ABSTRACT

In the recent scenario of fast industrial development all around the world, electric
power systems is continuously polluting due to undesired variations in voltage and current
signals. Power quality (PQ) disturbances are mainly due to increased use of non-linear loads
and high penetration of renewable energy (RE) integrated to complex power grids. These
grids have components such as sources of power, long distance transmission lines, power
transformers and loads. The grids are also exposed to disturbances taking place in
environmental disturbances such as lightning strikes. Additionally, the nonlinear nature based
power electronic devices like converter supported equipments are being increasingly used in
the network of power system. Power line disturbances are also produces PQ disturbances in
the grid. These power quality (PQ) events may lead to malfunction of system equipments,
loss of computer data. These also lead to affecting the performance of sensitive loads like
computer, programmable logic controller (PLC), protection systems and relay equipments.
These PQ disturbances also results in erratic operation of electronic controls. Further, two or
more than two these PQ disturbances may also occur simultaneously known as complex PQ
events. Therefore, it has become necessary to monitor these single stage and complex PQ
events. Increased demand of clean power has forced to adopt continuous monitoring of these
PQ disturbances. Signal processing devices may help for continuous monitoring of such
devices.

Research work under taken in this thesis is concentrated on detection and

classification of single stage and complex PQ disturbances. This has been achieved with the
help of combined features of Stockwell transform, Hilbert Transform and decision supported
rules. Proposed algorithm can be implemented in online PQ monitoring equipments.
Effectiveness of proposed algorithm has been established for detection as well as
classification of different single nature and complex PQ disturbances. Study is carried out
using MATLAB software.

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 Chapter-1
INTRODUCTION

The chapter presents a brief discussion on research work concentrated on detection

and classification of PQ disturbances. Investigated PQ disturbances include single nature and
complex nature PQ events. Proposed algorithm is based on combined features of Stockwell
Transform (ST), Hilbert transform and decision supported rules. Research work scope and
arrangement of contents in thesis is also included in the chapter.

1.1 General Introduction

The modern power system network is becoming complex in nature day by day due to
increased integration of the large size turbo generators, renewable energy sources and high
power transmission lines. Hence, in the recent years the electrical Power quality (PQ) is
emerging as a main concern for both utilities and customers because the loads on the
costumer side gets affected and may get damage. The utilities have opted the new open-
access and competitive market power policy. Now, the electricity consumers are in a unique
position to demand a higher quality of service. The utilities or other power providers have to
ensure a high quality of their service to remain competitive and retain or attract the
customers. Efficient power quality (PQ) monitoring and analysis system can help to achieve
this goal. Disturbances observed on power transmission lines including transients, sag of
voltage, swell of voltage, impulsive transients (IT), notches, glitches, momentary
interruptions (MI), under voltages, wave faults, over-voltages, and harmonic distortion has
resulted in poor quality of electrical power [1]. Hence, cause as well as source of bad quality
of power must be known in order to initiate suitable PQ improvement action. The commonly
used signal processing based methods for identification of PQ disturbances include fast
Fourier transform (FFT), windowed Fourier transform (WFT), short time Fourier transform
(STFT), wavelet transform (WT) and discrete wavelet transform (DWT) [2]. Work related to
detection of PQ events using signal processing methods is reported. Poor quality of power
reduces the life of loads and simultaneously also damages the load [3]. In [4] authors
introduced a method using the energy function based on wavelet transform technique for
detection of PQ events which includes voltage sag, flicker and swell. In [5], authors included

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detailed analysis of various method used for power quality (PQ) identification in network of
power like WT, ST, Gabor transform (GT) and Wigner distribution function (WDF).

1.2 Scope of Research Work Presented

Research work undertaken for preparation of this thesis is mainly aimed to design an
algorithm based on Combined Features of Stockwell Transform, Hilbert Transform and rule
based decision tree for recognition of single stage and complex power quality disturbances.
Research work included in this thesis to detect and classify the single stage as well as
complex PQ events is summarized as detailed below.

 Algorithm using combined Features of ST, Hilbert Transform and decision supported
rules is proposed in the thesis to detect and classify single stage PQ disturbances.
Proposed algorithm may be utilized in online PQ monitoring equipments.

 Algorithm using combined Features of ST, Hilbert Transform and decision supported
rules is also implemented to detect and classify complex PQ disturbances.

 Rules supported decision tree using standard deviations of proposed indexes is used to
classify faults.

 Study is performed in MATLAB software.

1.3 Layout of the Thesis

For designing an algorithm for effective implementation of online PQ monitoring

equipments the work entitled “Recognition of Power Quality Disturbances Using Hybrid
Algorithm Based on Combined Features of Stockwell Transform and Hilbert
Transform” has been carried out in due course of this thesis work. Thesis contents are
organized in total seven chapters which are described here.

Chapter 1: The chapter is titled as “Introduction” and brie discussion of concepts of single
simple nature and complex PQ disturbances and use of signal processing methods for
recognition of these single stage and complex power quality disturbances. Scope of research
work and organization of contents in thesis are also detailed in this chapter.

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Chapter 2: This chapter is titled as “Survey of Literature Related to Recognition of
Power Quality Disturbances” and includes a brief overview of research work found in
literature related to detection and classification of PQ events. Application of signal
processing technique like Fourier Transform (FT), Wavelet transform (WT), Hilbert Huang
Transform and Stockwell Transform for detection and classification of power quality
disturbances is also detailed in this chapter. Research gaps identified based on proposed
literature survey has been presented at the end of the chapter.

Chapter 3: The chapter is titled as “Theoretical Concepts Related to Power System and
Power Quality Disturbances” and includes basic concepts related power system and PQ
events.

Chapter 4: The chapter is titled as “Generation of Power Quality Disturbances and

Proposed Hybrid algorithm Based on Stockwell Transform, Hilbert Transform and
Ruled Decision Tree” presents generation of simple nature and complex PQ events.
Proposed algorithm supported by ST, Hilbert transform and decision rules is used for
recognition of simple and complex PQ events is also detailed in the chapter. Brief overview
of Stockwell Transform, Hilbert transform and decision rules are also presented at end of the
chapter.

Chapter 5: The chapter is titled as “Recognition of Single Stage Power Quality

Disturbances: Simulation Results”. This includes the simulation results related to detection
as well as classification of single nature PQ events. Detailed discussion of the simulation
results have also been presented in this chapter.

Chapter 6: This chapter is titled as “Recognition of Complex Power Quality

Disturbances: Simulation Results” and includes simulation results of detection and
classification of complex nature based PQ disturbances in detail. Detailed discussion of the
simulation results have also been presented in this chapter.

Chapter 7: This chapter is titled as “Conclusions and Future Scope of Research Work”
and presents summary of research work findings in due course of this Thesis. Main
concluding points drawn from this research work related to recognition of single stage and
complex power quality disturbances are briefly described. A recommendation based on
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presented research work which can be undertaken as future work are also been described at
end of this chapter in brief.

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 Chapter-2

SURVEY OF LITERATURE RELATED TO RECOGNITION OF

POWER QUALITY DISTURBANCES
Detailed comprehensive survey of literature reported in field of recognition of power
quality disturbances using the signal processing methods and mathematical techniques is
presented in detail in this chapter. At the end of chapter, research gaps pointed out based on
the survey of literature discussed are presented.

2.1 Survey of Literature Related to Recognition of Power Quality Disturbances

The methods based on mathematical techniques and signal analysis approaches are
utilized to detect and classify simple and complex natures of PQ disturbances. These are
discussed as below.

In [6], authors detailed a review of different approaches based on signal analysis and artificial
intelligent methods for identification of PQ disturbances automatically. Effect of noise on
performance of these methods is also analysed in the paper.

In [7], authors described that frequently used PQ identification approaches are Fourier
transform (FT), wavelet transform (ST), Kalman filter, Stockwell transform (ST), Gabor
transforms (GT), Hilbert Huang transform (HHT) etc. PQ disturbances classification
approaches reported in literature include artificial intelligent (AI) techniques such as support
vector machine (SVM), expert systems (ES), artificial neural network (ANN), Fuzzy logic
(FL), k-nearest neighbour etc.

In [8], authors presented a method which can be used for identification of PQ events found in
the network of power system. This method is based on the use of WT and radial basis
function neural network (RBFNN).

In [9], authors introduced a method which can be used for detection as well as classification
of PQ events using Stockwell’s transform (ST) and Fuzzy expert system (FES).

In [10], authors presented an automatic scheme for identification of PQ events supported by

ST and extreme learning scheme (ELS).

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In [11], authors introduced a method to detect and classify disturbances of power quality with
the help of WT and wavelet networks (WN). This has been implemented for recognition of
PQ events which have been generated in accordance with the standard IEEE-1159.

In [12], authors presented a complex technique using ensemble empirical mode

decomposition (EEMD) as well as multi-label learning approach which can be used to
classify the PQ events of complex PQ events.

In [13], authors introduced a method using S-transform and decision supported rules to detect
and classify the PQ disturbances of simple nature.

In [14], authors presented a method for recognition of PQ events with the help of Fuzzy c-
means clustering and S-transform.

In [15], authors introduced a method for identification of PQ events using the image
processing based approach.

In [16], authors introduced a technique using wavelet transform (WT) and neural network
(NN) for identification of PQ problems.

In [17], authors introduced a technique based on DWT and self-organizing mapping network
(SOMN) which can be effectively be used for detection of PQ problems in the power system
network.

In [18], a method to detect, localizes, and investigates suitability for classifying different
nature of PQ events. This scheme has been supported by analysis of signals using WT as well
as dyadic-orthonormal WT (DOWT). Proposed method is effective for decomposition of
signals with disturbances into different signals used to represent fine version with detailed
features of original signal. Signal with PQ event is decompose using multi-resolution
supported by wavelet transform. Proposed approach is presented and analyzed for detection
and localization of disturbances observed on the power distribution/transmission lines. For
enhancing efficiency of introduced scheme, squared WT coefficients are utilized in the
approach.

In [19], authors introduced multi-resolution based decomposition of signals with PQ

disturbances which is effective for analysis of PQ events having superimposed transient. This

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method for decomposition of signals using multi-resolution has capability for detection and
localization of transient disturbances as well as classification of different PQ disturbances.
Hence, proposed technique is effective for distinguishing the different PQ events.

A technique using continuous wavelet transform (CWT) to recognize and analyze sags in
voltage signal and transients associated with the voltage signal is proposed in [20]. Recursive
approach is implemented for improvement and computation of time-frequency based
electrical events. Characteristics of analyzed signals are evaluated in the time-frequency
plane. A comparative study for measurement of characteristics as well as magnitude of the
detected and presented disturbances in analyzed signals is reported. Identification of
disturbance types has been reported. Algorithm reported for measurement of sags in voltage
signals as well as location of transient signals.

In [21], authors introduced a method for online detection of disturbances in voltage signals
using the wavelet transform. This method is effective for
 Identification of disturbances in voltage signals
 Discrimination of different types of PQ disturbances associated with voltage signals.
 Proposed approach is relatively faster and precise for discriminating various natures
of PQ events such as voltage supported disturbance detection methods.

A de-noising technique combined with WT for PQ monitoring scheme is introduced in [22].

Developed scheme is effective for detecting and localizing PQ events even in the noisy
environment. Hence, scheme can be used for storage of proper signals used for encompassing
PQ events and subsequent analysis.

In [23], performance of the wavelet-based scheme for on-line detection of voltage based PQ
disturbance has been evaluated. Scheme is designed to achieve following two objectives:
 Establish the effectiveness of proposed method for detection of faults and PQ
disturbances in the network of power system.
 To compare performance of the method with the reported conventional methods.

In [24], an approach for the data compression of PQ transients has been reported. The
analyzed data can be utilized for analyzing the classification of PQ events. Original data have
been reconstituted from the compressed data of PQ events and subsequently analyzed with

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the help of an advanced version of WT and ST. Compression of data is achieved using the
splines in the signal decomposition schemes. Thresholds for WT coefficients along with
signal reconstruction have been used.

In [25], authors introduced a scheme for detection as well as classification of PQ events

associated with the power system networks using a combination ST and NN. ST gives
resolution based on frequency which uses simultaneous localization of real and imaginary
spectrums. ST is same compared to the WT spectrum but there is a correction of phase in the
ST spectrum. This special property can be used to obtain effective features related to signals
of non-stationary which make takes pattern which recognizes signals using the multi-
resolution analysis. Two NN configurations have been trained using the features extracted
with the help of ST to recognize the class of waveform. Accuracy of classification of PQ
events for different nature of power network disturbance signals for two NN types is
observed to be improved significantly compared to the multi-resolution analysis WT and
multiple NN.

In [26], authors proposed a technique which can be utilized for detection, localization and
classification of different nature of PQ events in noisy even in the environment with high
level of noises. This method uses properties of white noise which are statistical in nature.
Single step is used for extraction of disturbances including white noise from the signal.
Subsequently, a short-time method using correlation has been implemented with limiting the
effects present white noise on the performance of wavelet analysis. Squared transform
coefficients have been used to improve the final results of disturbances outcomes of analysis
of power signals.

