Design Criteria
‡ We want the load effects to be less than the resistance…
Bridge Design
III. Loads on Bridge – Summary of Concepts
Loads on Bridge
‡ DD = downdrag (wind)
‡ DC = dead Load of
structural and
nonstructural components
‡ DW = dead load of wearing
surface
‡ EH = earth pressure
(horizontal)
‡ EL = secondary forces such as
from posttensioning
‡ ES = earth surcharge load
(vertical)
‡ EV = earth pressure (vertical)
This Section
Load Resistance
∑ ηγiQi ≤ ΦRn
Load Multiplier
Load Factor
Nominal Resistance
Resistance Factor
Nominal Load Effect
‡ BR = breaking force of vehicle
‡ CE = centrifugal force of vehicle (at curves)
‡ CR = creep of concrete
‡ CT = vehicle collision force (on bridge or at
‡
piers)
CV = vessel collision force (bridge piers over
river)
Dead Loads
‡ EQ = earthquake
‡ FR = friction
‡ IC = ice DC, DW
‡ IM = dynamic load of vehicles
‡ LL = live load of vehicle (static)
‡ LS = live load surcharge
‡ PL = pedestrian load
‡ SE = settlement
‡ SH = shrinkage of concrete
‡ TG = load due to temperature differences
‡ TU = load due to uniform temperature
‡ WA = water load/ stream pressure
‡ WL = wind on vehicles on bridge
‡ WS = wind load on structure
Dead Loads: DC, DW Tributary Area for Dead Loads
‡ Calculated from Density
wDC or wDW
Material Density (kg/m3)

Concrete (Normal Weight.) 2400

Asphalt 2250 M=wL2/8

‡ Distribute to girder through Tributary Area

‡ Different load factor for DC and DW V=wL/2

DC, DW
‡ Section for maximum moment is not the same as the section
for maximum shear
‡ For simply-supported beams
„ Maximum M occurs at midspan Live Loads
„ Maximum V occurs over the support
‡ As we shall see in the designs of girders, the Critical Section for shear is
about d from the support.(where d is the effective depth of section, LL+IM, PL
approximately 0.8h)
‡ At this point, shear is slightly lower than at the support. If we use shear at
the support for the design of stirrups, we are conservative.
 Live Loads: LL+IM, PL LL
‡ LL ‡ LL in AASHTO are specified as Static Lane Loading
„ 3 basic types of LL in AASHTO LRFD, called HL-93 loading (stands for
Highway Loading, year 1993) HS-20
‡ Design truck (HS-20)
‡ Design tandem
‡ Uniform loads
‡ IM (sometimes called just “I”)
„ Dynamic Allowance Factor, which applies to:
‡ Design Truck
‡ Design Tandem
‡ PL ‡ We need to consider dynamic effect of this LL
„ Pedestrian only: 3.6 kN/m2 ‡ We also want to know how much, at most, each girder has to carry this
„ Pedestrian and/or Bicycle: 4.1 kN/m2 load, under worst possible loading patterns

Analysis Strategy for LL Live Load Combinations

‡ Design for 3 combinations of LL (per 1 Design Lane)
Load Combinations „ Combination 1: Truck + uniform lane load
Transverse Placement (for slab design) „ Combination 2: Tandem + uniform lane load
„ Combination 3: (for negative moments at interior supports of continuous
Longitudinal Placement (for girder design) beams) place two HS20 design truck, one on each adjacent span but not less
Place them than 15 m apart (measure from front axle of one truck to the rear axle of
Moment/ Shear
Various to get Consider Distribute another truck), with uniform lane load. Use 90% of their effects as the design
from Live Load
Live maximum dynamic Load to moment/ shear
to be used in the
Loads effects on effects each girder ‡ Use maximum effect of these cases for design
design of girders
span
Dynamic Multiple Presence of LL
Design Truck Allowance Factor Distribution Factors
Design Tandem (IM)

