THE NATURAL CONVERSION OF SOLAR ENERGY TO

CHEMICAL IN PLANTS (BIOMASS)

The process of photosynthesis in plants involves a series of steps and reactions that
use solar energy, water, and carbon dioxide to produce organic compounds and oxygen.
There are two main sets of reactions: energy-transduction reactions (commonly called light
reactions) and carbon-fixation reactions (commonly called dark reactions).
In the energy-transduction reactions, solar energy is converted into chemical energy
in the form of two energy-transporting molecules, ATP and NADPH. When solar energy
reaches plant cells and excites special chlorophyll molecules, they release a high-energy
electron (check out the related strategy here). The release of this electron sets off a chain of
electron-trading and energy-transferring events between several intermediary molecules, and
the last molecule to form and hold the electrons in this chain is NADPH.
The excited chlorophyll molecule’s electrons need to be replaced, and these electrons
come from water. With the help of enzymes and solar energy, water is split (photolysis) into
electrons, protons (H+), and oxygen. The electrons go to the chlorophyll, while the protons
contribute to a proton gradient that is used to power the synthesis of a second energy-
carrying molecule, ATP. The oxygen is a byproduct of the whole process. The chemical
energy in NADPH and ATP is then used to power steps in the subsequent carbon-fixation
reactions.
The Earth receives around 1000 W.m−2 of power from the Sun and only a fraction of
this light energy is able to be converted to biomass (chemical energy) via the process of
photosynthesis. Out of all photosynthetic organisms, microalgae, due to their fast growth
rates and their ability to grow on non-arable land using saline water, have been identified as
potential source of raw material for chemical energy production

Algea
Algae are plant like organisms which contain Chlorophyll a, have oxygenic
photosynthesis and have no specialised organelles. Algae divide to both prokaryotic and
eukaryotic organisms and range from uni-cellular microalgae (less than 1 μm) to
multicellular macroalgae (as long as 60 m). Algae can be found in any aquatic and moist
habitats such as marine, freshwater and are common in soils, salt lakes and hot springs. All
photosynthetic algae require light to grow and algal photosynthesis accounts for almost more
than half of the total global primary productivity and form the basis of almost all of the
aquatic food webs. Microalgae have been identified as a potential source of bioenergy
production. There are many interacting factors such as light, dissolved O2, shear, CO2, pH
and nutrients effecting and limiting the growth of microalgae. However, light is the main
limit to the growth of microalgae. Photosynthetic pigments are responsible for absorbing
light. The algae are unique in the variation of these pigments in each phylum and in many
classes. The main reason for this diversity relates to each group ancestral lineage which has
no close affinity between different groups of algae. This diversity of pigments has also led to
their recognition as taxonomic and phylogenetic markers. Photosynthetic complexes are
made up of Chlorophyll-like molecules including chlorophyll a, b, c, d and e,
bacteriochlorophylls, pheophytin a and b and other kinds of pigment molecules such as
carotenoid α and β, xantophylls. Energy collected by the antenna complexes is transferred
downward like a funnel to lower-lying, chlorophyll-containing reaction centre pigment
complexes. It is well known that the number of reaction centres in the photosynthetic
organisms is significantly smaller than the number of pigment molecules and most of the
pigments function as antenna. The earth receives 3.9 × 106 EJ of total solar energy each year.
The photosynthetic efficiency (PE) is the fraction of light energy converted to chemical
energy through by photosynthetic organisms (i.e. algae, cynobacteria). The significance of
PE is reliant on how light energy is defined. Actual sunlight where between photosynthetic
active radiation (PAR) is only 45% and 48% of light, the theoretical maximum efficiency of
solar energy conversion is between 11% and 12% (110 W.m−2 to 120 W.m−2). It is to be
noted that, to date, the average PE is between 2% and 5%. The main reason for such a
difference is that a) not all light can be captured by the pigments, b) only a portion of PAR
can be converted and c) light and dark respiration can reduce the overall efficiency. It is to be
noted that the excess light will be discarded (i.e. as heat or fluorescence) to avoid damaging
the photosynthetic apparatus.
 The main spectral absorption peaks for Chlorophylls a, b, and c and several pigments
present in various microalgae are shown in Figure1. As can be seen the absorption peaks are
predominantly in the blue and red portion of the spectrum with a significant portion of the
spectrum in the green range being underutilised. This portion of spectrum could be used for
another purpose without impacting on the growth of the microalgae.

Figure1 (Normalized absorbance spectra of some photosynthetic pigments.

