Composites Part B 174 (2019) 106927

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Composites Part B
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/compositesb

Review on mechanical properties evaluation of pineapple leaf fibre (PALF)

reinforced polymer composites
Santosh Sadashiv Todkar a, *, Suresh Abasaheb Patil b
a
Department of Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Shivaji University, Vidyanagar, Kolhapur, 416 004, Maharashtra, India
b
Principal, Government Polytechnic Malvan, Sindhudurg, Maharashtra, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The environmental problems associated with the production, disposal and recycling of synthetic fibre based
NF polymer composites has prompted the development of eco-friendly natural fibres. It involves use of kenaf, jute,
Natural fibres oil palm, cotton, flax, banana, hemp, sisal and pineapple leaf fibre (PALF) for various applications such as
PALF
automotive, infrastructure, biomedical, furniture, packaging etc. PALF will be important in material develop­
Pineapple leaf fibre
Mechanical properties
ment for structural and non structural industrial products with other natural and synthetic fibres with different
Surface treatments matrix. This review paper deals with the mechanical properties evaluation of PALF and several factors influ­
PALF reinforced polymer composites encing properties such as type of variety, fibre length, matrix type, fibre orientation, voids and porosity content.
Hybrid composites Recent research in the advancement of mechanical properties of PALF as reinforcement in thermoset, thermo­
plastic and biodegradable resins are briefly provided. Attempts have been made to characterize PALF as a hybrid
composite with other natural and synthetic fibres. Surface treatments to improve the interfacial and interphasial
PALF - matrix interaction with consideration of coupling agents for mechanical strength improving requirements
are discussed. Along with limitations, technical solutions to the traditional problems of natural fibre composite
processing, tensile properties improvement, durability, thermal stability and interfacial incompatibility
enhancement are discussed. Overall, this review article investigates highlights and identifies gaps in the earlier
research work. It provides the resourceful tabulated data for continuing future research in various streams with
PALF as reinforcement.

energy sources crude oil and petrochemicals. Every year approximately

more than 140 million tones of synthetic polymers are produced [4]. It
1. Introduction
mainly include plastics and polymer derived synthetic fibre reinforced
plastics (FRP) in a wider range of applications from packaging, dispos­
Total yearly worldwide post harvest waste in the agricultural is
able consumer products, household-kitchen application, automotive
approximately 1.3 Pg. Most part of it is burnt, thrown, and at very few
field, aviation applications etc. But once these application’s use gets
times it is used as organic crop fertilizer. But all these processes are not
over then their disposal creates a challenging problem being
generating additional lucrative income. In fact, most of the conventional
non-degradable material [5,6].
agro waste post-harvesting treatment processes creates pollution.
Annual global production of the lignocellulosic materials is approx­
This post-harvest waste could be used for the extraction of natural
imately 2 � 1011 tons through agricultural crop waste, compared with
fibres in micro and nano-sized particles as reinforcements and the
1.5 � 108 tons of artificial fibres. Out of it approximately 30,000,000
manufacturing the NFRC biocomposites [1]. The chief advantages
tonnes of natural fibres are produced and utilized for a range of appli­
offered by natural fibres are cheap, biodegradability, abundantly
cation from clothing, packaging, paper pulp, automotive field, and
available; clean processing and non-abrasive to the cutting tool used. In
building and construction materials and sports equipment [7].
global agriculture market, natural fibres are important in improving
Pineapple is a non-climacteric and third most widely cultivated after
food security and poverty eradication [2]. Hence, the UN Food and
banana and citrus. Its yield per hectare varies from 40 to 60 tonnes
Agriculture Organization (FAO) declared 2009 as International Year of
depending upon the variety (Fig. 1) [8,9]. Per shoot, there are approx­
Natural Fibres [3].
imately 40–50 leaves or 2.3 Kg of pineapple leaves as agro waste. So on
Synthetic fibres and polymers are derived from the conventional

* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ919766509458.

E-mail addresses: santoshmh09@gmail.com (S.S. Todkar), sureshapatil123@gmail.com (S.A. Patil).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2019.106927
Received 16 May 2019; Accepted 26 May 2019
Available online 28 May 2019
1359-8368/© 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S.S. Todkar and S.A. Patil Composites Part B 174 (2019) 106927

Abbreviations and description PLA Poly-lactic acid

PVA Polyvinyl alcohol
PALF Pineapple Leaf Fibre TPS Thermoplastic Starch
PF Palm fibre PHBV Polyhydroxybutyrate – co hydroxyvalerate
KF Kenaf fibre TBR Tapioca based bioplastic resin
NF Natural fibre NBR Nitrile rubber composite
NFC Natural fibre composite PE Polyethylene
NFRP Natural fibre-reinforced plastic PVC Polyvinyl chloride
NFPC Natural fibre polymer composite A1100 3-aminopropyl- triethoxysilane
GFRP Glass fibre reinforced polymers MEKP Methyl-ethyl ketone peroxide
GFPC glass fibre polymer composite MA Maleic Anhydride
TS Tensile strength DGEBA Glycidyl ether of bisphenol A
TM Tensile modulus TETA Tetraethylenetriamine
FS Flexural strength 3-APS 3-Aminopropyltriethoxysilane
FM Flexural modulus NaOCl Sodium hypochlorite
IS Impact strength Z-6011 c-(Aminopropyl) trimethoxy silane
EoB Elongation on break Z- 6030 c-Methacrylate propyl trimethoxy silane
BS Bending strength Silane A 172 vinyl tri(2-ethoxy methoxy) silane
BM Bending modulus Silane A 1100 y-amino propyl tri(ethoxy) silane
PP Polypropylene PMPPIC Polyphenyl isocyanate
PS Polystyrene BPO Benzoyl peroxide
TEM Transmission electron micrograph DCP Dicumyl peroxide
SEM Scanning electron microscope APDES Aminopropyl(diethoxy)methylsilane
AR Aspect ratio PA6 Polyamide 6
IFSS Interfacial shear strength APS Aminopropyltriethoxysilane
ILSS Interlaminar shear strength MRPS Mercaptopropyltrimethoxysilane
RTM Resin Transfer molding HDI Diisocyanatohexane
CM Compression molding MAPP Maleic anhydride grafted polypropylene

