM). Source: Photo reproduced from Umpelby and Copas 2002.
National Fruit and Cider Institute was established in Long Ashton (near
Bristol). For the next 80 years, Long Ashton remained a leading center
for research and technical support to the English cider industry, indi-
rectly benefiting cider-makers worldwide until it was eviscerated dur-
ing the era of Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher and subsequently
closed down.
At present, the English cider sector is dominated by 10 large-scale
cider-makers that have formed the National Association of Cider Makers
(NACM) to promote cider production and consumption (www.cider-
uk.com). However, many small-scale cider-makers also exist in south-
west England, with various cider trails, local styles, and regional
cultivars (Bruning 2005). Compared with Spain or France, relatively
few cider apple cultivars are grown in England, and many of their names
suggest that they probably originated in Brittany, Normandy, or the
Channel Islands (Table 6.4). A very readable and thorough summary
of the traditional English cider apples, with color plates and complete
descriptions of 88 cultivars, was published recently by Liz Copas
(2001). The descriptions in this monograph are especially useful for
North American growers who need to verify the authenticity of some
imported cider cultivars, because there have been misidentifications of
accessions in the U.S. Department of Agriculture Malus germplasm
repository at Geneva, New York, that were subsequently propagated
and distributed by commercial nurseries in the United States.
The English cider industry is less closely regulated than those Spain
and France with respect to its permitted styles of cider-making and
marketing. Cider and perry are defined in the United Kingdom accord-
ing to the most basic criteria of the AICV, as fermented apple (or pear)
juice or blends including juice concentrate, with an alcohol concen-
tration between 1.2 and 8.5% (v/v), without added distilled spirits,
colorants, or flavorants. A detailed list of permitted additives and ingre-
dients in English ciders is available in Mitchell’s (2006) NACM hand-
book.
D. North America
Wherever apples are grown, unfermented or ‘‘sweet’’ or ‘‘fresh’’ cider
has persisted as a local drink in the United States and Canada. With
globalization of the world apple market, direct sales have become
increasingly important for many U.S. apple growers (O’Rourke 1994),
and small retail outlets or farm stands often feature fresh-pressed cider
to attract customers and increase purchases of fruit or other farm and
kitchen produce (Rowles, 2000). Recent outbreaks of food poisoning
c06_1 10/08/2007 405
Table 6.4. Recommended cider apples in each blend category for the UK cultivars
designated as dual purpose canim
be used for culinary or dessert purposes in addition to
cider blends. 2007-10-16 21:22:21
21:22:04
21:22:13
Generally --------------------------------------------
Generally
Recommended .C Recommended Blending
Cultivars Blending Category Cultivars Category
American cider style. Only a few domestic cultivars are grown or recom-
mended specifically for cider-making in North America, although several
popular-press publications provide recommendations on this topic
(Proulx and Nichols 1980; Correntry 1995; Watson 1999; Merwin 2005).
Several hundred of the English, French, and Spanish cider apple
cultivars, and some 3,000 other accessions of Malus × domestica and
other Malus species have been collected at the USDA-Plant Genetic
Resources Unit (PGRU) in Geneva, New York (Browning 1998; Forsline
et al. 2006). Descriptive profiles of these apples can be accessed online
in a database at www.ars-grin.gov/cgi, and budwood for most of them is
available for propagation by nurseries and interested fruit growers.
Unfortunately, the Geneva-PGRU collection of cider apples includes
several misidentified clones—including ‘Sweet Alford’, ‘Foxwhelp’,
‘Yarlington Mill’, and ‘Tremlett’s Bitter’. The last cultivar, whatever
its true identity, is an excellent Bittersharp that has performed very well
in some commercial New York plantings, and is being informally
referred to as ‘Geneva Tremletts’ until it can be positively identified
as another English cider cultivar or a serendipitous chance bud muta-
tion (P. Forsline, personal communication).
Despite the limitations just described, there is great potential for
ciders wherever apples can be grown in the United States, and also in
British Columbia, Ontario, and Nova Scotia in Canada. Thousands of
commercial growers produce hundreds of cultivars in these regions,
and many of these orchards are on or near established wine trails where
farm-based cideries could be a welcome diversification of the regional
agrotourist sector. There has been some cider apple research conducted
by Wilson et al. (2003) in Ontario, Canada, comparing common North
American apple cultivars with European Bittersweets for cider produc-
tion. Plantings have been established in the Finger Lakes region of New
York to determine the adaptability of French and English Bittersweets
and Bittersharps to the colder growing conditions in the Northeast
United States, and to date it appears likely that most of the European
cider cultivars can be successfully grown in North America (Valois et al.
2006; Valois 2007). However, some of these cultivars are prone to heat-
stress and ‘‘sunburn’’ damage in relatively hot growing regions with
continental-type climates (I. Merwin, unpubl.).
In northwest Washington State, Moulton et al. (2006) have estab-
lished research plantings of cider apple cultivars in the Puget Sound
region, which has a cool maritime climate similar to that of Brittany
and Asturias, and their reports on these cultivars’ performance are
available online (www.mtvernon.wsu.edu/frt_hort/ciderapples.htm).
Based on recent studies and communications with several commercial
c06_1 10/08/2007 408
Table 6.5. Examples of apple cultivars available in North America and their suggested
proportions in a balanced cider blend. Many French and English Bittersweet and
Bittersharp apples are also available by special order from nurseries in North America
and can be grown for blending purposes where additional tannins are desired by the
cider-maker.
Fruit Blend
Recommended Cultivars Characteristics Category Proportion
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