In [27], authors introduced a scheme supported by representation of power system waveforms

in two dimensions (2-D) which can be utilized for automatic analysis as well as detection of
transient events associated with the power signals. Representation includes a matrix in which
rows contain the time segments with digital representation of waveforms. Suitable selection
of length of time segments in 2-D data helps to investigate the image structures which are like
a wave. General shapes have been disturbed immediately in the presence of PQ transients.
Authors suggested the application of 2-D DWT) for identification of these disturbances. It is
observed that omission of approximation space signals of WT and de-noising of detailed
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signals, inverse 2-D DWT gives fair results of detection and localization of signals even in
the conventional techniques.

In [28], a technique is designed for identification of harmonics associated with the voltages.
This is achieved with the help of wavelet probabilistic network (WPN). This is implemented
using the architecture of two layers using the wavelet layer and PNN. It is based on the use of
WT for the extraction of features from different types of disturbances and PNN for analysis
of different translation patterns from various natures of distorted waveforms to achieve the
classification purpose. Introduced WPN is effective for detection of PQ events such as
harmonics and voltages. Its performance has been tested for recognition of PQ events like
harmonics, sag in voltage, and swell in voltage and interruption in voltage. A comparative
study is also performed by comparing with the wavelet networks and combination of WT and
NN. It is established that the proposed simplified network architecture improves the
performance of classification and decreases time taken for signal processing for identification
of disturbance events.

In [29], a method for detection of PQ issues has been introduced which can be implemented
with the help of adaptive wavelet network (AWN). This uses architecture of sub-network
which consists of different wavelet layers and adaptive PNN. Morlet wavelets have been
introduced for extraction of features from different disturbances as well as adaptive PNN
which is used for analysis of effective features and discrimination various tasks. AWN
method which is effective for implementation in dynamic environment and which can be
used for adding and deleting the features with the help of automatic adjustments of targets
and tuning the parameters has been implemented. This method is evaluated for investigation
of PQ problems. These include harmonics, sags in voltage, swells in voltage, interruption in
voltage. It is concluded that the proposed scheme is effective for accurate discrimination of
events, fast in analysis of disturbances, robust in nature for detection of disturbing events.

In [30], a technique based on ST and PNN classifier has been introduced for identification of
PQ events. Proposed scheme is effective for extraction of features compared to the wavelet
supported approach in recognition of PQ disturbances. These features are extracted using the
ST which has been trained with the help PNN which can be implemented to automatically
classify the PQ disturbances. Proposed scheme can be implemented with reduced number of
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features of disturbance signals to a large extent without the loss of original features, reduced
space of memory and time of PNN learning to classify the disturbances.

An integrated scheme to recognize the PQ events with the help of wavelet multiclass support
vector machine (WMSVM) has been reported in [31]. SVM is found to be effective
classification tool. It is found to be effective in the solution of dual classification problems.

In [32], authors introduced a method using linear SVM and disturbances-versus-normal

signal approach for forming the multiclass SVM. This is found to be effective for processing
of multiple problems. Different events of disturbances are analysed using the WMSVM and
wavelet supported multilayer-perceptron NN had been implemented. This method is effective
for localisation; detection and classification of power quality signals of non-stationary
disturbances with the help of modified frequency slice wavelet transform (MFSWT).
MFSWT is an extended version of frequency slice wavelet transform (FSWT) and found
effective for the frequency supported resolution using additional parameters of window for
effective localisation of spectral characteristics.

In [33], a new technique has been implemented for detection, extraction and evaluation of
transient events with low-voltage supply networks. Designed algorithm is based on the use of
sliding window scheme and applied with the help of DWT to different signals evaluated in
time domain and compared with the voltage samples and corresponding samples in
conventional methods. In case of different signal crosses the pre-defined thresholds, method
have been introduced the energy of various frequency bands associated with the different
signal. Detecting and identifying transient disturbance observed in the frequency domain has
been associated with the signals, a suitable threshold is used. All voltage events like short
duration such as variations in root-mean-square values can be detected by effective use of the
proposed scheme.

In [34], a hybrid scheme is proposed for automatic detection, localization and classification
of events of disturbances associated with the quality of power in power utility system.
Disturbance events have been simulated with the help of ATP (alternative transient program)
software. This scheme has been implemented in two steps. First step includes the application
of wavelet transform (WT) for detection of disturbances associated with the system and
localization of such events. Second steps is used for triggering of various ANNs applied for
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classification of data recorded in the events of disturbance. Computational logic based on the
WT and ANN has been implemented with graphical user interface (GUI) in between
algorithm and user.

In [35], authors proposed an energy difference of multi-resolution analysis (EDMRA) method

for power quality (PQ) disturbances analysis. At all levels of wavelet decomposition, squared
magnitude of detailed information is evaluated using the energy for construction of feature
based vector analysis. Using the proposed scheme, various natures of PQ events has been
detected, localized, and classified in an effective manner. Decomposition levels have been
selected based on the suitable wavelets effective for critical analysis using EDMRA method.
They will affect the quality of reconstructed signals having the PQ disturbances with reduced
computational cost.

In [36], an approach effective for detection as well as classification of simple and complex
PQ events has been introduced which is based on the fuzzy logic as well as particle swarm
optimization (PSO) scheme. In proposed method, effective features of waveform with PQ
disturbance have been extracted in the first step. Suitable features have been extracted using
the parameters evaluated from FT and WT based decomposition of signals. In subsequent
steps, fuzzy system is used to classify the type of PQ events. Finally, PSO scheme is
implemented for determination of membership function parameters accurately for fuzzy
systems.

In [37], a technique for detection and classification of PQ events in distribution network of

power system using complex WT and radial basis function (RBF) supported neural network
is proposed by the authors. The orthogonal wavelet is implemented for extraction of features
of PQ disturbances. Final introduction of the wavelet based combined information (CI) for
analyses of disturbance are found to be superior compared to real wavelet based results.
Features extracted with the help of WT coefficients are given as input to the RBF network for
recognition of patterns of PQ events. PQ events classification model is designed and
modelled using recursive orthogonal least squares algorithm (ROLSA) for efficient version of
the transform to meet the parameters of network structure.

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2.2 Research Gaps Identified Based on Presented Literature Survey
Based on the detailed survey of research work presented in this chapter, it is pointed
out that the present methods used for online PQ monitoring devices are based on single signal
processing technique. However, the use of combined features of these methods may improve
the performance of the online power quality monitoring devices. Hence, investigation of
algorithm for online power quality monitoring devices based on combined features of signal
processing methods has been considered as key point for research work addressed in this
thesis.

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 Chapter-3

THEORETICAL CONCEPTS RELATED TO POWER SYSTEM AND

POWER QUALITY DISTURBANCES
An overview of theoretical concepts related to power utility network and disturbances
of power quality are described in this chapter. Commonly used IEEE standards for the power
quality disturbance are also described in this chapter.

3.1 Power system

Electrical power is the basic need for economic development of any country.
Availability of electricity has been the most powerful vehicle of introducing economic
development and social change throughout the world. Over the past few years there has been
sudden increase in power demand with a mismatch between the generation and transmission
facilities. This difference has the outcome of increased system disturbances to voltage and
instabilities throughout the world. The basic function of a Transmission system is to transfer
electrical power from one place to another place or from one network to another network. A
Transmission system includes terminal substations, transmission lines and intermediate
substations. A transmission system in employed for transfer of power from sending end to
receiving end or for system interconnection for exchange of electrical power between
independently controlled networks. The transmission systems all over the world are going
through continuous change due to excessive demand for electrical power, majority of which
has to be transmitted over long distances. However, there are other issues such as
environmental impact of generation and transmission in addition to problems of right-of-way,
economic problems. These results in adding a mew plant to meet the increased load demand.
In order to improve the reliability of supply of power and reducing the cost of electricity
interconnections are done. These interconnections are done over a wide range including inter
regional and international connections. These interconnections are needed to transmit bulk
power in addition to enhance power plants, load centers to reduce the demand for total
generation capacity and the cost of fuel. The analysis of voltage stability is of major concern,
due to various problems of voltage collapse which occurred in France, Japan etc. There are
various reasons which are responsible for voltage collapse such as constraint in reactive
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power, on load tap changing transformer, increased load on transmission lines, dynamic load
characteristics etc.

The Design consideration of a power plant should include two important aspects.
Firstly, the selection and placing of necessary power generating equipment should be such so
that a maximum of return will result from a minimum of expenditure over the working life of
the plant. Secondly, the operation of the plant should be such so as to provide cheap, reliable
and continuous service. Generation, Distribution and Transmission are the main constituents
of the network of electric power system. Generating station and a distribution system are
connected through transmission lines, which also connect one power system (grid, area) to
another.

3.2 Power System Structure

Network of power system is used in supplying huge amount of power generated at

centralized generation stations to end use customers. Therefore, following are main
components used to achieve the objective.
1. Generating Sub-Station/Station
2. Primary network of transmission system
3. Secondary network of transmission system
4. Primary network of Distribution system
5. Secondary network of Distribution system
3.3 Power Quality
Power quality is defined in different manners by different standards. IEEE1100
standard of Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) has defined PQ as a
concept used for powering and grounding electronic devices which are sensitive in nature in a
manner which suits the equipment. It can be observed that the method may be appropriate for
the description. However, limitations of PQ estimation with sensitive electronic equipments
might not be agreeable. Electrical devices sensitive for quality of power may be appropriate
for lacking the PQ which would fall in the boundless zone. These electrical equipments are
subjected to failure as well as malfunction during the event when exposed to PQ issues.
These electrical and digital devices may include electric motor, transformer, generator,
computer, printer, equipments used in communication systems and household
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appliance/devices. Performance of these devices is adversely affected by the power quality
issues which depend on gravity of problems.

Power quality may also be defined in simple and concise manner as a set of electrical
limits which allows set equipment to functions which are intended style without losing the
performance or life expectancy significantly. This will result in two outcomes which have
been demanded from the electrical devices including performance as well as expectancy of
life. A power oriented problem which compromises of attributes such as concerns of power
quality.

3.4 Power Quality Issues

Power quality is a simple term, yet it describes a multitude of issues that are found in
any electrical power system and is a subjective term. The concept of good and bad power
depends on the end user. If a piece of equipment functions satisfactorily, the user feels that
the power is good. If the equipment does not function as intended or fails prematurely, there
is a feeling that the power is bad. In between these limits, several grades or layers of power
quality may exist, depending on the perspective of the power user. Various types of power
quality disturbances are detained in Fig. 3.1.

Fig. 3.1. Classification of Power Quality Disturbances

Power frequency disturbances are low-frequency phenomena that result in voltage

sags or swells. These may be source or load generated due to faults or switching operations in
a power system. The end results are the same as far as the susceptibility of electrical
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equipment is concerned. Power system transients are fast and have the nature of short time
duration and produces defects like notches, ringing, and impulses. Mechanisms which is used
for propagation of energy which is of transient nature on the power transmission and
distribution lines as well as transfer to different electrical networks. Hence, energy is
dissipated in large amount from the parameters responsible for disturbances in frequency.
Power system disturbances are events of low frequency which has been characterized by
waveform distortion and introduced components of harmonic frequencies. Voltage and
current related harmonics disturbances affect the performance of the operations of power
system network and components. At some moments, interaction of harmonics with the power
system parameters such as resistance, inductance and capacitance can cause harmonics for
multiplication of large impacts.

Grounding and bonding of equipments is an important critical issue in studies of the

quality of power. Grounding is used to achieve three operating requirements. Fundamental
objective behind the grounding of equipments is safety. Electrical system should not be used
with a compromise with the safety of working peoples. In the U.S., safety is specifically
taken with the grounding and make mandatory by National Electrical Code (NEC). Second
important objective associated with the grounding as well as bonding is providing path of
low-impedance for the flow of fault current during the event of ground faults. It is also
desired that protective device should be capable to isolate faulted network from supply
source. Third use of grounding is to create a ground reference plane for sensitive electrical
equipment. Signal reference grounding (SRG) term is also used for the same. Configuration
of SRG may change from customer to customer and from utility to utility. SRG is not
effective when used in isolated system. It should be bonded with the safety grounds for
facilitating for creating total grounding of the system.

Electromagnetic interference (EMI) is a term used for the interaction between electric
fields and magnetic fields. This is also used sometimes to represent the interaction between
the sensitive electronic circuits and devices. It is basically a high frequency event.
Mechanism of EMI with the devices differs from that exists with the disturbances of power
frequency and transients of electrical signals. EMI effects mitigation needs special methods.
Radio frequency interference (RFI) is defined as the interaction between radiated radio

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frequency fields and data as well as communication devices. It is effective for including RFI
in the category of EMI. However, these phenomena are different and distinct.

Event of electrostatic discharge (ESD) is an occurrence which familiar and unpleasant

in nature. However, ESD is not comfortable in nature and influenced in the similar manner as
observed in the refrigerator and supermarket. At high level of disturbance, ESD is more
harmful to the electronic equipments and results in malfunction of these devices and
sometimes the damages to these devices also. The low power factor affects the performance
of equipments and damages during the event of overloading of components. Power factor is
economic factor for operation of the power system network.

3.5 Power Quality Standards

With the onset of the computer age and the increasing trend toward miniaturization of
electrical and electronic devices, power quality problems have taken on increasing
importance. The designers of computers and microprocessor controllers are not versed in
power system power quality issues. By the same token, power system designers and operators
have limited knowledge of the operation of sensitive electronics. This environment has led to
a need for power quality standards and guidelines. Currently, various engineering
establishments and standard holding in different parts all over the world are using huge
amount of resources for generation of PQ standards. Table 3.1, describes the power quality
and related standards from Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). Few of
these standards are in being used presently and few are still in process of finalization.