large scale, there is a huge volume of post-harvest waste to be handled
[10]. Moreover, among various natural fibres extracted from plant
leaves, PALF possesses highest percentage of cellulose content and low
microfibrillar angle which is chief responsible factor attributing to
increased tensile properties. Among various fibres PALF finds apex
application in the textile industry due to many reasons such as abun­
dantly available, cheaper, good thermal and acoustic insulation, excel­
lent tensile strength, and high toughness [11]. Hence, this review article
explores all the possibilities of reinforcing PALF as material alternative
for various applications for sustainable development.
2. Pineapple plant: (species, and plant morphology)
Pineapple belongs to subclass monocotyledons, genera Ananas and
Pseudoananas with species Ananas comosus. It is known as (Ananas
comosus L. Merr.) “Queen of Fruit Crops” belongs to the family of Bro­
meliaceae. It is considered as one of the tropical fruits of the world and
amongst few monocotyledonous fruits like banana. Originated in Brazil,
pineapple has spread to the other tropical parts of the world. Asia
(Thailand, Philippines, Indonesia, India and China), South Central
America (Costa Rica and Brazil) and Africa (Nigeria and South Africa)
are the main producers. In 2012, Thailand was the world’s largest pro­
ducer of pineapple, followed by Costa Rica, Brazil and the Philippines
[12]. Pineapple varieties are mainly classified into three groups, ac­
cording to Hume and Muller’s classification (1904). These are Cayenne,
Queen and Spanish. Pineapple production across the globe was recorded
23.33 million metric tons (MT) and plantation area also increased since
1990. Asia is leading continent with 10.88 million MT (46.62% share),
followed by 8.68 million MT in the America (37.18% share) and 3.65
million MT in Africa (15.65%) [8].
3. Pineapple leaf
Pineapple plant grows with short stem. Initially it produces a rosette
of leaves near to maturity period it gets elongated and acquits many
spirally arranged fibrous leaves. Each adult plant bears approximately
80 leaves varying in shape and length. Upon maturity, its leaves are 3
feet long with 2–3 inch width and sword-shaped and dark green in color
it has spines at their margins (Fig. 2). Leaves are long, thin, waxy and
sharp pointed tipped with built-in stiffness [13].
3.1. Pineapple leaf cell wall ultrastructure
From the anatomy of pineapple leaf, two types of fibre bundles were
observed-vascular bundles and finer strands bundles. Large vascular
bundles are found under top lamina below the water storage tissues.
Finer fibre strands found in the bottom lamina. From Fig. 3, large fibre
bundles (100–460 μm) in the middle and smaller technical fibres
(30–80 μm) arranged longitudinally near the bottom epidermis [14].
During numerical studies, fibre diameter was taken as circular, but
actually it’s elliptical in shape, so one of the dimensions is taken as the
diameter for the study. Researchers have determined the area of the
fibre by using the major and minor axis of the elliptical fibre with an area
of the ellipse [15,16]. Cell wall was found to be marginally oval and
irregular in shape. Cell wall thickness was recorded as 8.3 μm [17–19].
PALF has middle lamella, primary wall and a secondary wall
including S1, S2 and S3 layers (Fig. 4). Primary wall made from thin layer
produced by cell growth and cell division of stem xylem cells. While
secondary wall consists of S2, usually thickest in the layer with the
highest cellulose content, hence it is a major strength contributing fac­
tor. Approximately S2 is forty times thicker than the rest of the layers. It
is located approximately, 5� to 30� to the axis reinforced by microfibrils.
S3 layer is the thinnest layer, which is difficult to identify when
compared with S1, and S2. Middle lamella is the portion with the glued
cells together, representing a high region of the lignin content. Due to
this middle lamella is dark in shade. As shown in Fig. 5, there remain
dark spots on the fibre; it is the unique characteristic for every pineapple
cultivar [18,19].

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S.S. Todkar and S.A. Patil Composites Part B 174 (2019) 106927

3.2. PALF composition and structure

Cellulose content of PALF and cellulose molecular chain arrange­

ment is equivalent to that of cotton cellulosic fibres. Comparatively,
PALF has high cellulose type I content and relatively low microfibrillar
angle which imparts significant mechanical strength [20]. Raw fibre can
sustain for the high-stress strain loading condition [13]. Many re­
searchers [10,19,21–31] have studied the mechanical, physical prop­
erties and chemical constituents of PALF [refer Table 1 and Table 2].
From Table 3, compared to other natural fibres, PALF reveals
better-quality properties. PALF has comparable mechanical specific
modulus and specific strength properties with respect to glass fibre [16].
From optical microscopy, PALF is multicellular vegetable fibre with an
average diameter of 10 μm and mean length of 4.5 μm and elementary
fibre diameter of 25–34 μm. It has aspect ratio (AR) 450, which is 4 times
greater than that of jute and fibre bundle capacity equivalent to the sisal
[32,33].
Fig. 2. Pineapple plant [74].

4. PALF extraction
evaluated on the basis of the fibre diameter and fibre length obtained so
that optimum fibre aspect ratio achieved [35].
For PALF extraction, water retting followed by manual method in­
volves use of hand scrapping tool called ‘ketam’. Mechanical extraction
5. Factors influencing PALF reinforced polymer composites
carried out with decorticator involving leaves crushing mechanism [34].
Once fibre bundles are obtained these are subjected to the physical
The natural fibres have variability in properties associated with it.
separation from each other known as scutching. Scutching mainly in­
These variables are fibre type, environment where it is cultivated, time
volves two steps-breaking and swingling. In breaking, fibre bundles are
of harvest, extraction and processing method and the source from where
passed through the futed rollers to remove the wood core remaining
it is obtained [19]. Properties and yield of natural fibres vary as per the
called shives. Swingling is removal of shives and obtained by the
internal chemical structure, cell dimensions, microfibrillar angle, de­
tangential scrapping of the broken stems. By scutching process long and
fects if any, voids, cell wall structure [31].
short fibre obtained. Effectiveness of the extraction technique was
Natural fibres are mainly extracted from leaf, seed, fruit, stem and

Fig. 1. Pineapple Leaf Processing for PALF based composites- https://www.ananas-anam.com/accessed on 29th April 2019 [11].

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S.S. Todkar and S.A. Patil Composites Part B 174 (2019) 106927

Fig. 3. Cross section of the Pineapple leaf [14].

properties to the material [36].

Desirable outcomes expected from the NFRCs should be in equiva­
lence of the mechanical properties TS, TM, FS, FM and IS in comparison
with the synthetic fibres and synthetic resins. Currently, PALFs has been
used as potential reinforcement in the variety of thermoset, thermo­
plastic, biodegradable polymer composites and rubber.
The following factors are important in delivering the mechanical
properties of the NFRCs. These variables are important in deciding the
net effect on the resulting composite properties.

5.1. Type of variety used

Fig. 4. Transmission electron micrograph of transverse section for PALF at high
magnification [19].
Fig. 5. Optical micrograph of transverse section of pineapple leaf showing
fibrovascular bundles (A) and mesophyll fibre bundles (B). High magnification
images of regions A and B obtained with a scanning electron microscope are
shown at lower left corner [18].
bast. Based on the location of the source on the plant, these are obtained
from various origins delivering respective inherent properties. Leaf is
being at the end of a branch, leaf fibres are offering improved toughness
in composites and seed or fruit provides elastomerisation related
Several times there are variations in the properties were observed for
the same fibre with different cultivar. To qualify for reinforcement as
main fibre characteristics its modulus must be large enough when
reinforcing with the polymer matrix. In the characterization of PALF,
Malaysian varieties Josapine, Sarawak and Moris Gajah were experi­
mented to decide on the best variety for Pineapple fibre. Fibres were
obtained by manual scrapping method [37]. By random selection
method, fibre bundles were taken for the experiments. For all of the
three varieties elasticity modulus, tensile strength and percentage
elongation at break were calculated as shown in Table 4. It was observed
that tensile strength is in increasing order for Sarawak, Moris Gajah and
Josapine. For elasticity modulus (18.94 GPa) Josapine has the highest
value followed by Sarawak and Moris Gajah [14].
Researchers have studied the 6 cultivars of the locally available
pineapple species, from Brazil were used for the PALF extraction. Those
six cultivars are Bromelia sp. (A), Ananas comosus var. comosus (B),
Bilbergis sp (C), Ananas comosus var. bracteatus (D), Ananas comosus
var. (E), Ananas macrodontes x Primavera erectifolius (F) [23]. It was
noted that average cross-sectional diameter was found in the range
50–91 μm. Modulus of elasticity was found in the range 15–53 GPa and
tensile strength in the range 210–695 MPa. Increasing crystallnity has
affected the resulting Young’s moduli and TS of the varieties as cultivar
F has highest values and C with lowest value. From the results, it was
observed that the mechanical properties of the fibres decreased with
increasing fibre diameter, due to the tensile concentrating defects. For
improved mechanical properties of PALFs, there should be decreasing
cross-sectional fibre diameter and crystallinity index should be
increasing. But actually, fibre diameter and crystallinity index are
inversely proportional to each other. So an optimal fibre diameter
should be obtained to get higher crystallinity index for enhanced me­
chanical properties [23,38].
5.2. Length of fibre
Long Fibres are easy to control their directions as compared to short