THE CONVERSION OF SOLAR ENERGY IN
PHOTOTOVOLTIAC CELL
Photovoltiac Cell
Solar photovoltaic panels (PV modules) convert solar irradiation into direct electric
power. The use of photovoltaics, or solar cells, has been described as the ‘art of converting
sunlight directly into electricity’. These solid state devices take incident illumination and
produce a supply of electrons which can be used by an external circuit. Photovoltaic devices
are produced from a range of different materials. Of these, silicon is most commonly used as
a semiconductor material for producing solid state solar cells. However, there is increasing
interest in other technologies, many of which have been commercialised and are in
production.
The first solar cell was produced from crystalline silicon and had a conversion
efficiency of 6%. Through significant research and improvement, modern state of the art
solar cells produced from crystalline silicon have been produced with conversion efficiencies
of up to 25% and 22% in small laboratory and full modules, respectively. In the marketplace
there are several types of solar cell technologies available including crystalline, micro-
crystalline and amorphous silicon. Due to their higher efficiencies and the economies of
scale, the world market is dominated by crystalline silicon solar cells which held over 93.5%
in 2005.
Solar photovoltaic cells consist of a positive and a negative film of silicon placed
under a thin slice of glass. As the photons of the sunlight beat down upon these cells, they
knock the electrons off the silicon. The negatively-charged free electrons are preferentially
attracted to one side of the silicon cell, which creates an electric voltage that can be collected
and channeled. This current is gathered by wiring the individual solar panels together in
series to form a solar photovoltaic array. Depending on the size of the installation, multiple
strings of solar photovoltaic array cables terminate in one electrical box, called a fused array
combiner. Contained within the combiner box are fuses designed to protect the individual
module cables, as well as the connections that deliver power to the inverter. The electricity
produced at this stage is DC (direct current) and must be converted to AC (alternating
current) suitable for use in your home or business.

THE DIFFERENT METHODS/TECHNIQUES OF

SOLAR POWER GENERATION
The sun's energy can be captured to generate electricity or heat through a system of panels or
mirrors.
 Solar, or photovoltaic, cells convert sunlight directly into electricity. Most
photovoltaic cells are made primarily of silicon, the material used in computer
semiconductor chips, and arranged on rectangular panels. When sunlight hits a cell,
the energy knocks electrons free of their atoms, allowing them to flow through the
material. The resulting DC (direct current) electricity is then sent to a power inverter
for conversion to AC (alternating current), which is the form in which electric power
is delivered to homes and businesses.
 Solar thermal collectors use heat-absorbing panels and a series of attached circulation
tubes to heat water or buildings.
 Solar concentration systems use mirrors - usually arranged in a series of long,
parabolic troughs, a large round dish, or a circle surrounding a 'power tower' - to
focus the sun's reflected rays on a heat-collecting element. The concentrated sunlight
heats water or a heat-transferring fluid such as molten salt to generate steam, which is
then used conventionally to spin turbines and generate electricity.
 Passive solar design is the creative use of windows, skylights and sunrooms, building
site and orientation, and thermal construction materials to heat and light buildings, or
to heat water, the natural way.
Concentrating solar power (CSP) is a power generation technology that uses mirrors or
lenses to concentrate the sun's rays and, in most of today's CSP systems, to heat a fluid and
produce steam. The steam drives a turbine and generates power in the same way as
conventional power plants.
CSP plants can be broken down into two groups. Line-focusing systems include parabolic
trough and linear Fresnel plants and have single-axis tracking systems. Point-focusing
systems include solar dish systems and solar tower plants and include two-axis tracking
systems to concentrate the power of the sun...

The parabolic trough collectors (PTC) consist of solar collectors (mirrors), heat receivers and
support structures. The parabolic-shaped mirrors are constructed by forming a sheet of
reflective material into a parabolic shape that concentrates incoming sunlight onto a central
receiver tube... A heat transfer fluid (HTF) is circulated through the absorber tubes to collect
the solar energy and transfer it to the steam generator...

Solar tower technologies use a ground-based field of mirrors to focus direct solar irradiation
onto a receiver mounted high on a central tower where the light is captured and converted
into heat. The heat drives a thermo-dynamic cycle, in most cases a water-steam cycle, to
generate electric power.
AUCHI POLYTECHNIC, AUCHI
SCHOOL OF APPLIED SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
PHYSICS/ELECTRONICS

BY
EJEDAFETA OKOMENO AST/2191840359
JAKPOR OGHENEOCHUKO KELLY AST/219180082

ASSIGNMENT
1. DESCRIBE THE NATURAL CONVERSION OF SOLAR ENERGY TO
CHEMICAL IN PLANTS ( BIOMASS)

2. EXPLAIN THE CONVERSION OF SOLAR ENERGY IN PHOTOVOLTAIC

CELL AND STATE THE APPLICATION OF VARIOUS TYPES OF SOLAR
ENERGY CONVERSION TECHNIQUE