3.6 Commonly Occurred Power Quality Disturbances

The terminology presented here reflects recent U.S. and international efforts to
standardize definitions of power quality terms. The IEEE Standards Coordinating Committee
22 (IEEE SCC22) has led the main effort in the United States to coordinate power quality
standards. It has the responsibilities across several societies of the IEEE, principally the
Industry Applications Society and the Power Engineering Society. It coordinates with
international efforts through liaisons with the IEC and the Congress Internationale des Grand
Réseaux Électriques a Haute Tension (CIGRE; in English, International Conference on Large
High-Voltage Electric Systems).

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 Table 3.1: Power Quality Standards
Standard Description
IEEE 644 Standardized method for measuring power frequency based electric
and magnetic fields from AC power lines
IEEE C63.12 Practice for limits of electromagnetic compatibility
IEEE 518 Guides to install the electrical equipments for minimization of
inputs of electrical noise to controllers from external sources
IEEE 519 Practices recommended for requirement of control of Harmonics in
electrical power network systems
IEEE 1100 Practices recommended for powering and grounding the sensitive
electronic equipments
IEEE 1159 Practices recommended for monitoring of quality of electrical
power
IEEE 141 Practices recommended for industrial plants electrical power
distribution system
IEEE 142 Practices recommended for grounding of power system used in
Industrial and Commercial plants
IEEE 241 Practices recommended for electric power supply arrangements in
commercial buildings
IEEE 602 Practices recommended for electric power supply arrangements
used in Health care facilities
IEEE 902 Guide for maintenance, operation and safety of industrial and
commercial power plants
IEEE C57.110 Practices recommended for establishment of transformer capability
for supplying non-sinusoidal loads
IEEE P1433 Power quality definitions
IEEE P1453 Voltage flicker
IEEE P1564 Indexes of voltage sags

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 Power industry in the United States has put full efforts for development of
recommended practices which can be used for monitoring of quality of electric power supply.
In these practices as few terms of the IEC terminology has been incorporated. As an example,
sag is used in the similar way as the dip used in the IEC. Short-duration variation has been for
identification of voltage dips and short duration interruptions. Term voltage swell is proposed
as an inverse of the voltage sag (dip). Variations of long duration are incorporated for dealing
with the limits of American National Standards Institute (ANSI) standard C84.1. Noise
category is also incorporated for dealing with the broadband based phenomena. Waveform
distortion category is incorporated for IEC harmonics, inter-harmonics and dc in ac networks.
This is in addition to IEEE Standard 519-1992. Commonly electromagnetic phenomena used
for the power quality community are as follows:

 Transients
 Short-duration variations
 Long-duration variations
 Voltage unbalance
 Waveform distortion
 Voltage fluctuations
 Power frequency variations

20
 Chapter-4

GENERATION OF POWER QUALITY DISTURBANCES AND

PROPOSED HYBRID ALGORITHM BASED ON STOCKWELL
TRANSFORM, HILBERT TRANSFORM AND RULED DECISION
TREE

This chapter deals with generation of the voltage signals incorporating the power
quality disturbances with the help of mathematical modelling in MATLAB software.
Generation of standard simple nature and complex nature based PQ disturbances is described
in this chapter. Hybrid algorithm making use of Stockwell Transform and Hilbert Transform
for identification of wide range of power quality disturbances is detailed in this chapter.
Algorithm used for classification of both single stage and complex PQ disturbances using
decision supported rules is also described in this chapter.

4.1 Problem Formulation

After deregulation of Indian electricity grid and policy of Union Government to

integrate 170 GW renewable powers into the utility grid the quality of electrical power is
challenged. Further, the increased use of the power electronics based industrial drives and
nonlinear loads; quality of the electrical is deteriorated. This has attracted the power system
engineers and researcher to focus on the design of improved methods for detection as well as
classification of methods for complex nature PQ disturbances. This supports for taking
suitable actions for improving power quality in utility grid so that high quality power may be
provided to the consumers. Recently, methods used for the detection of power quality
disturbances are based on the use of features and merits of the single signal processing
methods such as Discrete Wavelet transform, Stockwell Transform, Hilbert transform etc.
However, the investigation of the improved features of combination of these methods may
improve the performance of the algorithm for identification and classification of PQ events.

4.2 Generation of Power Quality Disturbances

The power quality disturbances may occur individually and known as simple nature
PQ disturbances like sag in voltage sag, swell in voltage, momentary interruption (MI),
21
oscillatory transient (OT), impulsive transient (IT), harmonics etc. The simultaneous
occurrence of these simple nature PQ disturbances at a time is known as complex PQ events.
Simple nature PQ disturbances are generated with the help of mathematical formulations
relations observed in [38]. These simple nature PQ disturbances are modeled in MATLAB
with the support of codes for mathematical based relations of PQ events reported in [38].
Simple nature PQ disturbances considered for this study include pure sine wave, sags in
voltage; swell in voltage, MI, OT, IT, harmonics, notch and spike.

Complex nature based PQ events are generated using different combinations of

mathematical formulations corresponding to single stage PQ disturbances appeared in [2].
Mathematical relations used for representing simple nature PQ events have been modeled in
MATLAB with the help of codes based on different combinations of these mathematics
based models of PQ events reported in [38]. Complex nature based PQ events are generated
with the help of different combination of simple nature PQ events like pure sine wave,
voltage sag, voltage swell, momentary interruption, OT, IT, harmonics, notch and spike.
Formulated complex nature PQ events include (sag in voltage + harmonics), (swell in voltage
+ harmonics), (MI + harmonics), (OT + voltage sag), (OT + harmonics), (IT + voltage sag),
(IT + harmonics) and (OT, sag in voltage and Harmonics).

4.3 Algorithm Proposed for Detection and classification of Power Quality

Disturbances (for both simple and complex PQ disturbances)

Algorithm introduced for recognition as well as classification of simple nature PQ

disturbances can be implemented with following steps:-

PQ disturbances with simple nature are generated in MATLAB software with the
help of mathematical models appeared in [38]. PQ disturbances analysed in this
study include sine wave (pure nature), sag in voltage, swell in voltage, MI, OT, IT,
harmonics, notch and spike.

These simple nature PQ disturbance signals are decomposed with the help of
Stockwell Transform to obtain the S-matrix.

22
 A sum absolute values plot which can be obtained from the S-matrix using summing
of absolutes of each column of the S-matrix and designated as ST-index. This plot
is plotted with respect to time.

The signals with power quality disturbances are decomposed with the help of
Hilbert Transform to absolute values of output which is represented as H-index.

Multiplication of ST-index and H-index is obtained by multiplying element by

element and resultant index is designated as PQ-index.

ST-index, H-index and PQ index are plotted and compared with the reference plots
corresponding to the pure sine wave to detect the disturbances.

Peak values of the PQ-index are obtained for all types of the PQ disturbances and
these are considered as input to decision supported rules for classification of PQ
evets using the if then else rules.

4.4 Stockwell Transform

Stockwell Transform (ST) had been introduced first time by R. G. Stockwell in the
form of expanded version of continuous WT. It has information of both phase and amplitude
of the spectrum. It is essential to modify the phase of mother wavelet to extract the useful
information contained in the phase of CWT. Discrete version of the ST can firstly be
evaluated by the use of efficiency of FFT and convolution based theorem. Result of ST can
be used for obtaining the form of a complex nature matrix which is represented as S-matrix.
Each row element in the matrix is corresponding to a frequency and each column corresponds
to a time instant. Elements of the S-matrix are basically the complex magnitude values.
Matrix of ST-amplitude (STA) is formed from absolute values of this S-matrix. Hence, high
resolution of time is maintained at high frequencies and a resolution of low time at low
frequency. ST is utilized with the help of a multi-resolution based on window width which is
changing inversely proportional to the frequency and power data changing with time. Hence,
a great resolution of time at a high frequency and a low time resolution at a low frequency are
achieved. There are some different methods of achieving the S transform. It introduces the
relationship between STFT and S transform and the type of deriving the S transform from the

23
"phase correction" of the CWT. The short time Fourier Transform of a signal h(t) is defined
by the following relation.

where τ and f denote the time of spectral localization and Fourier frequency respectively, and
g(t) denote a window function. The S transform can be derived from the above equation by
replacing the window function g(t) with the Gaussian function as shown below.

Subsequently ST can be defined as

Therefore, it is fully established that ST is a special condition of STFT using function

of Gaussian window. If window of ST is wide in the time domain, the ST can be used to
provide high resolution of frequency when lower frequency components are present in the
signal. Similarly, the window is narrow for the achieving the good time resolution at the
moments of high frequency components available with the signal. The output of the S-
transform is a matrix known as S-matrix. The information related to the frequency and
amplitude of the signal can be derived from the S-matrix.

4.5 Hilbert Huang Transform

Hilbert-Huang Transform (HHT) is also a signal processing tool which can be used
for the analysis of the data. HHT was introduced in the year in 1998 and had been
implemented for extraction of the periodic data contained in the oscillatory set of data. HHT
method is effective for analysis of the data consisting of using two components. First
components are the algorithm called empirical mode decomposition (EMD) and second is the
spectral analyzing technique known as the Hilbert spectral analysis. It can be established that
HHT can be used to provide description of oscillating components of a signal locally. It can
be effectively being used for both the analysis of non-stationary as well as nonlinear. This is

24
effective for providing the new scheme for analysis of variability nature of signals and can be
compared with available techniques.

4.5.1 Hilbert Spectral Analysis

Main objective of the HHT is based on the demonstration of a scheme which can be
used for spectral analysis and effective to provide description of time-frequency-energy of
time series data. Methods used for attempting on description of non-stationary data locally
are based on the Fourier or wavelet supported transform. However, the HT is utilized for
computation of the momentary frequencies as well as amplitudes which can be used for
description of the signal. Equation detailed below gives the HT written for a function x(t)
with Lp class. Here, PV is used denote Cauchy’s principle value integral [42].

HT gives physical instantaneous frequencies for special class of function and not for
all. As an example, functions having non-zero mean values will results in negative frequency
contributions with the help of HT. Hence, signals analyzed with the help of HT should be
restricted in such a manner that evaluated instantaneous frequency functions should have
physical meaning.

4.5.2 Empirical Mode Decomposition

Empirical mode decomposition (EMD) based algorithm is additional component of
the HHT scheme. This component is attempting on decomposition of any signals with finite
set of functions in which the HT gives instantaneous frequency values. Such functions have
been represented as (IMF) intrinsic mode function. Algorithm can be used in the process of
iterative shifting can be used for successive subtraction of local mean from a signal. Shifting
method can be implemented as follows:
 Determination of local maxima or minima associated with the signal.
 Integrated the maxima with the interpolator function which can be used for creating a
top envelope of the signal.
 Integrate the minima of the function with the interpolator function and create the
lower envelope of the signal.

25
  Evaluate the local mean of the function using the half difference between upper as
well as lower envelopes.
 Subtract local mean value from the signal.
 Iterate residual values continuously.

Process of shifting is repeated since the signal is effective in meeting the definition of
IMF. Subsequently, IMF is subtracted from signal value with repetition of shifting scheme on
remainder. This has continuously been repeated since the final residual is a monotonic
function. Last extracted IMF contains component with minimum frequency of signal.
Previously, shifting scheme was said to stop when signal meets criteria of an IMF. Definition
of an IMF, can be based on the signal which has a zero-mean and having extrema and zero-
crossings differing by the most one. IMFs are further taken as the functions having single
frequency components and which do not contain riding waves. After full decomposition of
the signal, signal D(t) can be thought as consisting of finite summation of IMFs and a final
residual as illustrated by the following equation.

The EMD decomposition can be considered a generalized Fourier decomposition,

because it describes a signal in terms of amplitude and basic functions whose amplitudes and
frequencies may fluctuate with time. The HHT will now be used on a number of different
data sets to analyze its applicability.

4.6 Rule Based Decision Tree

Decision supported rules can be used for the classification of PQ events for predicting
the data responses. For predicting the data responses, decisions are followed in the form of
tree starting from the root (starting point) node to a leaf node (final decision node). Hence,
leaf node has the final decision of the classification. This classification tree is effective in
giving response which is effective and nominal and can be implemented using the 'true' or
‘false’ decision techniques. Hence, it is supported by a set of rules which can be applied to a
set of data containing the features of signals with PQ events. These features can be obtained
using techniques like DWT and ST.
26
 Chapter 5

RECOGNITION OF SINGLE STAGE POWER QUALITY

DISTURBANCES: SIMULATION RESULTS

Detailed simulation results obtained by the use of algorithm introduced and using the
complex features of ST, HT and rule based decision tree are presented and described in detail
in this chapter. Results based on ST and HT for recognition of PQ disturbances and
classification results based on decision supported rules are elaborated in the chapter. These
results are detailed in subsections that follow.