Table 1
Mechanical and physical properties of individual Pineapple leaf fibre [21–26].
Sr. Fibre diameter Tensile Strength Young’s Modulus Elongation at break (%) Density (g/ Micro fibrillar angle References
no. (Micrometer) (MPa) (GPa) cm3) (0)

1 5.0–30.0 170 6.26 0.8–1.6 1.44 12 [21]

2 105–300 293.08 18.934 1.41 – – [22]
3 50–91 210–695 15–53 – – – [23]
4 60�6 413�8 6.2 1.6 1.52 – [24]
5 30–60 413 6.5 1.6 1.52 – [25]
6 20–80 413–1627 34.5–82.5 1.6 1.526 14 [26]

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S.S. Todkar and S.A. Patil Composites Part B 174 (2019) 106927

Table 2
Chemical constituents of Pineapple leaf fibre [27–31].
PALF Chemical constituents composition wt %

Sr.no. Cellulose Hemicellulose Hollocellulose Lignin Pectin Fat and Wax Ash Extractive References

1 69.5 – – 4.4 1.2 4.2 2.7 – [27]

2 73.4 – 80.5 10.5 – – 2 5.5 [28]
3 68.5 18.8 – 6.04 1.1 3.2 0.9 – [29]
4 67.12–69.3 – 82.3–85.5 14.5–15.4 – – 1.21 3.83–0.87 [30]
5 80–83 15–20 – 8–12 2–4 4–7 2–6 – [31]

Table 3 properties for the long fibres with 15% of PALFs loading. This highlights
Dimensional data for vegetable fibres [16]. as short fibre loading increased composite samples became stiffer losing
Fibre type Single cell Technical fibre their flexibility during elongation [39–41].
diameter (μm)

Length Diameter Thin Thick Circularity 5.3. Type of matrix used

(mm) (mm)

Bast fibres Effect of the type of resin matrix used influence compressive, inter­
Ramie 127.50 31.30 27.13 – 0.78 facial shear strength (IFSS), impact strength and durability of the NFRCs.
Flax 37.20 20.22 97.33 – 0.65 The durability of the composite was affected by the resin type, existing
Jute 1.92 11.86 72.96 – 0.81
Leaf fibres
stress during resin processing, microcracking, thermal and fatigue
Nendran 3.77 22.90 46.36 137.23 0.72 cycling. Intrinsic qualities of resin type also affect the extent of fibre/
Padalse 2.00 20.60 71.00 155.00 0.79 resin interaction. Curing temperature and the exposure of curing affects
Pineapple 3.14 7.66 48.00 106.00 0.80 the resulting resin properties. Exclusively cured composite displays the
Sisal 1 2.59 17.50 131.80 280.30 0.80
improved mechanical properties and reduced swelling in solvents fol­
Sisal 2 2.02 12.47 95.0 210.74 0.70
Tailpot 230 16.92 – 290.00 0.80 lowed by resistance to hydrophilic nature. On the other hand, partial
Palm curing delivers poor mechanical properties [42].
Fruit fibres
Coir 0.76 14.13 118.00 268.00 0.94 5.3.1. Effect of pellet feed rate
Areca nut 0.61 12.33 217.00 411.00 0.85
Kopak 13.20 17.19 17.19 – 1.00
5.3.1.1. PALF/PP (thermoplastic polymer) composites. The pellets (dry-
blend of PP and PP-g-MA) and fibres were mixed in the barrel to feed the
Table 4 twin extruder at two different feed rates 2 kg/h (Case 1) and 4 kg/h
Mechanical properties of PALF obtained from selected cultivars [14]. (Case 2), respectively. For feed rate of Case 1, there was a good adhesion
Property Cultivar between fibre and matrix reported. Also, homogeneous dispersion of the
fibres in PP resin with least effect of fibre pull out. For feed rate of Case
Moris Gajah Josapine Sarawak
2, less adhesion efficiency was recorded with more uneven non-
Tensile strength (MPa) 174.89 293.08 148.44
homogeneous dispersion.
Young’s modulus (GPa) 7.45 18.94 10.46
Elongation at break (%) 0.52 1.41 1.05
Higher feed rate affects the even dispersion of the fibre and results in
composite manufacturing defects. The optimum matrix feed rate, em­
phasizes fibres will get enough time to disperse with the fluidity of the
fibres. As for short fibres controlling their orientation is difficult. Short viscous resin during manufacturing. It will ensure availability of more
fibres are randomly oriented, consequently composite sample behaving surface area to the fibre ensuring the proper dispersion of the fibres
in brittle manner [39]. Whereas long fibres are easy to control their inside the matrix [43].
orientation behaves as ductile material. FM of the short PALF sample
was 25 times higher than long PALF. Long PALF samples delivered 5.4. Fibre orientation
highest TS and FS than that of the short PALF composite. From table, it
was observed that, as fibre length decreases with increasing fibre con­ Effect of fibre orientation is studied for longitudinal, transverse and
tent there is reduction elongation at break observed [10] (refer Table 5). random orientation of the fibres along the length of the composite [44].
Short fibres with 25% fibre loading are found equivalent for Mechanical It was found that longitudinal orientation delivers higher mechanical

Table 5
PALF/LDPE and PALF/PP thermoplastic composites- Effect of fibre length [10].
Composite/ Long PALF – 140 mm Short – 40 mm Reference
Effect of fibre
Composite Fibre TS % Stress Composite Fibre TS % Stress
length
composition volume (MPa) Elongation efficiency composition volume (MPa) Elongation efficiency
with PALF % by fraction factor (Ɛs) with PALF % by fraction factor (Ɛs)
wt wt

PALF/LDPE 0 0 12.73 389 0 0 0 12.73 389.6 0 [20]

matrix 5 0.04 22.73 4.6 2.18 5 0.05 21.69 3.4 1.97
10 0.07 33.16 3.2 2.23 15 0.12 35.15 3.2 1.66
15 0.12 51.27 4 2.77 25 0.19 40.43 3.1 1.25
PALF/PP 0 0 35.17 11.6 0 0 0 35.17 11.6 0
matrix 5 0.04 35.86 6.7 0.42 5 0.05 37.09 3.9 0.68
10 0.07 39.26 4.8 0.71 15 0.12 47.11 3.6 1.11
15 0.12 53.14 3.5 1.53 25 0.19 54.96 3.4 1.10