Uniform Lane Load

Live Load Placement - Longitudinal
‡ Methods of finding maximum moment and shear in span
„ Influence Line (IL) – Simple and Continuous spans (most general)
„ Design Equation – Simple span only
„ Design Chart – Simple span only
Live Load Placement – Influence Line
‡ Influence line is a graphical method for finding the variation of the
“structural response” at a point as a concentrated live load moves across
the structure
‡ We can sketch this IL by
„ Placing Unit Load, calculate the response using statics, plot the response
considered as the unit load moved along the span
„ Use Müller-Breslau Principle
‡ IL for determinate structure consists of straight lines
‡ IL for indeterminate structure will have curved lines

‡ Influence line tells you how to place the LL such that the maximum
moment at a point occurs; but not where the absolute maximum moment
in the span occurs; i.e. the maximum moment on the point you picked is
not always the absolute maximum moment that can occur in the span
(which will occur at a different point and under a different arrangement of
loads)
‡ Increase/ Decrease method for series of concentrated loads

Live Load Placement – Design Equation Live Load Placement – Design Chart
‡ If we combine the truck/tandem load with uniform load, we can get the
following equations for maximum moment in spans Bending Moment in Simple Span
for AASHTO HL-93 Loading
for a fully loaded lane
Moment in kips-ft
IM is included
1 ft = 0.3048 m
1 kips = 4.448 kN
1 kips-ft = 1.356 kN-m
 Live Load Placement – Design Chart
Shear in Simple Span
for AASHTO HL-93 Loading
for a fully loaded lane
Shear in kips
IM is included
1 ft = 0.3048 m
1 kips = 4.448 kN
Live Load Placement – Design Chart
‡ Design chart is meant to be used for preliminary designs.
‡ We assume that maximum moment occurs at midspan – this produces
slightly lower maximum moment than the Design Equation method.
However, the error is usually small.
‡ Maximum shear occurs at support. However, the chart does not have
x = 0 ft. The closest is 1 ft from support.
„ In general, the bridge girder much higher than 1 ft. Therefore, shear at 1 ft is
still higher than the shear at critical section for shear (at d) so we are still
conservative here.

Analysis Strategy for LL Dynamic Load Allowance: IM

Load Combinations
Dynamic Load
Allowance Factor
Transverse Placement (for slab design) Effect due to Effect due to
Static Load Dynamic Load
Longitudinal Placement (for girder design) IM
Place them Moment/ Shear Table 3.6.2.1-1 (modified)
Various to get Consider Distribute Add dynamic effect
from Live Load Component IM ‡
Live maximum dynamic Load to to be used in the Deck Joint 75% to the following
Loads effects on effects each girder design of girders All limit states loads:
span
Dynamic Multiple Presence of LL All other components above ground „ Design Truck
Design Truck Allowance Factor Distribution Factors Fatigue/ Fracture Limit States 15% „ Design Tandem
Design Tandem (IM) All Other Limit States 33%
‡ But NOT to these
Uniform Lane Load Foundation components below ground 0% loads:
„ Pedestrian Load
* Reduce the above values by 50% for wood bridges „ Design Lane Load
 Analysis Strategy for LL Multiple Presence of LL
Number of Multiple Presence
Load Combinations Loaded Lane Factor “m”
Transverse Placement (for slab design)
1 1.20
Longitudinal Placement (for girder design)
2 1.00
Place them Moment/ Shear
Various to get Consider Distribute 3 0.85
from Live Load
Live maximum dynamic Load to >3 0.65
to be used in the
Loads effects on effects each girder design of girders
span ‡ It’s almost impossible to have maximum load effect on ALL lanes at the same time
Dynamic Multiple Presence of LL
Design Truck Allowance Factor Distribution Factors ‡ The more lanes you have, the lesser chance that all will be loaded to maximum at
(IM) the same time
Design Tandem
‡ Multiple presence factor is included in the Distribution Factor from AASHTO. We
Uniform Lane Load will need this only when we calculate the distribution factor from Lever Rule or
other analyses (such as FEM)