5.1. Pure Sine Wave

Waveform of signal with sine wave nature is detailed in Fig. 5.1 (a). The signal is
analyzed with the help of Stockwell Transform for obtaining S-matrix. Absolute values of the
matrix contents are evaluated and represented as absolute values S-matrix. Summing of each
column of the absolute values S-matrix is obtained which is designated as ST-index and
plotted in Fig. 5.1 (b). Signal of pure sine wave is decomposed with the help of Hilbert
Transform to absolute values of output is which is assigned the name as H-index which is
shown in Fig. 5.1 (c). The element by element multiplication of the ST-index and H-index is
obtained which is designated as proposed power quality (PQ)-index and illustrated in Fig. 5.1
(d).

This can be inferred from Fig. 5.1 (b) that ST-index proposed in the study has
constant values throughout the time range indicating that no disturbance is associated with
the sine wave. It is also inferred from the Fig. 5.1 (b) that proposed H-index also has constant
values through the time range of the investigation indicating the no disturbance is
superimposed on the signal. In the similar way it is also inferred from Fig. 5.1 (c) that
proposed PQ index also has constant values throughout the time range indicating that
disturbance is not associated with the signal. These curves of proposed ST-index, proposed
H-index and proposed PQ index for the pure sinusoidal waveform can be considered
reference curve for identification of PQ disturbance. Any deviation from the standard values
of these curves will detect presence of disturbances with signal.

27
 Fig. 5.1 Detection of power quality disturbance (a) sine wave voltage signal (b) ST-
index (c) H-index (d) PQ index.

5.2. Voltage Sag

Waveform of sine wave signal with voltage sag between the time duration of 0.06s to
0.14s is described in Fig. 5.2 (a). The signal with sag event is decomposed with the help of
ST to evaluate S-matrix. Absolute values of the matrix elements are evaluated which is
considered as absolute values S-matrix. Summing of each column of the absolute values S-
matrix is obtained which is designated as ST-index for sine wave with sag and plotted in Fig.
5.2 (b). Signal of sine wave with sag is analyzed with the help of Hilbert Transform and
absolute magnitude of output values is evaluated and designated as H-index for sine wave
with sag which is shown in Fig. 5.2 (c). The element by element multiplication of the ST-
index and H-index for sine wave with sag is obtained and designated as proposed PQ-index
for sine wave with sag and illustrated in Fig. 5.2 (d).

This has evaluated from Fig. 5.2 (b) that ST-index has high value peaks at 0.06s and
0.14 s which helps to localize the PQ disturbance with respect to time. Decreased magnitude
of ST-index between 0.06s to 0.14s shows the availability of sag associated with voltage
signal. It has been observed from the Fig. 5.2 (c) that proposed H-index also has decreased

28
values between the 0.06s and 0.014s witnessing presence of sag associated with voltage. In
the similar way it is also observed from the Fig. 5.2 (d) that proposed power quality index
also has decreased magnitude between the 0.06s to 0.14s indicating availability of voltage
sag. However, sharp decrease in magnitude at the time of the sag initiation and sharp rise in
magnitude at the time sag ends improves the performance of detection of the voltage sag.
Hence, proposed ST-index, H-index and PQ-index detects the voltage sag effectively.

Fig. 5.2 Detection of power quality disturbance (a) voltage signal with sag (b) ST-
index (c) H-index (d) PQ index.

5.3. Voltage Swell

Waveform of sine wave signal with voltage swell between the time duration of 0.06s
to 0.14s is illustrated in Fig. 5.3 (a). The signal has been decomposed with the help of
Stockwell Transform to extract S-matrix. Absolute values of the matrix elements are
evaluated and termed as absolute values S-matrix. Summing of each column of the absolute
values S-matrix is obtained which is designated as ST-index for sine wave with swell and
plotted in Fig. 5.3 (b). Signal of sine wave with swell has also been decomposed with the help
of Hilbert Transform and absolute output magnitude is extracted and assigned the name H-
index for sine wave with swell which is shown in Fig. 5.3 (c). The element by element

29
multiplication of the ST-index and H-index for sine wave with swell is obtained and
designated as proposed PQ-index for sine wave with swell and illustrated in Fig. 5.3 (d).

Fig. 5.3 Detection of power quality disturbance (a) swell associated with voltage (b)
ST-index (c) H-index (d) PQ index.

This can be inferred from Fig. 5.3 (b) that ST-index (proposed) contains peaks with
high magnitude at 0.06s and 0.14 s which helps to localize the PQ disturbance of voltage
swell with respect to time. Increased magnitude of ST-index between 0.06s to 0.14s gives as
indication of swell with signal of voltage. It is observed from the Fig. 5.3 (c) that proposed
H-index also has increased values between the 0.06s and 0.014s indicating the presence of
swell associated with the voltage signal. In similar way it is also observed from the Fig. 5.2
(d) that proposed power quality index also has increased magnitude between the 0.06s to
0.14s indicating the presence of swell in voltage. However, sharp increase in magnitude at
time of the swell initiation and sharp rise in magnitude at the time swell ends improves the
performance of detection of the voltage swell. Hence, proposed ST-index, H-index and PQ-
index detects the voltage swell effectively.

5.4. Momentary Interruption

Waveform of sine wave signal with momentary interruption (MI) between the time
duration of 0.06s to 0.14s is illustrated in Fig. 5.4 (a). This signal can be decomposed with the
help of Stockwell Transform to extract S-matrix. Absolute values of these matrix elements

30
are obtained and designated as absolute values S-matrix. Summing of each column of the
absolute values S-matrix is obtained which is designated as ST-index for sine wave with
momentary interruption and plotted in Fig. 5.4 (b). Signal of sine wave with momentary
interruption is decomposed with the help of HT and absolute output values are evaluated and
considered as H-index for sine wave with momentary interruption which is shown in Fig. 5.4
(c). The element by element multiplication of the ST-index and H-index for sine wave with
momentary interruption is obtained and designated as proposed PQ-index for sine wave with
momentary interruption and illustrated in Fig. 5.4 (d).

Fig. 5.4 Detection of power quality disturbance (a) voltage signal with MI (b) ST-
index (c) H-index (d) PQ index

This has been inferred from Fig. 5.4 (b) that ST-index (proposed) has magnitude of
high peaks at 0.06s and 0.14 s which helps in localization of PQ disturbance of MI with
respect to time. Decreased magnitude (below 10%) of ST-index between 0.06s to 0.14s which
gives can indication for the presence of MI associated with voltage. It can be inferred from
Fig. 5.4 (c) that proposed H-index also has decreased values (below 10%) between the 0.06s
and 0.014s indicating availability of momentary interruption associated with voltage. In the
similar way it can also be inferred from Fig. 5.4 (d) that proposed PQ index of momentary
interruption also has decreased magnitude between the 0.06s to 0.14s (below 10%) which

31
clearly indicates the availability of MI. However, sharp decrease in magnitude at the time of
the momentary interruption initiation and sharp rise in magnitude at the time momentary
interruption ends improves the performance of detection of the voltage momentary
interruption. Hence, proposed ST-index, H-index and PQ-index detects the momentary
interruption effectively.

5.5. Voltage Harmonics

Waveform of sine wave signal with harmonics throughout the time range is illustrated
in Fig. 5.5 (a). The signal has been decomposed with the help of ST and S-matrix is
evaluated. Absolute values of these matrix elements are obtained and designated as absolute
values S-matrix. Summing of each column of the absolute values S-matrix is obtained which
is designated as ST-index for sine wave with harmonics and plotted in Fig. 5.5 (b). Signal of
sine wave with momentary interruption is decomposed with the help of HT to obtain absolute
values of output which is designated as H-index for sine wave with harmonics as shown in
Fig. 5.5 (c). The element by element multiplication of the ST-index and H-index for sine
wave with harmonics is obtained and designated as proposed PQ-index for sine wave with
harmonics and illustrated in Fig. 5.5 (d).

Fig. 5.5 Detection of power quality disturbance (a) harmonics superimposed with
voltage signal (b) ST-index (c) H-index (d) PQ index

32
 This can be inferred from Fig. 5.5 (b) that ST-index (proposed) has magnitude with
high ripples throughout time range which indicates presence of harmonics. It can be inferred
from Fig. 5.5 (c) that proposed H-index also has sharp end peaks at regular pattern which
indicates presence of harmonics with voltage signal. In similar way it is also observed from
the Fig. 5.5 (d) that proposed PQ index of voltage having superimposed harmonics has sharp
peaks of high magnitude at regular intervals which indicates the availability of harmonics
associated with voltage. Magnitude of these peaks is high compared to that observed in the H-
index indicating that performance of detection of harmonics has been increased by the use of
proposed PQ-index. Hence, proposed ST-index, H-index and PQ-index detects harmonics
effectively.

5.6. Voltage Flicker

Waveform of sine wave signal with flicker throughout the time range is illustrated in
Fig. 5.6 (a). This voltage signal with flicker disturbance is decomposed with the help of ST
for obtaining S-matrix. Absolute values of these matrix elements are obtained and designated
as absolute values S-matrix. Summing of each column of S-matrix of absolute values is
evaluated and is designated as ST-index for sine wave with flicker and plotted in Fig. 5.6 (b).
Signal of sine wave with flicker is decomposed with the help of Hilbert Transform and output
absolute values have been obtained and designated as H-index for sine wave with flicker
which is shown in Fig. 5.6 (c). The element by element multiplication of the ST-index and H-
index for sine wave with flicker is obtained and designated as proposed PQ-index for sine
wave with flicker and illustrated in Fig. 5.6 (d).
This can be inferred from Fig. 5.6 (b) that ST-index (proposed) has ripples with high
magnitude throughout time range with sharp ends on lower side indicating the presence of
flicker. Sharp end peaks on lower ends of ripple differentiate these patterns from that pattern
corresponding to harmonics. This has been inferred from Fig. 5.6 (c) that proposed H-index
envelops at regular pattern indicating availability of flicker with voltage. It can be inferred
from Fig. 5.6 (d) that proposed PQ index of voltage signal having flicker has ripples
throughout the time range with sharp peaks at both lower and upper ends. Magnitude of these
peaks is high compared to that observed in the H-index indicating that performance of
detection of flicker has been increased by the use of proposed PQ-index. Hence, proposed
ST-index, H-index and PQ-index detects flicker effectively.

33
 Fig. 5.6 Detection of power quality disturbance (a) voltage signal with flicker (b) ST-
index (c) H-index (d) PQ index

5.7. Oscillatory Transient

Waveform of sine wave signal with oscillatory transient throughout the time range is
detailed in Fig. 5.7 (a). This signal is analyzed with the help of ST to evaluate S-matrix.
Absolute values of these matrix elements are obtained and designated as absolute values S-
matrix. Summing of each column of absolute values supported S-matrix is obtained which is
represented as ST-index for sine wave with OT and plotted in Fig. 5.7 (b). Signal of sine
wave with OT is decomposed with the help of Hilbert Transform and output absolute values
are obtained and represented as H-index for sine wave with oscillatory transient which is
shown in Fig. 5.7 (c). The element by element multiplication of the ST-index and H-index for
sine wave with oscillatory transient is obtained and designated as proposed PQ-index for sine
wave with oscillatory transient and illustrated in Fig. 5.7 (d).

This can be inferred from Fig. 5.7 (b) that ST-index (proposed) has high magnitude
amplitude between 0.06s to 0.10s indicating the presence of the OT. It can be inferred from
Fig. 5.7 (c) that proposed H-index has oscillating frequency components between 0.08s to
0.10s indicating the presence of the OT. It can also be inferred from Fig. 5.7 (d) that proposed
PQ index of voltage having OT has high magnitude amplitude with oscillating component on

34
the upper surface which indicates the availability of OT. Hence, proposed ST-index, H-index
and PQ-index detects oscillatory transient effectively.

Fig. 5.7 Detection of power quality disturbance (a) voltage signal with OT (b) ST-
index (c) H-index (d) PQ index

5.8. Impulsive Transient

Waveform of sine wave signal with impulsive transient throughout the time range is
illustrated in Fig. 5.8 (a). The voltage signal with IT is decomposed with the help of ST to
evaluate the S-matrix. Absolute values of these matrix elements are obtained and designated
as absolute values S-matrix. Summing of each column of S-matrix having absolute values is
evaluated and represented as ST-index for sine wave with impulsive transient and plotted in
Fig. 5.8 (b). Signal of sine wave with impulsive transient is decomposed with the help of HT
and output absolute values are evaluated and represented as H-index for sine wave with
impulsive transient which is shown in Fig. 5.8 (c). The element by element multiplication of
the ST-index and H-index for sine wave with impulsive transient is obtained and designated
as proposed PQ-index for sine wave with impulsive transient and illustrated in Fig. 5.8 (d).

This can be inferred from Fig. 5.8 (b) that ST-index (proposed in the study) has high
magnitude peak indicating presence of impulsive transient. It is inferred from Fig. 5.8 (c) that
H-index (proposed in the study) also has a peak with high magnitude indicating presence of

35
impulsive transient. It is inferred from Fig. 5.8 (d) that proposed power quality index of
voltage signal with IT has high magnitude peak which also indicate presence of IT. The
proposed PQ index is found to be more effective for the detection of the impulsive transient
due to high magnitude sharp pointed peak. Hence, proposed ST-index, H-index and PQ-index
detects impulsive transient effectively.