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S.S. Todkar and S.A. Patil Composites Part B 174 (2019) 106927

properties than that of the transverse and random orientation [45].
PALF reinforced in the PP and low-density polyethylene (LDPE) to
study the effect of the fibre content and fibre length. Fibre length was
varied between short fibres and long fibres. Fibre loading was increased
from 0 to 25%. The efficiency of stress transfer and mechanical prop­
erties were studied for the composites developed with both types of
resins, PP and LDPE [10]. Long fibre with a fibre length 300 mm and
short fibres with length 40 mm was chosen for the experimentation.
Long fibres were oriented unidirectionally along the length of the
composite sample and short fibres were arranged in random direction.
Ends of short PALF fibres were acting as stress raisers and decreasing
the strength of the composite during load applied. But this can be
improved by the increased fibre loading to the resin. PALF/LDPE and
PALF/PP specimen, long fibres are unidirectionally oriented and thus
carries tensile load effectively. Hence, during tensile loading fibre
breakages were observed and no fibres pull out observed in the matrix.
Though there is an increase in the mechanical properties at the expense
of the fibre pull out and debonding at very few places. In case of short
PALF, more fibre pulls out and is noted. At some places due poor
adhesion efficiency splitting at the fibre ends followed by fibre
debonding observed. LDPE resin with long fibres has proved their
effectiveness over the short PALF. But when fibre loading was increased
further within the PP resin then a quite different results noted. Short
PALF with 25% wt proved superior over the long PALF with PP resin
for 15% wt. It was attributed to the multi-directional orientation of the
PALF.
5.5. Voids and porosity content in the composites
Voids are formed in the composite samples due to the difference in
the polarities of the fibre and resin. This difference in the polarities
formed due to the incompatibility of the untreated fibres with the resin
especially in the hybrid composites. Air or other volatile substances are
trapped into the composite during the impregnation [46]. It results in
fibre pull out, debonding and premature failure phenomenon as these
voids act as stress raisers followed by the reduction in the fatigue
strength [47–49].
The fraction of the volume of voids over the total volume and void
spaces in a material is a measurement for porosity; it generally lies be­
tween 0 and 1. It occurs due to the high feed rate of the resin with less
time resulting into entrapment of the air or gases bubbles inside the
composite sample [50]. This increases porosity in the composite samples
is further decreasing mechanical properties as it is easily subjected to the
water swelling and degradation when comes in contact with atmosphere
[51].
6. Evaluation of mechanical properties of PALF reinforced
polymer composites
6.1. PALF based thermoset composites
Many researchers have evaluated the PALF reinforced thermoset
(Table 6) varieties including polyester (PE), and epoxy polymer com­
posites for the mechanical properties tensile strength (TS), tensile
modulus (TM), flexural strength (FS), flexural modulus (FM) and impact
strength (IS) [44,52–56]. On evaluating all resins, thermoset based
resins delivered superior mechanical properties than that of thermo­
plastics and biodegradable resins; it is ascribed to inherent low viscosity
possessed by the thermosets [55].
Table 6 eventually revealed that PALF fibre parameters like fibre
loading weight% or volume fraction and fibre type delivered significant
influence on mechanical properties of various thermoset polymer based
composites. From observations, it was reported that, some conflicting
results were found to be occurred in few cases for same parameter with
different combination of composites. For example, in the fibre loading
parameter from Table 6 it was found that [44,53], highest tensile
properties were obtained for the with 35% fibre loading whereas for
other composite combination it was at 20% fibre loading. It was due to
the contribution of various factors such as fibre length, fabrication
method, surface treatment of the fibres etc.

Table 6
PALF based thermoset composites.
Effect of parameters and specifications on Mechanical properties of PALF/thermoset polymer composites

Parameter Specification Material Fibre Fabrication Feed rate Observations References

length method
Fibre Fibre volume fraction: 15%–24%, PALF/Epoxy 160 mm Hand layup TS ¼ 0.5 mm/ Increase of Longitudinal [44]
loading (increment 3) Cobalt accelerator and min Young’s Modulus, Transverse
MEKP catalyst, fibre orientation 45� Young’s Modulus and
Longitudinal shear modulus
observed
Fibre type Raw PALF, BF, recycled chopstick fibre Fibre: 2.3–3.9 mm Compression TS- 2 mm/ TS- TS of silane treated PALF [52]
(CF) with silane treatment- 3-amino­ Matrix ¼ 20:80 molding min composites was increased by
propyl- triethoxysilane (A1100) then proportion PALF, BF, 67% than the raw fibre
with curing agent (HY3917, poly- CF and Epoxy resin reinforced composites. TS was
aminoanhydride) and accelerator found 83% higher than the
(DY62, benzyldimethylamine) neat epoxy
Fibre 0 - 35 wt % (increment 5), PALF/Polyester – Hand layup TS- 100 mm/ 1) TS and TM was [53]
loading NaOH treatment with binder ketone min comparatively high at NaOH
peroxide used for 12 h and 24 h treatment (24 h) – 30 wt%
separately. fibre loading
2) Prolonged exposure of
NaOH treatment tensile
strength and modulus was
improved.
3) 35 wt % fibre loading
exhibited best IS
Fibre Fibre volume fraction: 0–0.4 (increment PALF/Epoxy – Hand layup FS ¼ 5 mm/ Linear increase in FS with the [54]
loading 0.1) min increase in volume fraction
4% alkali treated PALF.
Fibre Fibre volume fraction: 10–30 vol%, PALF/Epoxy 35 mm Hand layup – Average TS and FS found [55]
loading (increment 10%)binder as MEKP increasing with increasing
fibre volume fraction
Fibre 0-25 wt% (increment 5), hardener PALF/Epoxy 2–5 mm hand layup – 10% PALF loading delivered [56]
loading HV953 IN better mechanical properties.

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Especially in long fibres, upon application of loading; fracture initi­
ation and propogation was hindered by the presence of long PALF in
polyster resin [44,55]. It highlights the importance of fibre length.
Surface treated fibre delivered improved mechanical properties
compared to raw fibres due to removal of non cellulose content from the
fibres. It was noticed that, prolonged exposure up to 24 h to the chemical
treatment of the fibre found helpful in enhancing mechanical properties
of natural fibres [53]. Further, addition of the fibre beyond 20–30% has
resulted into decrease in the mechanical properties. It was due to the
fibre agglomeration for the short fibres and fibre entanglement for long
fibres, resulting into poor fibre matrix adhesion. After addition of binder
MEKP and catalyst cobalt accelerator increased mechanical properties
due to increased dispersion of the fibres inside matrix [44,53,55].
6.2. PALF based thermoplastic composites
Several researchers have determined (Table 7) the mechanical
properties of thermoplastic resin based PALF composites - poly­
propylene (PP), Santoprene (thermoplastic elastomer), low-density
polyethylene (LDPE), high-density polyethylene (HDPE) [58–64].
From Table 7, it was observed that, authors have studied the effect of
strain rate, temperature, fibre orientation, fibre type, fibre loading and
chemical treatment on the PALF/thermoplastic resins. At 30% fibre
loading with short fibres of 6 mm length, increasing strain rate has
increased the TM and TS with reduction in the elongation at breaking.
Also increasing temperature has reduced the mechanical properties
because of the evaporation of the air through voids initiating the cracks.
Longitudinal directional loading has delivered highest mechanical