AASHTO Girder Distribution Factor DF

‡ DF for Moment ‡ For AASHTO method
„ Interior
Distribution Factor first we must identify
Lane Moment DF Girder Moment the type of
„ Exterior
Lane Shear Girder Shear superstructure
‡ DF for shear (support beam & deck
„ Interior types) (Example)
„ Exterior
roadway width

Exterior Exterior
Interior

‡ DFs are available for one design lane and two or more design lanes (the
larger one controls)
‡ Must make sure that the bridge is within the range of applicability of the
equation
DFM DFM
‡ Distribution factor for ‡ Distribution factor for
moment in Interior moment in Exterior
Beams (Example) Beams (Example)

Summary of LL+IM Calculation

‡ At any section, if not using AASHTO’s GDF
„ MLL+IM, Girder = DFM×(Mtruck/tadem,Lane×IM + Muniform,Lane )×m
„ VLL+IM, Girder = DFV×(Vtruck/tadem,Lane×IM + Vuniform,Lane )×m
‡ At any section, if using AASHTO’s GDF Dead Load + Live Load
„ MLL+IM, Girder = DFM×(Mtruck/tadem,Lane×IM + Muniform,Lane )
„ VLL+IM, Girder = DFV×(Vtruck/tadem,Lane×IM + Vuniform,Lane )
Load Combination and Limit States

Placed such that

we have maximum
effects
Design Criteria Load Combinations
‡ We need to consider several possible combinations of loads under ‡ STRENGTH I: Basic load combination relating to the normal use of bridge.
different conditions Maximum combination is used when LL produces the same effect as DC.
Minimum combination is used when LL produces opposite effect to DC.
‡ STRENGTH II: load combination for special vehicles specified by owner
Load Resistance ‡ STRENGTH III: load combination where the bridge is subjected to high
wind (> 90 km/h) and traffic is prevented
∑ ηγiQi ≤ ΦRn ‡ STRENGTH IV: load combination for long span bridges (>67 m span)
which has large ratio of DC to LL
‡ STRENGTH V: load combination where bridge and traffic on the bridge is
Load Multiplier subjected to wind velocity of 90 km/h
Nominal Resistance
Load Factor
Resistance Factor
Nominal Load Effect

Load Combinations Load Factors for DC, DW

‡ EXTREME EVENT I: load combination for structural survival under major
earthquake
‡ EXTREME EVENT II: load combination for structural survival under
combination of events such as flood and vessel collision

‡ SERVICE I: load combination for normal operation of the bridge and for
checking compression in prestressed concrete
‡ SERVICE II: load combination for steel bridges to control yielding
‡ SERVICE III: load combination relating to tension in prestressed concrete
during service

‡ FATIGUE: load combination for fatigue and fracture due to repetitive LL

and IM
Load Factors for DC, DW Consider Maximum
case for Gravity load
Load Factors for LL
designs

Load Combinations Notes on Load Combinations

‡ For slabs and girders designs under gravity loads, we normally
have only DC, DW, and (LL+IM)
„ 1.25DC + 1.50DW + 1.75(LL+IM) (Strength I)
„ 1.50DC + 1.50DW (Strength IV)
„ 1.00DC + 1.00DW + 1.00(LL+IM) (Service I)
„ 1.00DC + 1.00DW + 1.30(LL+IM) (Service II, Steel)
„ 1.00DC + 1.00DW + 0.80(LL+IM) (Service III, Prestressed)
‡ Note that the sections for maximum moment of dead load
and live load are not the same!!!
„ Dead Load: midspan
„ Live Load: some small distance away from midspan
‡ If we add them together, we are conservative!
‡ Critical moment for shear is d away from the support. We
can calculate shear at this location for both dead load and live
load IF we know the height of the section
„ We estimate the height from past experiences of similar projects
„ If we don’t know, we calculate shear at the support. This is
conservative but may not be economical.