BIOCHEMICAL DUTIES

BY:

ANDIKA REZA SAPUTRA

1810104082001 DOSAGE

Linda Elvira, M.Si

ACADEMIC NURSINGNABILA

OFPADANG PANJANG

2018/2019
 GENETIC

A. DNA​ as a molecular basis of the science of inheritance.

Genetics (borrowed from ​Dutch​: genetica, adaptation of ​English​: genetics, formed fromword ​the Greek γέννω, genno,
which means "giving birth") is a branch of ​biology that studies inheritance of properties in ​organisms and suborganisms (such
as ​viruses and prions). In short it can also be said that genetics is the science of ​genes and all its aspects. The term "genetics"
was introduced by William Bateson in a personal letter to Adam Chadwick and he used it at the 3rd International Conference
on Genetics in 1906. The
field of genetic studies began from the ​subcellular (​molecular​) to the ​population​. In more detail, genetics attempts to
explain
1. information-carrying material to be inherited (​genetic material​),
2. how that information is expressed (​genetic expression​), and
3. how that information is transferred from one individual to another (​genetic inheritance​).

B. The beginnings and basic concepts of

1. the pre-Mendelic period
Although people usually set genetics beginning with the discovery of the manuscript article written by ​Gregor
Mendel in 1900, genetics was actually "inheritance" or heredity had been known since prehistoric times, such as
domestication and development of various ​races livestockand ​cultivars plant. People have also known the effects of
crossing and ​kinship marriage and made a number of procedures and regulations regarding this matter since before
genetics stood as an independent science. Pedigree about diseases in the family, for example, has been reviewed by
people before that. However, this practical knowledge does not provide an explanation for the causes of these
symptoms.
The popular theory of inheritance adopted at that time was the theory of mixed inheritance: one inherited an
average mixture of traits that parents carried, especially from​males because they carried ​sperm​. Mendel's research
shows that this theory does not apply because the properties are carried out in combinations carried by typical alleles,
rather than evenly mixed. Another related opinion is Lamarck's theory: the traits that elders obtain in their lives are
inherited to their children. This theory is also broken by Mendel's explanation that the nature carried by genes is not
influenced by the experience of individuals who inherit that trait​[1]​. Charles Darwin also provided an explanation with
thehypothesis pangenesisand later modified by Francis Galton​[2]​. In this opinion, ​the cells​of the body-cells produce
particles called gemmula to be collected in the reproductive organs before fertilization occurs. So, every cell in the
body has a contribution to the properties that will be carried zuriat (offspring).
 In pre-Mendelic times, people did not recognize ​genes and ​chromosomes (although ​DNA was extracted but its
function was unknown in the 19th century). At that time people still assumed that traits were inherited from ​sperm
(female elders did not contribute anything to the nature of their children).
The basic concept of laying the scientific foundation through systematic experiments was only carried out in
the latter half of the 19th century by ​Gregor Johann Mendel​. He was a monk from ​Brno (Brünn in ​German​), theEmpire
Austro-Hungarian (now part of the Czech ​Republic​). Mendel was generally agreed upon as the 'founder of genetics'
after his work "Versuche über Pflanzenhybriden" or Experiment on Plant Crossing (published in ​1866​) was
rediscovered separately by Hugo de Vries, Carl Correns, and Erich von Tschermak in ​1900​. In his work, Mendel first
discovered that trait inheritance in plants (he uses seven traits in ​peas​, Pisum sativum) follows a numberratios
mathematical of simple. More importantly, he can explain how these ratios occur, through what is known as the
'​Mendel Law of Inheritance​'.
From this work, people began to recognize the concept of ​genes (Mendel called it a 'factor'). Genes are carriers
of properties. Alleles are alternative expressions of genes in relation to a trait. Each ​individual disomikalways has a
pair of alleles, which are related to a distinctive trait, each of which comes from its parents. The status of this pair of
alleles is called a ​genotype​. If an individual has the same allele pair, the individual genotype is ​homozygous​, if the pair
is different, the individual genotype in question is heterozygous. Genotypes are related to observed properties. The
properties associated with a genotype are called ​phenotypes​.

2. Chronology of genetic development

After the rediscovery of Mendel's work, genetics developed very rapidly. The development of genetics is often
a classic example of the use ​of scientific methods​ in ​science​ or ​science​.
The following are the stages of genetic development:
a. 1944 ​Oswald Theodore Avery​, Colin McLeod and Maclyn McCarty isolate ​DNA as a genetic material
(they call it the principle of transformation).
b. 1950 Erwin Chargaff shows a general rule that applies to four nucleotides in nucleic acids, for example
adenine tends to be as much as thymine.
c. 1950​ ​Barbara McClintock​ discovered the transposon in ​corn​.
d. 1952 Hershey and Chase prove that the genetic information of ​bacteriophages (and all other organisms) is
DNA.
e. 1953 The puzzle of DNA structure is answered by ​James D. Watson and ​Francis Crick in the form of
double helix, based onimages ​diffraction ​X-rays DNAfrom ​Rosalind Franklin ==> the beginning of
molecular genetics​.
f. 1956​ Jo Hin Tjio and Albert Levan ensure that ​thechromosomes​ humannumber 46.
g. 1958​ The Meselson-Stahl experiment shows that DNA is replicated (​replicated​) semiconservatively.
h. 1961​ Genetic code arranged in triplets.
i. 1964​ Howard Temin shows with thevirus​RNA​ that the principal dogma of not always applies.
C. The branches of Genetic
Genetics develop both as pure science and applied science. These branches of knowledge are formed primarily as a
result of deepening a certain aspect of the object of study.
Pure branches of genetics:
1. molecular
2. genetics of cell genetics (cytogenetics)
3. genetics population
4. genetics quantitative
5. genetics development
a. of applied branches of genetics:
1) medical genetics genetics
2) breeding
3) genetic​ or ​engineeringgene engineering

Biotechnology is applied science that is not directly a branch of genetics but is closely related to development in the
field of genetics.

D. Reverse genetics
The classic genetic study starts with the phenomenon of the ​phenotype (which is seen by human observation) and then
looks for an explanation of the genotypic to the level of the gene. The development of techniques in molecular genetics
quickly and efficiently raises new philosophies in ​methodology genetic, by reversing the direction of study. Because many
genes have been identified by sequences, people enter or change a gene on a chromosome and then look at the phenotypic
implications that occur. The techniques of analysis using this philosophy are grouped in the study ​of genetics and forth
direction​ or reverse genetics, while genetics study classical technique called genetic directions-forward or forward genetics.