Table 7
PALF based thermoplastic composites.
Effect of parameters and specifications on Mechanical properties of PALF/thermoplastic polymer composites

Parameter Specification Material Fibre length Fabrication Feed rate Observations References
method
Strain rate 5, 50, 500 mm/min PALF/LDPE 6 mm Solution TS ¼ 50 mm/ TS and TM ¼ 500 mm/min >50 mm/min [58]
for 30% fibre mixing min >5 mm/min and elongation at break goes on
loading technique reducing
Temperature 30, 0, 28, 40, 60 Decrease in the TM and TS with increasing
and 80 for 30% fibre temperature.
loading
Fibre Random, Compression TS and
Orientation longitudinal and molding TM ¼ Longitudinal > Random > Transverse
transverse as a
function of
temperature
Fibre loading Non woven PALF/ PALF/PP 50 mm Injection – 1) 60/40 fibre loading structure delivered [59]
PP (%) - 80/20, 70/ molding highest TS
30, 60/40 and 50/ 2) 50/50 fibre matrix loading exhibited
50, highest TM,FS and FM
Alkaline treatment- 3) IS increased by 38% compared to that of PP
KOH-5 and KOH-18
treatment.
Fibre Retting (R-PALF), PALF/PP, PALF 5–8 mm, Melt mixing, 5 mm/min 1) PALF with 30 wt % > 5 wt % fibre loading. [60]
extraction Scraping (S-PALF), loading - 5 and Longitudinal Prepreg, 2) Ball milling (BM-PALF), Milling (M-PALF)
process Ball milling (BM- 30 wt% direction Compression provided highest TM and TS.
PALF), Milling (M- loading molding
PALF), Milling of
dried leaf (MD-
PALF)
Fibre loading Longitudinally PALF/ short PALF- Melt mixing- 500 mm/min Anisotropic behavior was observed. [61]
aligned Santoprene 6 mm two roll Improvement in TS, hardness, and strain
PALF content: (Thermoplastic milling, modulus tear strength and modulus with
0,3,5,9 and 15 wt%. elastomer) Prepreg increase in fibre loading.
compression
molding
Fibre loading PALF: PP (wt%)- 0: Randomly 100 mm Compression – 1) PALF with 30 wt% offered Highest TS and [62]
100, 30: 70, 40: 60, oriented PALF/ molding hardness due to good adhesion between fibre-
50: 50, 60: 40, PP machine matrix.
70:30; Raw PALF
subjected to 5% of
the NaOH solution
followed by 1% HCL
treatment.
Fibre type Volume fraction: PALF/PF/PP Powder size- Twin screw TS ¼ 10 mm/ TM and elasticity modulus: PALF/PP > PF/PP [63]
5–20% (increment 0.2 mm extruder min. composites.
5), NaOH treatment,
PALF: 0% to 23 wt%
PF: 0% to 30 wt%
Fibre loading 25% - 45 wt% PALF/PP – Compression TS, FS, BS, Increasing fibre content improved TS, FS, IS, [64]
and (increment of 5%) moulding BM ¼ 10 mm/ BM, TM. For EoB%, it was reduced with
chemical technique min. inclusion of PALF.
treatment 0 to 7 (w/v) %NaOH TS, FS, BM, TM and EoB% increased. But there
with increment of is decreasing behavior of IS observed due to
2% concentration at the excess delignification.
every stage (1 h at
room temperature).
Fibre: solution ratio-
1:10 (w/v)