Fig. 5.8 Detection of power quality disturbance (a) impulsive transient superimposed
on voltage signal (b) ST-index (c) H-index (d) PQ index

5.9. Notch
Waveform of sine wave signal with notch throughout the time range with regular
pattern is illustrated in Fig. 5.9 (a). The signal is decomposed with the help of ST to obtain S-
matrix. Absolute values of these matrix elements are obtained and designated as absolute
values S-matrix. Summing of each column of the absolute values S-matrix is obtained which
is designated as ST-index for sine wave with notches and plotted in Fig. 5.9 (b). Signal of
sine wave with notches is decomposed with the help of HT and output absolute values are
evaluated which have been represented as H-index for sine wave with notches which is
shown in Fig. 5.9 (c). The element by element multiplication of the ST-index and H-index for
sine wave with impulsive transient is obtained and designated as proposed PQ-index for sine
wave with notches and illustrated in Fig. 5.9 (d).

36
Fig. 5.9 Detection of power quality disturbance (a) notch associated with voltage
signal (b) ST-index (c) H-index (d) PQ index

This is observed from the Fig. 5.9 (b) that proposed ST-index has regular pattern of
sharp ended high magnitude peaks which indicate the availability of notches with signal. It
can be inferred from Fig. 5.9 (c) that proposed H-index regular pattern of ditches with small
magnitude peak at the time of initiation of notches which indicate availability of notches with
signal. It can be inferred from Fig. 5.9 (d) that proposed PQ index of voltage having
suprimposed notches has regular pattern of high magnitude peak which indicate the presence
of notches. The proposed PQ index is found to be more effective for the detection of the
notches due to high magnitude sharp pointed peak observed in regular pattern. Hence,
proposed ST-index, H-index and PQ-index detects notches effectively.

5.10. Spike
Waveform of sine wave signal with spike throughout the time range with regular
pattern is illustrated in Fig. 5.10 (a). This voltage signal is decomposed with the help of ST to
evaluate S-matrix. Absolute values of these matrix elements are obtained and designated as
absolute values S-matrix. Summing of each column of the absolute values S-matrix is
obtained which is designated as ST-index for sine wave with spikes and plotted in Fig. 5.10

37
(b). Signal of sine wave with spikes is decomposed with the help of HT and output absolute
values are evaluated and represented as H-index for sine wave with spikes which is shown in
Fig. 5.10 (c). The element by element multiplication of the ST-index and H-index for sine
wave with spikes is obtained and designated as proposed PQ-index for sine wave with spikes
and illustrated in Fig. 5.10 (d).

Fig. 5.10 Detection of power quality disturbance (a) spike superimposed on voltage
signal (b) ST-index (c) H-index (d) PQ index

This can be inferred from Fig. 5.10 (b) that ST-index (proposed in the study) has
regular pattern of sharp ended high magnitude peaks which indicates availability of spikes
with signal. It can be inferred from Fig. 5.10 (c) that proposed H-index regular pattern of
peaks with small magnitude ditch at moment of initiation of spikes indicates availability of
spikes with signal. This curve will help to discriminate the spikes from the notches. It is
observed from the Fig. 5.10 (d) that proposed PQ index of voltage signal having
superimposed spikes has regular pattern of high magnitude peak which indicate the presence
of spikes. The proposed PQ index is more effective for identification of spikes due to high
magnitude sharp pointed peak observed in regular pattern. Hence, proposed ST-index, H-
index and PQ-index detects spikes effectively.

38
5.11 Ruled Decision Tree Based Classification of Power Quality Disturbances

Features are extracted from the proposed ST-index (STI), H-index (HI) and PQ-index
(PQI). The standard deviation of these proposed indexes is calculated and multiplied by a
weight of 10 and provided in Table 5.1. These values are considered as input to decision
supported rules for the purpose of classification of simple nature PQ disturbances. Flow chart
for classification of single stage PQ disturbances using if then else rule of ruled decision tree
is shown in Fig. 5.11.

TABLE 5.1 STANDARD DEVIATION OF POWER QUALITY INDEXES

S. No. Power Quality Index
PQ disturbance
ST-index H-index PQ-index
1 Pure Sine Wave 2.199 0.067 1.960
2 Voltage Sag 4.015 1.454 5.890
3 Voltage Swell 3.712 1.467 7.387
4 Momentary Interruption 9.678 4.451 11.982
5 Voltage Harmonics 5.275 1.328 10.512
6 Voltage Flicker 11.175 0.752 12.334
7 Oscillatory Transient 90.638 2.990 175.248
8 Impulsive Transient 70.382 2.324 201.165
9 Notch 38.780 0.662 36.166
10 Spike 32.482 5.15 35.849

From the Fig. 5.11, it is observed that the considered ten power quality disturbances
are first classified in two groups based on the proposed power quality index. First group
contains the PQ disturbances with PQI>100 and PQ disturbances with PQI<100 are included
in second group. Further using the values of the PQ-index, H-index and ST-index all the
disturbances are detected one by one using different rules.
5.12 Performance of Proposed Algorithm
Performance of the proposed algorithm is evaluated in terms of correctly classified
and misclassified number of signals. A data set of 100 signals is obtained by the variations of
various parameters such as amplitude, frequency etc. The details of correctly and
misclassified signals is provided in Table 5.2.

39
Fig. 5.11 Classification of single stage power quality disturbances based on rule
decision tree

40
 TABLE 5.2 PERFORMANCE OF PROPOSED ALGORITHM FOR RECOGNITION OF PQ
DISTURBANCES
Efficiency of
Correctly Misclassified
S. No. PQ Disturbance Correct
Classified Signals Signals
Classification
1 Pure Sine Wave 100 0 100
2 Voltage Sag 100 0 100
3 Voltage Swell 100 0 100
4 Momentary Interruption 100 0 100
5 Voltage Harmonics 98 2 98
6 Voltage Flicker 97 3 97
7 Oscillatory Transient 100 0 100
8 Impulsive Transient 100 0 100
9 Notch 98 2 98
10 Spike 98 2 98
Overall efficiency of classification 99.10

It is observed that the efficiency of proposed algorithm is achieved above 99% for
detection and classification of the investigated power quality disturbances.

5.13 Comparison of Performance of Proposed Algorithm with the Algoritm Reported

in Literature

Performance of algorithm introduced in the present study is compared with algorithm

using ST and rule based decision tree available in [39]. It is observed that the performance of
proposed algorithm is better with efficiency of 99.1% compared to that reported in [39] with
efficiency of 97.033% only.

41
 Chapter-6

RECOGNITION OF COMPLEX POWER QUALITY DISTURBANCES:

SIMULATION RESULTS
Detailed results of simulation obtained by use of algorithm introduced in this study
which is supported by combined features of ST, HT and rules supported by decisions for
identification of complex nature PQ disturbances are presented and detailed in the chapter.
Results based on Stockwell Transform and Hilbert transform for detection of Complex PQ
disturbances and classification results based on decision supported rules tree are elaborated in
the chapter. These results are detailed in sections that follow.

6.1 Voltage Sag with Harmonics

Waveform of sine wave signal with harmonics throughout the time range and sag
between 0.06s to 0.14s is detailed in Fig. 6.1 (a). The signal with complex PQ is decomposed
with the help of ST to evaluate S-matrix. Absolute values of these matrix elements are
obtained and designated as absolute values S-matrix. Summing of each column of the
absolute values S-matrix is obtained which is designated as ST-index for sine wave with sag
and harmonics and plotted in Fig. 6.1 (b). Signal of sine wave with sag and harmonics is
decomposed with the help of HT and output absolute values are obtained and represented as
H-index for sine wave with sag and harmonics which is shown in Fig. 6.1 (c). The element by
element multiplication of the ST-index and H-index for sine wave with sag and harmonics is
obtained and designated as PQ-index for sine wave with sag and harmonics and illustrated in
Fig. 6.1 (d).

This can be observed from Fig. 6.1 (b) that magnitude of ST-index (proposed in the
study) decreased between 0.06s to 0.14s which indicates availability of sag with voltage
signal. It can be observed from Fig. 6.1 (c) that H-index also has decreased values between
0.06s and 0.014s which indicates availability of sag associated with voltage signal. In similar
way it is also pointed out from Fig. 6.1 (d) that proposed power quality index also has
decreased magnitude between the 0.06s to 0.14s which indicates availability of voltage sag.
This can be inferred from Fig. 6.1 (b) that ST-index has ripples with high magnitude
throughout time range which indicates presence of harmonics. It can be inferred from Fig. 6.1
(c) that H-index also has sharp end peaks at regular pattern which indicates availability of

42
harmonics with voltage signal. In similar way it is inferred from Fig. 6.1 (d) that proposed PQ
index of voltage signal with harmonics has sharp peaks of high magnitude at regular intervals
which indicates availability of harmonics associated with voltage signal. Magnitude of these
peaks is high compared to that observed in the H-index indicating that performance of
detection of harmonics has been increased by the use of proposed PQ-index. Hence, proposed
ST-index, H-index and PQ-index effectively detects the complex power quality disturbance
with sag and harmonics effectively.

Fig. 6.1 Detection of power quality disturbance (a) voltage signal having superimposed
sag and harmonics (b) ST-index (c) H-index (d) PQ index

6.2 Voltage Swell with Harmonics

Waveform of sine wave signal with harmonics throughout the time range and swell
between 0.06s to 0.14s is illustrated in Fig. 6.2 (a). This voltage signal is decomposed with
the help of ST for obtaining S-matrix. Absolute values of these matrix elements are obtained
and designated as absolute values S-matrix. Summing of each column of the absolute values
S-matrix is obtained which is designated as ST-index for sine wave with swell and harmonics
and plotted in Fig. 6.2 (b). Signal of sine wave with swell and harmonics is decomposed with
the help of HT and absolute values of output is evaluated and represented as H-index for sine
wave with swell and harmonics which is shown in Fig. 6.2 (c). The element by element

43
multiplication of the ST-index and H-index for sine wave with swell and harmonics is
obtained and designated as proposed PQ-index for sine wave with swell and harmonics and
illustrated in Fig. 6.2 (d).

Fig. 6.2 Detection of power quality disturbance (a) voltage signal having superimposed
swell and harmonics (b) ST-index (c) H-index (d) PQ index

This can be inferred from Fig. 6.2 (b) that magnitude of proposed ST-index increased
between 0.06s to 0.14s indicating availability of swell with voltage signal. This can be
inferred from Fig. 6.2 (c) that H-index also has increased values between 0.06s and 0.014s
which indicates availability of swell associated with voltage signal. In similar way it is also
inferred from Fig. 6.2 (d) that PQ index also has increased magnitude between the 0.06s to
0.14s which indicates availability of voltage swell. This can be inferred from Fig. 6.2 (b) that
ST-index has ripples of high magnitude throughout time range which indicates availability of
harmonics. It can also be observed from Fig. 6.2 (c) that H-index also has sharp end peaks at
regular pattern which indicates availability of harmonics associated with voltage signal. In
similar fashion it is also established from Fig. 6.2 (d) that PQ index of voltage signal having
superimposed harmonics has sharp peaks of high magnitude at regular intervals which
indicates availability of harmonics associated with voltage signal. Magnitude of these peaks
is high compared to that observed in the H-index indicating that performance of detection of
harmonics has been increased by the use of proposed PQ-index. Hence, proposed ST-index,

44
H-index and PQ-index effectively detects the complex power quality disturbance with swell
and harmonics effectively.

6.3 Voltage Interruption with Harmonics

Waveform of sine wave signal with harmonics throughout the time range and
momentary interruption between 0.06s to 0.14s is illustrated in Fig. 6.3 (a). The signal
decomposed with the help of ST and S-matrix is evaluated. Absolute values of these matrix
elements are obtained and designated as absolute values S-matrix. Summing of each column
of absolute values based S-matrix is evaluated and represented as ST-index for sine wave
with MI and harmonics and plotted in Fig. 6.3 (b). Signal of sine wave with momentary
interruption and harmonics is decomposed with the help of HT and output absolute values are
evaluated and represented as H-index for sine wave with MI and harmonics which is shown
in Fig. 6.3 (c). The element by element multiplication of the ST-index and H-index for sine
wave with MI and harmonics is obtained and represented as PQ-index for sine wave with
momentary interruption and harmonics and illustrated in Fig. 6.3 (d).

Fig. 6.3 Detection of power quality disturbance (a) voltage signal having superimposed
interruption and harmonics (b) ST-index (c) H-index (d) PQ index

This can be inferred from Fig. 6.3 (b) that magnitude of proposed ST-index decreased
below 10% between 0.06s to 0.14s indicating availability of momentary interruption with

45
voltage signal. This can also be analyzed from Fig. 6.3 (c) that H-index also has decreased
values below 10% between the 0.06s and 0.014s indicating the availability of MI associated
with voltage signal. In the similar way it is also analyzed from Fig. 6.3 (d) that proposed
power quality index also has decreased magnitude below 10% between the 0.06s to 0.14s
which indicates availability of MI. This can also be inferred from Fig. 6.3 (b) that ST-index
has ripples of high magnitude throughout time range which indicates availability of
harmonics. It can also be inferred from Fig. 6.3 (c) that H-index also has sharp end peaks at
regular pattern which indicates availability of harmonics with voltage signal. In similar way it
is also inferred from Fig. 6.3 (d) that PQ index of voltage signal with harmonics has sharp
peaks of high magnitude at regular intervals which indicates availability of harmonics
associated with voltage signal. Magnitude of these peaks is high compared to that observed in
the H-index indicating that performance of detection of harmonics has been increased by the
use of proposed PQ-index. Hence, proposed ST-index, H-index and PQ-index effectively
detects the complex power quality disturbance with MI and harmonics effectively.

6.4 Voltage Flicker with Harmonics

Waveform of sine wave signal with harmonics and flicker throughout the time range
is illustrated in Fig. 6.4 (a). This signal has been decomposed with the help of ST to evaluate
S-matrix. Absolute values of these matrix elements are obtained and designated as absolute
values S-matrix. Summing of each column of the absolute values S-matrix is obtained which
is designated as ST-index for sine wave with momentary harmonics and flicker is plotted in
Fig. 6.4 (b). Signal of sine wave with harmonics and flicker is decomposed with the help of
HT and output absolute values are obtained and represented as H-index for sine wave with
harmonics and flicker which is shown in Fig. 6.4 (c). The element by element multiplication
of the ST-index and H-index for sine wave with harmonics and flicker is obtained and
designated as proposed PQ-index for sine wave with harmonics and flicker and shown in Fig.
6.4 (d).

This can be inferred from Fig. 6.4 (b) that ST-index has ripples of high magnitude
throughout time range with dual sharp ends on lower side indicating the presence of flicker. It
can also be observed from Fig. 6.4 (c) that H-index envelops at regular pattern which
indicates availability of flicker with voltage signal. This can also be observed from Fig. 6.4
(d) that PQ index of voltage signal having superimposed flicker has ripples throughout the

46
time range with sharp peaks at both lower and upper ends. Magnitude of these peaks is high
compared to that observed in the H-index indicating that performance of detection of flicker
has been increased by the use of proposed PQ-index. This can be observed from Fig. 6.4 (b)
that ST-index has ripples of high magnitude throughout time range which indicates
availability of harmonics. It is inferred from Fig. 6.4 (c) that H-index also has sharp end
peaks at regular pattern which indicates availability of harmonics with voltage signal. In
similar way it is also inferred from Fig. 6.4 (d) that PQ index of voltage signal having
superimposed harmonics has sharp peaks of high magnitude at regular intervals which
indicates the availability of harmonics associated with voltage signal. Magnitude of these
peaks is high compared to that observed in the H-index indicating that performance of
detection of harmonics has been increased by the use of proposed PQ-index. Hence, proposed
ST-index, H-index and PQ-index effectively detects the complex power quality disturbance
with flicker and harmonics effectively.

Fig. 6.4 Detection of power quality disturbance (a) voltage signal having superimposed
flicker and harmonics (b) ST-index (c) H-index (d) PQ index

6.5 Voltage Sag with Oscillatory Transient

Waveform of sine wave signal with sag between 0.10s to 0.16s and oscillatory
transient between 0.06s to 0.08s is illustrated in Fig. 6.5 (a). This signal is decomposed with
the help of ST for obtaining S-matrix. Absolute values of these matrix elements are obtained

47
and designated as absolute values S-matrix. Summing of each column of the absolute values
S-matrix is obtained which is designated as ST-index for sine wave having superimposed sag
and OT is plotted in Fig. 6.5 (b). Signal of sine wave with sag and oscillatory transient is
decomposed with the help of HT and output absolute values are evaluated and represented as
H-index for sine wave with sag and oscillatory transient which is shown in Fig. 6.5 (c). The
element by element multiplication of the ST-index and H-index for sine wave with swell and
OT is obtained and designated as PQ-index for sine wave with sag and OT and illustrated in
Fig. 6.5 (d).

Fig. 6.5 Detection of power quality disturbance (a) voltage signal having superimposed
sag and OT (b) ST-index (c) H-index (d) PQ index

This is observed from Fig. 6.5 (b) that magnitude of proposed ST-index decreased
between 0.1s to 0.16s indicating availability of sag associated with voltage signal. This can
be inferred from Fig. 6.5 (c) that H-index also has decreased values between 0.1s and 0.16s
which indicates availability of sag associated with voltage signal. In similar way it can also
be concluded observed from Fig. 6.5 (d) that PQ index also has decreased magnitude between
the 0.10s to 0.16s which indicates availability of voltage sag. This can be observed from Fig.
6.5 (b) that ST-index has high magnitude amplitude between 0.06s to 0.08s indicating
availability of OT. It can also be observed from Fig. 6.5 (c) that H-index has oscillating
frequency components between 0.06s to 0.08s indicating availability of OT. Further, it is also

48
evaluated from Fig. 6.5 (d) that PQ index has high magnitude amplitude with oscillating
component on the upper surface which indicates availability of OT. Hence, proposed ST-
index, H-index and PQ-index detects complex PQ disturbance of voltage sag and OT
effectively.

6.6 Voltage Swell with Oscillatory Transient

Waveform of sine wave signal with swell between 0.10s to 0.16s and oscillatory
transient between 0.06s to 0.08s is illustrated in Fig. 6.6 (a). The signal is decomposed with
the help of ST for obtaining S-matrix. Absolute values of these matrix elements are obtained
and designated as absolute values S-matrix. Summing of each column of the absolute values
S-matrix is obtained which is designated as ST-index for sine wave with swell and OT is
plotted in Fig. 6.6 (b). Signal of sine wave with swell and oscillatory transient is decomposed
with the help of HT and output absolute values are evaluated and represented as H-index for
sine wave with swell and OT which is shown in Fig. 6.6 (c). The element by element
multiplication of the ST-index and H-index for sine wave with swell and OT is obtained and
designated as PQ-index for sine wave with swell and OT and in Fig. 6.6 (d).

Fig. 6.6 Detection of power quality disturbance (a) voltage signal having superimposed
swell and OT (b) ST-index (c) H-index (d) PQ index

49
 This is inferred from Fig. 6.6 (b) that magnitude of ST-index increased between 0.1s
to 0.16s indicating availability of swell with voltage signal. This is analyzed from Fig. 6.6 (c)
that proposed H-index also has increased values between the 0.1s and 0.16s which indicates
the availability of swell associated with voltage signal. In similar way it is also inferred from
Fig. 6.6 (d) that proposed power quality index also has decreased magnitude between the
0.10s to 0.16s which also indicate voltage sag. This can be inferred from Fig. 6.6 (b) that
proposed ST-index has high magnitude amplitude between 0.06s to 0.08s which indicates
availability of OT. It can also be inferred from Fig. 6.6 (c) that proposed H-index has
oscillating frequency components between 0.06s to 0.08s indicating availability of OT. It can
be evaluated from Fig. 6.6 (d) that PQ index has amplitude of high magnitude with oscillating
component on the upper surface indicating availability of OT. Hence, proposed ST-index, H-
index and PQ-index detects complex PQ disturbance of voltage swell and oscillatory transient
effectively.

6.7 Voltage Interruption with Oscillatory Transient

Waveform of sine wave signal with momentary interruption between 0.10s to 0.16s
and oscillatory transient between 0.06s to 0.08s is illustrated in Fig. 6.7 (a). The signal is
decomposed with the help of ST for obtaining S-matrix. Absolute values of these matrix
elements are obtained and designated as absolute values S-matrix. Summing of each column
of the absolute values S-matrix is obtained which is designated as ST-index for sine wave
with momentary interruption and oscillatory transient is plotted in Fig. 6.7 (b). Signal of sine
wave with momentary interruption and oscillatory transient is decomposed with the help of
HT and output absolute values are obtained and represented as H-index for sine wave with
momentary interruption and oscillatory transient which is shown in Fig. 6.7 (c). The element
by element multiplication of the ST-index and H-index for sine wave with momentary
interruption and oscillatory transient is obtained and designated as proposed PQ-index for
sine wave with momentary interruption and oscillatory transient and illustrated in Fig. 6.7 (d).

This is inferred from Fig. 6.7 (b) that magnitude of proposed ST-index decreased
below 10% of rated value of 1pu between 0.1s to 0.16s indicating availability of sag
associated with voltage signal. This can also be evaluated from Fig. 6.7 (c) that H-index also
has decreased values below 10% of rated value of 1pu between the 0.1s and 0.16s which
indicates availability of sag associated with voltage signal. In similar way it has also been

50
inferred from Fig. 6.7 (d) that PQ index also has decreased magnitude below 10% of rated
value of 1pu between the 0.10s to 0.16s which indicates availability of associated voltage sag.
This can also be inferred from Fig. 6.7 (b) that ST-index has high magnitude amplitude
between 0.06s to 0.08s indicating availability of OT. It is evaluated from Fig. 6.7 (c) that H-
index has oscillating frequency components between 0.06s to 0.08s indicating availability of
OT. It is also evaluated from Fig. 6.7 (d) that PQ index has amplitude of high magnitude with
oscillating component on the upper surface indicating availability of OT. Hence, proposed
ST-index, H-index and PQ-index detects complex PQ disturbance of voltage sag and OT
effectively.

Fig. 6.7 Detection of power quality disturbance (a) voltage signal having superimposed
interruption and OT (b) ST-index (c) H-index (d) PQ index

6.8 Voltage Flicker with Oscillatory Transient

Waveform of sine wave signal with flicker throughout the time range and oscillatory
transient between 0.06s to 0.08s is illustrated in Fig. 6.8 (a). The signal has been decomposed
with the help of ST for obtaining S-matrix. Absolute values of these matrix elements are
obtained and designated as absolute values S-matrix. Summing of each column of the
absolute values S-matrix is obtained which is designated as ST-index for sine wave with
flicker and oscillatory transient is plotted in Fig. 6.8 (b). Sine wave signal with flicker and
oscillatory transient is decomposed with the help of HT and absolute output values obtained

51
are represented as H-index for sine wave with flicker and oscillatory transient which is shown
in Fig. 6.8 (c). Element by element multiplication of ST-index and H-index for sine wave
with flicker and oscillatory transient is obtained and designated as proposed PQ-index for
sine wave with flicker and oscillatory transient and shown in Fig. 6.8 (d).

Fig. 6.8 Detection of power quality disturbance (a) voltage signal with associated
flicker and OT (b) ST-index (c) H-index (d) PQ index

This has been evaluated from Fig. 6.8 (b) that ST-index has ripples of high magnitude
throughout time range with dual sharp ends on lower side indicating the presence of flicker. It
is also evaluated from Fig. 6.8 (c) that H-index envelops at regular pattern indicates
availability of flicker with voltage signal. It is also inferred from Fig. 6.8 (d) that PQ index of
voltage signal having flicker has ripples throughout the time range with sharp peaks at both
lower and upper ends. Magnitude of these peaks is high compared to that observed in the H-
index indicating that performance of detection of flicker has been increased by the use of
proposed PQ-index. This can be evaluated from Fig. 6.8 (b) that ST-index has amplitude of
high magnitude between 0.06s to 0.08s indicating availability of OT. This can be inferred
from Fig. 6.8 (c) that H-index has oscillating frequency components between 0.06s to 0.08s
indicating availability of OT. This is inferred from Fig. 6.8 (d) that PQ index has amplitude
of high magnitude with oscillating component on the upper surface indicating availability of
OT. Hence, ST-index, H-index and PQ-index detects complex PQ disturbance of flicker and
oscillatory transient effectively.

52
6.9 Voltage Harmonics with Oscillatory Transient

Waveform of sine wave signal with harmonics throughout the time range and
oscillatory transient between 0.06s to 0.08s is detailed in Fig. 6.9 (a). The signal is
decomposed with the help of ST for obtaining S-matrix. Absolute values of these matrix
elements are obtained and designated as absolute values S-matrix. Summing of each column
of the absolute values S-matrix is obtained which is designated as ST-index for sine wave
with harmonics and OT is plotted in Fig. 6.9 (b). Signal of sine wave with harmonics and OT
is decomposed using HT and output absolute values have been obtained and represented as
H-index for sine wave with harmonics and OT which is illustrated in Fig. 6.9 (c). The
element by element multiplication of the ST-index and H-index for sine wave with harmonics
and OT is obtained and designated as proposed PQ-index for sine wave with harmonics and
oscillatory transient and illustrated in Fig. 6.9 (d).

Fig. 6.9 Detection of power quality disturbance (a) voltage signal with Harmonics and
OT (b) ST-index (c) H-index (d) PQ index

This can be evaluated from Fig. 6.9 (b) that ST-index has ripples high magnitude
throughout time range indicating presence of harmonics. It is evaluated from Fig. 6.9 (c) that
H-index also has sharp end peaks at regular pattern which indicates availability of harmonics
associated with voltage signal. In similar way it is also observed from the Fig. 6.9 (d) that PQ

53
index of voltage signal having superimposed harmonics has sharp peaks of high magnitude at
regular intervals which indicates availability of harmonics associated with voltage signal.
Magnitude of these peaks is high compared to that observed in the H-index indicating that
performance of detection of harmonics has been increased by the use of proposed PQ-index.
This has also been evaluated from Fig. 6.9 (b) that ST-index has high magnitude amplitude
between 0.06s to 0.08s indicating availability of OT. It has also been observed from Fig. 6.9
(c) that H-index has oscillating frequency components between 0.06s to 0.08s indicating
availability of OT. This can also been is evaluated from Fig. 6.9 (d) that PQ index has
amplitude of high magnitude with oscillating component on upper surface indicating the
availability of OT. Hence, proposed ST-index, H-index and PQ-index detects complex PQ
disturbance of harmonics and oscillatory transient effectively.