7
S.S. Todkar and S.A. Patil
properties followed by random and transverse From Table 7, it was clear
that, short PALFs with random orientations are easy to prepare in pellets
form or powder form offering easy to blend and compress to reinforce
with injection molding [59,61]. Variations in the mechanical properties
Table 8
PALF/biodegradable reinforced polymer composites.
Effect of parameters and specifications on Mechanical properties of PALF/biodegradable reinforced polymer composites
Parameter Specification
Fibre PALF weight fraction - 0,
loading 6, 11, 18 and 28% (wt.)
Fibre Maspine, N36, Moris
varieties Gajah, Josapine. (Constant
fibre loading:10 wt% with
5% NaOH treatment)
Fibre 5% NaOH treated PALF/
length PLA
Fibre Soy based bioplastic (A)
loading was extruded with 15 wt%
PALF (B), 30-wt% PALF
(C)and 30 wt% PALF with
addition of 5 wt% PEA-g-
GMA compatibilizer(D).
Fibre 10 to 50 wt% (Increment
loading 10 wt%) Coupling agent-
Maleic Anhydride (MA)-
10 wt%
Fibre PALF:PVA (wt%) ¼ 0: 100,
loading 2.5: 97.5, 5: 95, 10: 90, 20:
80, 30: 70, 40: 60
Fibre PS/PALF- Fibre content
loading was varying in wt% as
2,5,8 and 10%
Fibre Thermoplastic Starch TPS
loading with PALF/PLA- 8 wt%
PALF kept fixed and PLA
blending with TPS was
varied (0, 20, 40, 60, and
80 wt%)
Fibre PALF/tapioca based
loading bioplastic resin (TBR)
Fibre PALF/PLA
loading 0-40 wt% (increment 10)
Potyra PALFþ 1 wt%
NaOH
Composites Part B 174 (2019) 106927
of PALF/PP reported by the authors [59,60,62–64] and could be due to
the fibre length, fibre orientation, chemical treatment used and fabri­
cation method (compression molding, twin screw extruder, or injection
molding). Alignment of short PALFs was maintained at low compression
Material Fibre Fabrication method Feed rate Observations References
length
Unidirectional – Hot compression TS- strain TS- More yields are obtained for [65]
PALF/PHBV molding, with alternate rate ¼ 0.04/min, TS and TM of the composite
layers of PALF and FS ¼ 0.043 mm/ laminates in weft direction and
PHBV in 0/90/ min decrease in warp direction. FS-
0 orientation With increase in fibre loading, FS
and FM, in the weft direction,
increased And in the warp
direction, FS and FM decreased
PALF/PLA, – Melt mixing, – TS and FS: PALF/PP > PALF/PLA. [37]
PALF/PP compression molding PALF/PLA: Josapine and N36
cultivars has produced equal TS
and higher than the rest of
varieties.
PALF/PP: Moris Gajah produced
highest TS.
PALF/PLA short - Short PALF- Melt TS, FS ¼ 2 mm/ 1) Long PALF composites [39]
30 mm, mixing, Long PALF- min delivered highest TS and FS than
long- Hand lamination the short PALF.
100 mm 2) FM- FM of short PALF/PLA
samples is 0.22 Gpa and long
PALF/PLA is 5.70 GPa.
Soy flour: 6 mm Twin screw extrusion, – 1) TS, TM ¼ D > C > B > A. [66]
polyester amide Injection molding 2) FS and IS ¼ D > C > B > A.
(70: 30)/PALF
1)Pattawia 1–3 mm Twin screw extruder, 50 mm/min TS increased with the PALF [67]
PALF/PLA Injection molding loading. Upon use of MA as
2) Pattawia machine coupling agent, TS found to be
PALF/MA/PLA reduced for 40 wt% PALF, But TM
found to be highest.
EoB was found increased at 40 wt
% of PALF. Effect of MA has
reduced EoB for 40 wt% of PALF.
Randomly 10 mm Conventional solution 2 mm/min 1) Mechanical yield for TS [68]
oriented PALF/ casting technique, increases and percentage
PVA followed by elongation overturned as with
ultrasonication to avoid increasing PALF loading.
aggregation of PALF 2) For TS and percentage
with fibre loading elongation breakeven point was
observed at 25% wt PALF
participation.
PALF/TPS 1 mm Single screw extruder, 100 mm/min Increasing fibre loading improved [69]
Compression molding the TM, TS and EoB of the
machine composite with decrease in strain
carrying capacity, making stiffer.
8 wt% PALF found to be optimum
for best results.
TPS with PALF/ TS found to be decreasing with
PLA increasing TPS concentration.
PALF reiforcement, yields less EoB
compared with the control TPS/
PLA samples.
TPS with PALF/PLA showed
higher mechanical and water
resistance than the sole TPS/
PALF.
PALF/tapioca <1 mm Twin screw extruder, – 1) Highest TS was achieved at [70]
based bioplastic Hot compression 30 wt% PALF loading. Highest TM
resin (TBR) molding was obtained at 20 wt%.
Potyra PALF/ 10 mm Injection moulding TS-5 mm/min TS, IS and Young’s modulus found [71]
PLA machine improving with the increasing
fibre loading.
EoB- Decreasing trend was noted
upon addition of the PALF.
8
S.S. Todkar and S.A. Patil
temperature through low PALF content (from 0,3,5,9 to 15 wt%.). When
such properly aligned short PALFs reinforced in thermoplastic elas­
tomer, improvements in the mechanical properties, strain modulus, tear
strength along with anisotropic behavior was reported [61]. Very less
research was performed on the usage of the PALF fibre architecture such
as woven, twill and weaving configurations with thermoplastic resins
are available due to this limitation [57,58].
6.3. PALF biodegradable polymer composites
Biodegradable polymers like polylactic acid (PLA), PVA, tapioca
based bioplastic resin (TBR), Thermoplastic Starch (TPS), poly­
hydroxybutyrate – co hydroxyvalerate (PHBV) and soy-based resin [37,
39,65–71] have reported for the use as matrix for the PALF reinforce­
ment. However despite the non-significant improvements in the me­
chanical properties, PALF reinforced biodegradable composites can be
used in non structural applications due to environment friendly nature.
Table 8, summarizes the reported study of PALF/biodegradable resins
with noticeable improvements in the mechanical properties. Re­
searchers have studied the effect of fibre loading, fibre variety and fibre
length on PALF/biodegradable composites. Behavior of fibre varieties
with PLA and PP was assessed. Characterization for the four cultivars
was carried out Maspine, N36, Moris Gajah and Josapine with 10 wt%
constant fibre loading. PALF/PP produced improved mechanical prop­
erties than PALF/PLA. Cultivar Moris Gajah found compatible with PP
resin. Whereas cultivars Josapine and N36 delivered improved me­
chanical characteristics with PLA resin [37]. It elucidates the inherent
suitability of the cultivar for the resin compatibility.
Bioplastic was prepared from soy based resin with PALF as rein­
forcement. It was obtained from defatted soy flour; soy protein collected
and mixed with polyster amide with a random copolymer of aliphatic
polyster and Nylon-6 [66]. Polyster amide was used as a compatibiliser
between amide group and soy protein plastic. Characterization was
studied for the four specimens of neat soy-based bioplastic. It was
observed that amongst all, sample with Polyster amide compatibiliser
addition delivered the better mechanical properties. It was attributed to
the addition of compatibilizer as 30 wt% fibre addition has increased the
inter fibre contact followed by fibre aggregation. Compatibilizer has
dispersed this aggregation of the fibres by diffusion between fibre matrix
interfacial interactions. During compatibilizer processing, cementing
force between fibre and matrix decreased and PALF are dispersed more
thereby increasing contact area and aspect ratio.
Table 9
Effect of synthetic fibre hybridization on PALF reinforced polymer composites.
Effect of synthetic fibre hybridization on PALF reinforced polymer composites
Parameter Specification Material
Fibre type Sisal-PALF-Banana/Glass Sisal-PALF-Banana/
fibre/Polyster hybrid Glass fibre/Polyster
composite Catalyst- MEKP
Accelerator: Cobalt
naphthenate 1%, GFRP-
Unidirectional mat with
100 gsm
Filler type SiC Powder(25% volume 5% NaOH treated
fraction), with 15%, 18% PALF/Epoxy/SiC
and 21% wt. PALF/PLA:
30:70
Resin type Jute:PALF:Glass Jute/PALF/Glass fibre/
fibres ¼ 1:1:1 by volume Polyster resin,
fraction volume fraction Jute/PALF/Glass fibre/
samples- 0.18, 0.24, 0.30, Epoxy resin
0.36 and 0.42
Composites Part B 174 (2019) 106927
7. Hybrid composites
7.1. PALF/synthetic fibre combination
Hybridization of PALF with synthetic fibre could fulfill the desirable
properties as a result of synergistic effects [72]. As an outcome, many
researchers have highlighted the presence of positive hybridization ef­
fect [73–75]. Table 9 clearly revealed the improvement in the me­
chanical properties with synthetic fibre hybridization. Moreover, due to
disposal problem PALF: synthetic fibre ratio should be maintained at
50:50 to get quiet substantially balanced mechanical properties
compared to those of individual PALF and synthetic fibre based
composites.
However researchers have assessed mechanical properties of the
Sisal-PALF-GFRP (natural-natural-synthetic) fibre hybrid composites. It
was highlighted that, such bi natural fibre/synthetic fibre arrangements
are superior to that of single natural/synthetic fibre reinforcement. It
was due to the adding together high cellulose content of the both the
natural fibres. Sisal-PALF-GFRP samples offered high TS and Banana-
GFRP exhibited the low TS among the all samples [73].Authors have
investigated the effect of filler content SiC to extend the improvements
in mechanical properties. Fillers have delayed the mechanical failure
upon increasing mechanical load [74]. Effect of resin types-epoxy and
polyster to assess the extent of Jute- PALFs – Glass fibre resin affinity
evaluated for equal fibre volume fraction. Epoxy hybrid composites
delivered superior mechanical properties than polyster hybrid compos­
ites. It was ascribed to the increased fibre matrix adhesion of epoxy resin
than polyster [75]. But addition of synthetic fibre-nylon, few times acts
as notch sensitive material and it dramatically reduces the IS and IM
upon hybridizing with PALF indicating negative hybridization effect
[76].
7.2. PALF/natural fibre combination
Furthermore, many authors have studied the mechanical perfor­
mance of PALF/other natural fibre reinforced composites with respect to
fibre size, fibre treatment and fibre loading [46,49,77–80] (Table 10).
Advantage of hybridization of one natural fibre with other natural fibre
is reduction in the water uptake capacity compared with individual
natural fibre reinforcement. In building construction, plant aggregates
of oil palm fruit bunch fibre and PALF are used with cement. Effect of
fibre type, fibre size, fibre volume and clay composition was studied
with respect to elasticity modulus, compressive strength, and water af­
finity. During whole biodeterioration process and characterization, soil
type and testing standards were constant [81]. It was reported that,
Fibre Fabrication Feed rate Observations References
size method
– Hand lay up – TS -Sisal-banana-PALF > Sisal- [73]
method PALF > Banana-PALF > Sisal-GFRP > Banana-
GFRP
Similar FS trend was obtained as that of the TS
behavior.
IS- Sisal-banana-PALF > sisal-PALF > Banana-
PALF > Sisal-GFRP > Banana-GFRP
– Hand lay up TS ¼ 5 mm/ With increasing PALF wt% content, TM in [74]
method min longitudinal direction was found increasing.
And with addition of SiC to the PALF/Epoxy
composite, TM was found 10% higher than
that of PALF/Epoxy composite.
– Hand lay up TS ¼ 2.5 mm/ TS,TM, FS and IS was observed with [75]
method min increasing the fibre content. Mechanical
FS ¼ 0.2 mm/ properties: Epoxy hybrid
min composites > polyster hybrid composites.
9
 S.S. Todkar and S.A. Patil Composites Part B 174 (2019) 106927
comparatively higher mechanical properties and water resistance were
References

obtained than the individual fibre composites of oil palm fruit bunch
[79,80]

fibre and PALF. Additionally many researchers have studied the effect of
[77]

[78]

[49]

[46]

[82]

fibre length, fibre loading, fibre treatment on natural-PALF hybrid

polymer composites. For the same fibre loading and fibre type-
was recorded for 10% fibre content though low fibre content behaves

depicting fibre agglomeration. Similar observations were recorded for

1) Kenaf: PALF with 1:1 fibre proportion produced highest TS, TM, FS

1) Highest TS and TM was found for PALF/CF/PLA ¼ 21: 9 : 70 wt%,

IS- Highest values of IS for equal fibre ratio of CF and PALF recorded,
TS, FS, - 0.25 mm fibre length with 70% fibre loading. IS- Highest IS

PALF/KF/Phenol formaldehyde resin hybrid composite contradictory

conforming the better coir fibre -pineapple fibre interaction to PLA.
2) Hybridisation effect with PBS resin delivered highest mechanical

TS- KF: PALF composite (70:30) displayed quiet better stress strain
as flaw inside the composite, better stress transfer is seen at fibre

but beyond 40 wt% of hybrid fibres TS and TM found decreasing

outcomes identified in terms of mechanical strength. For instance, from

Increase in TS and TM due to fibre treatment and fibre loading

TS, FS- For CF/PLA (21:9) highest TS and TM values recorded.

Table 10, it was observed that, in dearth of KF highest TS and FS were

properties than PLA resin. PALF/CF/PBS > PALF/CF/PLA

observed [46] whereas equal fibre loading of PALF:KF delivered highest

TS, TM and FS, FM [82]. It was ascribed to the fibre treatment and
and FM compared to the other fibre loading samples.

variation in the resin wt% affecting the fibre matrix bonding.

2) Highest IS was obtained at Kenaf:PALF- 60:40

50:0 < 35:15 < 25:25 < 15:35 < 0:50, IS- IS-

8. Effect of fibre treatments and coupling agents on mechanical

properties of PALF composites
curve than the other samples. FS- FS-

50:0 > 35:15 > 25:25 > 15:35 > 0:50

Fibre treatment process should have least damaging effect on fibre

morphology and physical characteristics. For natural fibres pretreat­
length 0.75 mm and 2 mm.

ment is important for deciding the extent of adhesion in the fibre matrix
phase. To encourage the bonding with suitable coupling agents and
compatibilizers are essential [38,83,84]. It was assumed that the fibre
FS, FM and IS
Observations

treatments breaks fibre bundles into single fibre and enhance the surface
observed.

area of fibres. Such fibres attain increased surface roughness attributing

to fibre/matrix property to improve surface adhesion [82].
8.1. Chemical treatments
10 mm/min

10 mm/min

FS ¼ 2 mm/

FS ¼ 2 mm/

FS ¼ 1 mm/
TS- 2 mm/

TS- 2 mm/

TS- 2 mm/

1 mm/min

Chemical treatment involves interaction between corresponding

Feed rate

min, FS-

min, FS-

min, FS-

chemical functional group and hydroxyl groups of the fibre ingredients

min

min

min
TS,

TS,

TS,

such as cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin etc. Chemical reaction is aimed

at removing non cellulose content from the fibre bundles with increased
Kenaf:PALF ratio-

molding machine

fibrillation. In order to improve the fibre quality, it is necessary for raw

fibres to undergo delignification and fibrillation attaining the maximum
Compression

Compression

Compression
Melt mixing,

Melt mixing
Hand layup

Hand layup
Fabrication

aspect ratio. Majorly used chemical treatments involve Mercerization,

molding

molding
method

method

Acetylation (Esterification), Peroxide, Plasma treatment etc of natural

1:1

fibres [85].
While improving the mechanical properties many researchers
(Table 11) have applied the single solution treatment as well as
0.75 mm and
Fibre length

2.3–3.9 mm

consecutive two chemical treatments such as alkali and silane [86]. It

0.8–1 mm

0.8–1 mm
0.25 mm,

0.25 mm
0.5 mm,

1–2 mm

was reported that instead of single solution treatment consecutive

2 mm

chemical treatment has brought superior mechanical strengths. Other

combinations include alkali and diluted epoxy treatments refer Fig. 6
[15,58,76,85–97] (see Fig. 7) [104].
PALF/KF/Phenol
PALF/KF/phenol
Kenaf/PALF/PE

PALF/CF/PLA,

CF/PALF/PLA
PALF/CF/PBS

formaldehyde

formaldehyde
Kenaf/PALF/
Effect of natural fibre hybridization on PALF reinforced polymer composites.

8.2. Effect of coupling agents

Material

HDPE

resin

resin

After chemical treatment fibres are chemically neutralized. So

chemically there is quiet less affinity between the fibre and matrix. Many
times limited addition of binding agents plays a key role in enhancing
PALF: Recycled Chopstic Fibre (CF) wt% ¼ 70: 30,
Kenaf: PALF (50:50 proportion) Fibre length- 0.25,

7:3, 80: 14: 6, 70: 21: 9, 60: 28: 12 Fibre loading -

PALF/KF/PF (wt%)- 50:50:0, 50:35:15, 50:25:25,

PLA:PALF: CF ¼ 100: 0: 0, 90: 7:3, 80: 14: 6, 70:
21: 9, 60: 28: 12, PBS: PALF: CF ¼ 100: 0: 0, 90:
Kenaf: PALF- 100:0, 70:30, 60:40, 40:60, 30:70,

PLA:CF:PALF (wt%)- 100:0:0, 70:30:0, 70:0:30,

the fibre matrix integrity. These coupling agents are adhesion efficiency
0.5, 0.75 and 2 mm Fibre: HDPE- 10:90 Fibre

promoters assisting strong chemical bonding between fibre and matrix.