6.10 Voltage Sag with Impulsive Transient

Waveform of sine wave signal with voltage sag between 0.10sto 0.16s and impulsive
transient between 0.065s to 0.068s is illustrated in Fig. 6.10 (a). This signal has been
decomposed with the help of ST for obtaining S-matrix. Absolute values of these matrix
elements are obtained and designated as absolute values S-matrix. Summing of each column
of the absolute values S-matrix is obtained which is designated as ST-index for sine wave
with sag and IT is plotted in Fig. 6.10 (b). Signal of sine wave sag and IT is decomposed
using HT and output absolute values have been obtained and represented as H-index for sine
wave with sag and IT which is illustrated in Fig. 6.10 (c). Element by element multiplication
of the ST-index and H-index for sine wave with sag and IT is obtained and designated as
proposed PQ-index for sine wave with sag and IT and shown in Fig. 6.10 (d).

This can be inferred from Fig. 6.10 (b) that magnitude of ST-index decreased between
0.1s to 0.16s indicating availability of sag associated with voltage signal. This has been
evaluated from Fig. 6.10 (c) that H-index also has decreased values between 0.1s and 0.16s
which indicates availability of sag associated with voltage signal. In similar way it is also
evaluated from Fig. 6.10 (d) that PQ index also has decreased magnitude between the 0.10s to
0.16s which is an indication of presence of voltage sag. This has also been inferred from Fig.
6.10 (b) that ST-index has peak with high magnitude which indicates availability of IT. It has
also been evaluated from Fig. 6.10 (c) that H-index has a peak of high magnitude which
indicates the availability of IT. It is evaluated from Fig. 6.10 (d) that proposed power quality

54
index of voltage signal with IT has peak of high magnitude which also indicate presence of
IT. Proposed PQ index is effective for identification of IT due to high magnitude sharp
pointed peak. Hence, proposed ST-index, H-index and PQ-index detects complex PQ
disturbance of voltage sag and impulsive transient effectively.

Fig. 6.10 Detection of power quality disturbance (a) voltage signal with sag and IT (b)
ST-index (c) H-index (d) PQ index

6.11 Voltage Swell with Impulsive Transient

Waveform of sine wave signal with voltage swell between 0.10sto 0.16s and
impulsive transient between 0.065s to 0.068s is described in Fig. 6.11 (a). The signal is
decomposed with the help of ST for obtaining S-matrix. Absolute values of these matrix
elements are obtained and designated as absolute values S-matrix. Summing of each column
of the absolute values S-matrix is obtained which is designated as ST-index for sine wave
having superimposed swell and IT is plotted in Fig. 6.11 (b). Signal of sine wave with voltage
swell and impulsive transient is decomposed with the help of IT and output absolute values
are obtained and assigned the name as H-index for sine wave with voltage swell and
impulsive transient which is shown in Fig. 6.11 (c). The element by element multiplication of
the ST-index and H-index for sine wave having superimposed swell and IT is obtained and
assigned the name as proposed PQ-index for sine wave having superimposed swell and IT
and detailed in Fig. 6.11 (d).

55
Fig. 6.11 Detection of power quality disturbance (a) voltage signal with swell and IT (b) ST-
index (c) H-index (d) PQ index

This can be inferred from Fig. 6.11 (b) that magnitude of ST-index increased between
0.1s to 0.16s which indicate the availability swell associated with voltage signal. This can be
inferred from Fig. 6.11 (c) that H-index also has increased values between the 0.1s and 0.16s
which indicate the availability swell associated with voltage signal. In similar way this can
also be inferred from Fig. 6.11 (d) that PQ index also has increased magnitude between the
0.10s to 0.16s which indicate the availability swell associated with voltage signal. This can be
inferred from Fig. 6.11 (b) that ST-index has peak of high magnitude which shows the
availability of IT. It is observed from the Fig. 6.11 (c) that H-index also has peak of high
magnitude which shows the availability of IT. It is observed from Fig. 6.11 (d) that PQ index
of voltage signal IT has peak of high magnitude which also indicate availability of IT.
Proposed PQ index is effective for detection of impulsive transient due to high magnitude
sharp pointed peak. Hence, proposed ST-index, H-index and PQ-index detects complex PQ
disturbance of voltage swell and impulsive transient effectively.

6.12 Voltage Interruption with Impulsive Transient

Waveform of sine wave signal with momentary interruption between 0.10sto 0.16s
and impulsive transient between 0.065s to 0.068s is described in Fig. 6.12 (a). This signal is
decomposed using the Stockwell Transform to obtain the S-matrix. Absolute values of these

56
matrix elements are obtained and designated as absolute values S-matrix. Summing of each
column of the absolute values S-matrix is obtained which is designated as ST-index for sine
wave with momentary interruption and impulsive transient is plotted in Fig. 6.12 (b). Signal
of sine wave with momentary interruption and impulsive transient is decomposed with the
help of HT and output absolute values are obtained and assigned the name as H-index for sine
wave with momentary interruption and impulsive transient which is shown in Fig. 6.12 (c).
The element by element multiplication of the ST-index and H-index for sine wave with
momentary interruption and impulsive transient is obtained and designated as proposed PQ-
index for sine wave with momentary interruption and impulsive transient and illustrated in
Fig. 6.12 (d).

Fig. 6.12 Detection of power quality disturbance (a) voltage signal with interruption and
IT (b) ST-index (c) H-index (d) PQ index

This can also be inferred from Fig. 6.12 (b) that magnitude of ST-index decreased
(below 10% of rated value) between 0.1s to 0.16s indicating availability of momentary
interruption. This can be inferred from Fig. 6.12 (c) that proposed H-index also has decreased
values (below 10% of rated value) between the 0.1s and 0.16s indicating presence of MI
associated with voltage signal. In the similar way it is also evaluated from Fig. 6.12 (d) that
proposed power quality index also has decreased magnitude (below 10% of rated value)
between the 0.10s to 0.16s which indicates availability of MI. This can also be inferred from

57
Fig. 6.12 (b) that ST-index has peak of high magnitude indicating presence of IT. This can
also be inferred from Fig. 6.12 (c) that H-index also has a high magnitude peak indicating
presence of impulsive transient. Further, this is also observed from Fig. 6.12 (d) that proposed
power quality index of voltage signal with IT has peak of high magnitude which also indicate
presence of IT. Proposed PQ index is found to be more effective for detection of impulsive
transient due to high magnitude sharp pointed peak. Hence, proposed ST-index, H-index and
PQ-index detects complex PQ disturbance of voltage sag and IT effectively

6.13 Voltage Signal with Harmonics and Impulsive Transient

Waveform of sine wave signal with harmonics throughout the time range and
impulsive transient between 0.065s to 0.068s is illustrated in Fig. 6.13 (a). The signal is
decomposed with the help of ST for obtaining S-matrix. Absolute values of these matrix
elements are obtained and designated as absolute values S-matrix. Summing of each column
of S-matrix of absolute values is obtained which is assigned the name as ST-index for sine
wave with harmonics and IT is plotted in Fig. 6.13 (b). Signal of sine wave with harmonics
and impulsive transient is decomposed with the help of HT and output absolute values are
obtained and assigned the name as H-index for sine wave with harmonics and IT which is
illustrated in Fig. 6.13 (c). Element by element multiplication of the ST-index and H-index
for sine wave with harmonics and IT is obtained and designated as PQ-index for sine wave
with harmonics and impulsive transient and illustrated in Fig. 6.13 (d).

This can be inferred from Fig. 6.13 (b) that ST-index has ripples of high magnitude
throughout time range which indicates availability of harmonics. It can be observed from Fig.
6.13 (c) that H-index also has sharp end peaks at regular pattern which indicates availability
of harmonics associated with voltage signal. In similar way it is also observed from the Fig.
6.13 (d) that PQ index of voltage signal with harmonics has sharp peaks of high magnitude at
regular intervals which gives indication of availability of harmonics associated with voltage
signal. Magnitude of these peaks is high compared to that observed in the H-index indicating
that performance of detection of harmonics has been increased by the use of proposed PQ-
index. This can be inferred from Fig. 6.13 (b) that ST-index has peak of high magnitude
which indicates availability of IT. This can also be evaluated from Fig. 6.13 (c) that H-index
also has a high magnitude peak indicating presence of IT. This can also be evaluated from
Fig. 6.13 (d) that proposed power quality index of voltage signal with IT has high magnitude

58
peak which also indicate presence of IT. Proposed PQ index is effective for detection of IT
due to high magnitude sharp pointed peak. Hence, proposed ST-index, H-index and PQ-index
detects complex PQ disturbance of harmonics and IT effectively.

Fig. 6.13 Detection of power quality disturbance (a) voltage signal with harmonics and
IT (b) ST-index (c) H-index (d) PQ index

6.14 Voltage Signal with Spike and Sag

Waveform of sine wave signal with voltage sag between 0.06s to 0.14s and spikes
throughout the time range with regular pattern is illustrated in Fig. 6.14 (a). The signal is
decomposed with the help of ST for obtaining S-matrix. Absolute values of these matrix
elements are obtained and designated as absolute values S-matrix. Summing of each column
of the absolute values S-matrix is obtained which is designated as ST-index for sine wave
with voltage sag and spikes is plotted in Fig. 6.14 (b). Signal of sine wave with voltage sag
and spikes is decomposed with the help of HT and output absolute values are obtained and
assigned name as H-index for sine wave with voltage sag and spikes which is shown in Fig.
6.14 (c). The element by element multiplication of the ST-index and H-index for sine wave
with voltage sag and spikes is obtained and designated as proposed PQ-index for sine wave
with voltage spikes and impulsive transient and illustrated in Fig. 6.14 (d).

59
 This can be inferred from Fig. 6.14 (b) that ST-index has regular pattern of sharp
ended high magnitude peaks indicating availability of spikes associated with signal. It can be
evaluated from Fig. 6.14 (c) that H-index regular pattern of peaks with small magnitude ditch
at moment of initiation of spikes indicating availability of spikes with signal. This curve will
help to discriminate the spikes from the notches. It can be inferred from Fig. 6.14 (d) that PQ
index of voltage signal with spikes has regular pattern of peak with high magnitude which
indicate the presence of spikes. PQ index is found to be effective for identification of spikes
due to high magnitude sharp pointed peak observed in regular pattern. This can also be
inferred from Fig. 6.14 (b) that magnitude of ST-index decreased between 0.1s to 0.16s
indicating the presence of sag associated with voltage signal. This can also be inferred from
Fig. 6.14 (c) that H-index also has decreased values between 0.1s and 0.16s indicating
availability of sag associated with voltage signal. In similar way this can also be inferred
from Fig. 6.14 (d) that PQ index also has decreased magnitude between the 0.10s to 0.16s
which indicates availability of voltage sag. Hence, proposed ST-index, H-index and PQ-index
detects complex PQ disturbance of Spike and Sag effectively.

Fig. 6.14 Detection of power quality disturbance (a) voltage signal with spike and sag
(b) ST-index (c) H-index (d) PQ index

60
6.15 Voltage Signal with Sag, Harmonics and Oscillatory Transient

Waveform of sine wave signal with voltage sag between 0.10sto 0.16s, oscillatory
transient between 0.06s to 0.08s and harmonics throughout the time range is illustrated in Fig.
6.15 (a). The signal is decomposed with the help of ST for obtaining S-matrix. Absolute
values of these matrix elements are obtained and designated as absolute values S-matrix.
Summing of each column of the absolute values S-matrix is obtained which is designated as
ST-index for sine wave with voltage sag, harmonics and OT is plotted in Fig. 6.15 (b). Signal
of sine wave with voltage sag, harmonics and oscillatory transient is decomposed with the
help of HT and absolute values of output is obtained and assigned name as H-index for sine
wave with voltage sag, harmonics and OT which is illustrated in Fig. 6.15 (c). Element by
element multiplication of ST-index and H-index for sine wave with voltage sag, harmonics
and OT is obtained and assigned name as PQ-index for sine wave with voltage sag,
harmonics and OT and illustrated in Fig. 6.15 (d).

Fig. 6.15 Detection of power quality disturbance (a) voltage signal with Sag, Harmonics
and OT (b) ST-index (c) H-index (d) PQ index

This can be inferred from Fig. 6.15 (b) that magnitude of ST-index decreased between
0.1s to 0.16s indicating presence of sag with voltage signal. This can be inferred from Fig.
6.15 (c) that H-index also has decreased values between 0.1s and 0.16s indicating presence of

61
sag associated with voltage signal. In similar way this can be inferred from Fig. 6.15 (d) that
PQ index also has decreased magnitude between the 0.10s to 0.16s indicating presence of
voltage sag. This can be inferred from Fig. 6.15 (b) that ST-index has ripples of high
magnitude throughout time range indicating presence of harmonics. This can be inferred from
Fig. 6.15 (c) that H-index also has sharp end peaks at regular pattern indicating presence of
harmonics with voltage signal. In similar way it is also observed from the Fig. 6.15 (d) that
proposed power quality index of voltage signal with harmonics has sharp peaks of high
magnitude at regular intervals indicating presence of harmonics associated with voltage
signal. Magnitude of these peaks is high compared to that observed in the H-index indicating
that performance of detection of harmonics has been increased by the use of proposed PQ-
index. This can be inferred from Fig. 6.15 (b) that proposed ST-index has amplitude of high
magnitude between 0.06s to 0.08s indicating presence of OT. This can be inferred from Fig.
6.9 (c) that H-index has oscillating frequency components between 0.06s to 0.08s indicating
presence of OT. This can be inferred from Fig. 6.15 (d) that PQ index has high magnitude
amplitude with oscillating component on upper surface indicating presence of OT. Hence,
ST-index, H-index and PQ-index detects complex PQ disturbance of voltage sag, harmonics
and OT effectively.

6.16 Voltage Signal with Sag, Harmonics, Impuslive Transient and Oscillatory
Transient

Waveform of sine wave signal with voltage sag between 0.10sto 0.16s, oscillatory
transient between 0.06s to 0.08s, impulsive transient between 0.022sto 0.025s and harmonics
throughout the time range is illustrated in Fig. 6.16 (a). The signal is decomposed with the
help of ST for obtaining S-matrix. Absolute values of these matrix elements are obtained and
designated as absolute values S-matrix. Summing of each column of the absolute values S-
matrix is obtained which is designated as ST-index for sine wave with sag; harmonics, IT and
OT is plotted in Fig. 6.16 (b). Signal of sine wave with sag, harmonics, IT and OT is
decomposed with the help of HT and output absolute values are obtained and represented as
H-index for sine wave with voltage sag, harmonics, IT and OT which is illustrated in Fig.
6.16 (c). The element by element multiplication of the ST-index and H-index for sine wave
with sag, harmonics, IT and OT is obtained and designated as proposed PQ-index for sine
wave with sag, harmonics and OT and illustrated in Fig. 6.16 (d).

62
Fig. 6.16 Detection of power quality disturbance (a) voltage signal with Sag,
Harmonics, Impulsive Transient and OT (b) ST-index (c) H-index (d) PQ index

This can be inferred from Fig. 6.16 (b) that magnitude of ST-index decreased between
0.1s to 0.16s which indicates availability of sag with the voltage signal. This can be inferred
from Fig. 6.16 (c) that H-index also has decreased values between 0.1s and 0.16s which
indicates availability of sag associated with voltage signal. In similar way this can also be
inferred from Fig. 6.16 (d) that proposed power quality index also has decreased magnitude
between 0.10s to 0.16s which indicates availability of voltage sag. This can be inferred from
Fig. 6.16 (b) that ST-index has high magnitude ripples throughout time range indicating
presence of harmonics. This can be inferred from Fig. 6.16 (c) that H-index also has sharp
end peaks at regular pattern indicating presence of harmonics with voltage signal. In similar
way this can also be inferred from Fig. 6.16 (d) that proposed power quality index of voltage
signal with harmonics has sharp peaks of high magnitude at regular intervals indicating
presence of harmonics associated with voltage signal. Magnitude of these peaks is high
compared to that observed in the H-index indicating that performance of detection of
harmonics has been increased by the use of proposed PQ-index. This can be inferred from
Fig. 6.16 (b) that ST-index has amplitude of high magnitude between 0.06s to 0.08s which
indicates availability of OT. This can be inferred from Fig. 6.16 (c) that H-index has

63
oscillating frequency components between 0.06s to 0.08s which indicates availability of OT.
This can be inferred from Fig. 6.16 (d) that PQ index has high magnitude amplitude with
oscillating component on upper surface indicating presence of OT. This can be inferred from
Fig. 6.16 (b) that proposed ST-index has high magnitude peak indicating presence of IT. This
can be inferred from Fig. 6.16 (c) that proposed H-index also has a high magnitude peak
indicating availability of IT. This can be inferred from Fig. 6.16 (d) that PQ index of voltage
signal with IT has peak of high magnitude which also indicate presence of IT. PQ index is
effective for detection of IT due to high magnitude sharp pointed peak. Hence, proposed ST-
index, H-index and PQ-index detects complex PQ disturbance of voltage sag, harmonics, IT
and OT effectively.

6.17 Ruled Decision Tree Based Classification of Complex Power Quality

Disturbances

Features have been extracted from proposed ST-index (STI), H-index (HI) and PQ-
index (PQI). The standard deviation of these proposed indexes is calculated and multiplied
by a weight of 10 and provided in Table 6.1. These values are considered as input for
decision rule based classification of complex PQ disturbances. Flow chart for classification of
complex PQ disturbances using if then else a rule of ruled decision tree is shown in Fig. 6.17.

From the Fig. 6.17, it is observed that the considered sixteen complex PQ
disturbances are first classified in two groups based on the propose power quality index. First
group contains the complex PQ disturbances with PQI>100 then and complex PQ
disturbances with PQI<100 are included in second group. Further using the values of the PQ-
index, H-index and ST-index all complex PQ disturbances are detected one by one using
different rules detailed in the flow chart of Fig. 6.17.

6.18 Performance of Proposed Algorithm

Performance of proposed algorithm is evaluated in terms of correctly classified and
misclassified number of signals. A data set of 100 signals of each complex PQ disturbance is
obtained by the variations of various parameters such as amplitude, frequency etc. The details
of correctly and misclassified signals is tabulated in Table 6.2. This has been observed that
efficiency of proposed algorithm is achieved higher than 97% for recognition of investigated
complex PQ disturbances.

64
Fig. 6.17 Classification of complex PQ disturbances based on rule decision tree

65
 TABLE 6.1 PEAK VALUES OF STANDARD DEVIATION OF COMPLEX PQ INDEXES
S. No. Power Quality Index
Type of Fault ST- H- PQ-
index index index
1 Voltage Sag with Harmonics 9.248 1.881 16.388
2 Voltage Swell with Harmonics 9.339 2.104 22.368
3 Voltage Interruption with Harmonics 23.007 4.574 28.379
4 Voltage Flicker with Harmonics 5.261 1.528 15.012
5 Voltage Sag with Oscillatory Transient 91.162 3.432 176.066
6 Voltage Swell with Oscillatory Transient 89.681 3.133 174.071
7 Voltage Interruption with Oscillatory Transient 91.816 5.362 177.186
8 Voltage Flicker with Oscillatory Transient 86.776 3.069 176.310
9 Voltage Harmonics with Oscillatory Transient 81.922 3.207 167.367
10 Voltage Sag with Impulsive Transient 70.701 2.822 201.985
11 Voltage Swell with Impulsive Transient 69.821 2.559 200.114
12 Voltage Interruption with Impulsive Transient 71.127 4.974 203.387
13 Voltage Signal with Harmonics and IT 64.126 2.420 188.250
14 Voltage Signal with Spike and Sag 32.614 1.542 33.186
15 Voltage Signal with Sag, Harmonics and OT 82.542 3.619 169.262
16 Voltage signal with sag, Harmonics, IT and OT 90.887 4.339 205.071

6.19 Comparison of Performance of Proposed Algorithm with the Algoritm Reported

in Literature for Recognition of Complex PQ Disturbances
The performance of proposed algorithm is compared with the algorithm based on
Stockwell transform and rule based decision tree reported in [40]. It is observed that the
performance of proposed algorithm is better with efficiency of 97.93% compared to that
reported in [40] with efficiency of 96.67 only.

66
 TABLE 6.2 PERFORMANCE OF PROPOSED ALGORITHM FOR DETECTION OF COMPLEX
POWER QUALITY DISTURBANCES
S. Number of Number of Efficiency
No. correctly mis- (%)
classified classified
PQ Disturbance disturbances disturbances
1 Voltage Sag with Harmonics 99 1 99
2 Voltage Swell with Harmonics 99 1 99
3 Voltage Interruption with Harmonics 99 1 99
4 Voltage Flicker with Harmonics 95 5 95
5 Voltage Sag with Oscillatory Transient 99 1 99
6 Voltage Swell with Oscillatory Transient 99 1 99
7 Voltage Interruption with Oscillatory 99 1 99
Transient
8 Voltage Flicker with Oscillatory Transient 98 2 98
9 Voltage Harmonics with Oscillatory 98 2 98
Transient
10 Voltage Sag with Impulsive Transient 99 1 99
11 Voltage Swell with Impulsive Transient 99 1 99
12 Voltage Interruption with Impulsive 99 1 99
Transient
13 Voltage Signal with Harmonics and IT 98 2 98
14 Voltage Signal with Spike and Sag 96 4 96
15 Voltage Signal with Sag, Harmonics and 96 4 96
OT
16 Voltage signal with sag, Harmonics, 95 5 95
Impulsive Transient and OT
Overall Efficiency 97.93

67
 Chapter-7

CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE SCOPE OF RESEARCH WORK

The concluding remarks of the research work based on Hilbert transform ST and
decision supported rules for recognition of PQ disturbances are briefly discussed in this
chapter. Few recommendations for future work based on the presented research work have
also been briefly discussed at the end of this chapter.

7.1 Recognition of Single Stage PQ Disturbances

The research work undertaken for completing this thesis is aimed on identification
and classification of different types of simple nature PQ disturbances. Proposed technique is
based on implementation of combined features of ST and HT. This signal with simple nature
PQ events is decomposed with the help of ST for obtaining S-matrix. Absolute values of
these matrix elements are calculated and represented as absolute values S-matrix. Summing
of each column of the absolute values S-matrix is obtained which is designated as ST-index.
Signal with single stage PQ disturbance is decomposed with the help of HT and output
absolute values are evaluated and represented as H-index. Element by element multiplication
of the ST-index and H-index is obtained which is designated as proposed power quality (PQ)-
index. Comparing the above mentioned plots with the single stage PQ disturbance with the
respective plots of sine wave, the simple nature PQ disturbances are detected. Features are
extracted from proposed ST-index (STI), H-index (HI) and PQ-index (PQI) for single stage
PQ disturbances. The standard deviation of these proposed indexes is calculated and
multiplied by a weight of 10. These values are considered for input to decision supported
rules for classifying the simple nature PQ disturbances using if then else a rule of ruled
decision tree.

It is concluded that proposed algorithm supported by Stockwell Transform, Hilbert

transform and decision rules is effective in identification and classification of single nature
PQ disturbances with an efficiency higher than 99%.

7.2 Recognition of Complex PQ Disturbances

The research work undertaken during course of the thesis is also aimed on
identification and classification of different types of complex PQ disturbances. Proposed
technique is based on implementation of complex features of ST and HT. This signal with

68
complex PQ disturbance is decomposed with the help of ST for obtaining S-matrix. Absolute
values of these matrix elements are evaluated which is represented as absolute values S-
matrix. Summing of each column of these absolute values based S-matrix is calculated which
is represented as ST-index. Signal with complex PQ disturbance is also decomposed with the
help of HT and absolute values of output is calculated and represented as H-index. Element
by element multiplication of the ST-index and H-index is obtained which is designated as
proposed power quality (PQ)-index. Comparing the above mentioned plots with the complex
PQ disturbance with the respective plots of sine wave, the complex PQ disturbances are
detected. Features are extracted from the proposed ST-index (STI), H-index (HI) and PQ-
index (PQI) for complex PQ disturbances. The standard deviation of these proposed indexes
is calculated and multiplied by a weight of 10. These values are considered as input to rules
supported decision for classification of complex nature PQ disturbances using if then else a
rule of ruled decision tree.

It is concluded that proposed algorithm supported by Stockwell Transform, Hilbert

transform and decision based rules is effective in detection as well as classification of
complex PQ disturbance with an efficiency higher than 97%.

7.3 Future Work

The proposed method has use rule based decision tree for classification of PQ
disturances. However, the use of machine learning techniques like Fuzzy C-means clustering,
K-means clustering, support vector machine may improve the efficiency of algorithm. This
may be taken as future work.

69
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 APPENDIX-A
MATLAB CODES FOR H-INDEX, ST-INDEX AND PQ-INDEX
% PROGRAM FOR PROPOSED FAULT INDEX BASED ON HAAR
TRANSFORM AND
% Take voltage signal
V1=v;

% CALCULTE STOCKWELL TRANSFORM BASED DECOMPOSITION OF

CURRENT SIGNALS
A1=stran(V1);

% CALCULTE STOCKWELL TRANSFORM BASED FAULT INDEX

B1=sum(abs(A1));

% CALCULATE TRANSPOSE OF ST BASED FI

B1=abs(B1');

% CALCULTE HILBERT TRANSFORM BASED FI

C1=abs(hilbert(V1));

% CALCULATE COMBINED PQI

PQI=abs(B1.*C1');

%PLOT THE CURRENT SIGNALS AND FAULT

subplot(2,2,1);plot(t,V1),xlabel( 'Time(s) (a)'),...
ylabel('Voltage (pu)') %, legend('Phase A','Phase
B','Phase C')
subplot(2,2,2);plot(t,B1),xlabel( 'Time(s) (b)'),...
ylabel('ST-Index')%, legend('Phase A','Phase
B','Phase C')
subplot(2,2,3);plot(t,C1),xlabel( 'Time(s) (c)'),...
ylabel('H-Index')%, legend('Phase A','Phase B','Phase
C')
subplot(2,2,4);plot(t,PQI),xlabel('Time(s) (d)'),...
ylabel('PQ Index')%, legend('Phase A','Phase
B','Phase C','Threshold')

STDST=std(B1)
STDHT=std(C1)
STDPQ=std(PQI)

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