PALF and KF were treated with silane 2%

Treated PALF, 50:50:0, 40:60:0, 50:0:50

Generally fibre loading to the matrix increases the mechanical

concentration for 3 h. PF:PALF:KF (wt

Fibre loading kept constant ¼ 40 wt%

properties, but when fibre loading is in excess then it will result in the
fibre aggregation and entanglement. But if compatibiliser is added to

%) ¼ 100:0:0, 60:40:0,50:50:0,
such aggregated loadings then by diffusion process it will reduce the

70:15:15, 70:9:21, 70:21:9

0–40 wt% (increment 10)
cementing force between fibre and matrix. Fibres are dispersed more
0:100 and 50:50 (1:1)
loading- 10% to 70%

effectively without aggregation further improving the strength of the

Treated KF, 50:0:50

50:15:35, 50:0:50
resulting composite. Some of the agents are bioamide, maleic anhydride
Specification

grafted polypropylene, methyl ethyl ketone peroxide (MEKP) and zein

[35,45,58,76,85,86,88–97].
9. Limitations of PALF as filler or reinforcement agent
Fibre loading

Fibre loading

Fibre loading

Fibre loading
Fibre length Limitations such as variable quality depending on

treatment
and resin
and fibre

and fibre
Parameter

loading

loading
unpredictable influences of weather and moisture absorption, limited
Table 10

type

Fibre
maximum processing temperatures, lower strength properties, lower
durability, poor fire resistance especially at elevated temperature and
10
 S.S. Todkar and S.A. Patil
Table 11
Effect of various chemical/surface treatments on Mechanical properties of PALF reinforced polymer composites.
Effect of various chemical/surface treatments on Mechanical properties of PALF reinforced polymer composites

Fibre treatment specification Material Fibre length Fabrication Feed rate Observations References
method
Abrasively combed raw PALFs with 1% bleach PALF/Vinyl ester – Compression TS- 0.5 mm/ 1) For 1% bleach with 2 h treatments, highest fibre diameter with highest % [15]
treatment with 2, 4 and 6 h immersion time molding min EoB is obtained followed by lowest TS and TM.
and 2% bleach treatment(NaOCl) with 4 h 2) For 1% bleach with 4 h treatment, highest TS is achieved and 6 h bleach
immersion time. Catalyst- MEKP solution highest TM is obtained.
3) For 2% bleach with 4 h treatment, highest TM and lowest % EoB produced.
1% NaOCl aqueous solution was used to clean the long PALF/Vinyl ester 127 mm Hand layup FS- 2 mm/ 1) Freshly extracted middle technical fibres delivered highest FS and IS, as [15]
fibres for 1, 2 and 4 h þ abrasively combed min compared to the PALF obtained from other layers from leaf geometry.
PALF (20 wt%) þ Vinyl ester, Compatibiliser- 2) FS found unaffected by the origin of the extraction of fibre from leaf and fibre
MEKP diameter.
Untreated, PMPPIC, Silane (Silane A 172), BPO PALF/LDPE 6 mm Solution mixing TS ¼ 50 mm/ TS and TM ¼ PMPPIC > Silane > BPO > Untreated [58]
as a function of temperature technique min
Alkaline treatment- Raw PALF þ NaOH solution PALF/PLA Fibre Not provided Compression 0.05 inches/ 1) Successively treated (alkaline and silane) and alkaline treated composite [91]
(5% w/v) for 2 h at room temperature. Silane loading- 40 wt% molding min sample delivered highest IS. It was 47% higher than that of the untreated
treatment- Raw PALF þ5 wt% of 3-Aminopro­ samples.
pyltriethoxysilane (3-APS) - 3 h
2) FM increased from 4.4 GPa for the untreated fibres to 6.0 GPa for the alkali
treated fibres, proving 36% improvement and that of silane treatment, 5.6 GPa
showing 27% improvement observed. But successive treatment displayed the
highest FM and FS amongst all samples with 45% improvement.
A) 5% (w/v) NaOH treatment on PALF PALF/Epoxy – Hand layup TS,FS- TS- Surface treatment has improved the strength TS of the composites as [93]
B) 1% (w/v) toulene solution of Glycidyl ether of Fibre volume 2.8 mm/min compared to the raw fibres.
bisphenol A (DGEBA) on resin fraction- 15% A > C > B > Untreated fibres
C) Combined NaOH þ DGEBA constant TM and IFSS-C > B > A > Untreated fibres
11

Curing agent- Tetraethylenetriamine (TETA) FS- A > C > B > Untreated fibres
FM-C > B > A > Untreated fibres
IS- C > A > B > Untreated fibres
Alkaline treatment: 5% (w/v) NaOH solution at PALF/PC, Fibre 2 mm Injection 5 mm/min 1) TS- Alkaline treatment produced more stiffness in the composites than the [94]
30 � C for 5 h loading: 0, 5, 10 and molding silane treatment.
20 wt% Highest tensile strength was achieved at 20 wt% with NaOH and Z-
Silane treatment: 1% (w/w) silane solutions used. 6011coupling agent treatment.
Two silane coupling agents were used-Z-6011 and TM- It was slightly improved for PC þ PALF þ NaOH/Z-6011 treatment.
Z- 6030 3) IS- IS reduces as fibre loading increases NaOH and silane combination it has
highest impact strength due to good adhesion between treated PALF and PC.
For impact and EoB, 10 wt% fibre loading, NaOH and silane agent treatment
fibres optimum mechanical properties achived.
5 wt% PALFs were soaked in 1% (w/v) NaOH PALF/PP Not provided Injection Not provided 1) CI was found to be increased by 4% from 38% to the 42% for untreated and [95]
solution. molding treated fibres respectively. This 4% gain of CI was due to the fibre modification
occurred in terms of morphology, surface roughness and fibre matrix
compatibility.
2) IS increased by 14% than the neat PP sample. Due to random orientation of
the PALFs fragile fracture mechanism was identified.
Hybrids prepared were subjected to-1)Electron Short Kenaf/PALF/ 0.25 mm Kenaf:PALF TS- 2 mm/ With increase of EBI from 0 to 100 kGy at 10 kGy per pass, [96]

Composites Part B 174 (2019) 106927

Beam Irradiation followed by 2)1%, 2% and HDPE ratio- 1:1 min TS- TS was found gradually increasing.
3% concentrations of vinyltri (2-methoxy Compression FS- 10 mm/ But the values of TM were found higher than that of the TS.
ethoxy) silane and TMPTMA as cross-linking molding min FS and FM – Marginal increase in FS and FM. 10 and 20 kGy dosage found
agents. hampering to the FS of the composite.
IS- Highest IS was obtained at 10 kGy dose and it decreases thereafter.
Effect of cross linkers on TS, TM and FS: TS and TM of the composite found
improving the sample than the silane agent. No effect on FS.
PALF/LDPE: Fibre loading: 10–30 wt% PALF/LDPE 6 mm, Longitudinal Compression TS, FS- 1) Chemically PALF with increasing fibre loadings are found to deliver [97]
(increment 10) orientation molding 50 mm/min increased TS and TM, than that of the untreated PALF. Improved TS and TM in
NaOH treatment, Silane treatment, Isocyanate
(continued on next page)
 S.S. Todkar and S.A. Patil

Table 11 (continued )
Effect of various chemical/surface treatments on Mechanical properties of PALF reinforced polymer composites

treatment (PMPPIC), increasing order are in the order:

Permanganate (KMnO4) treatment, untreated < KMnO4 < NaOH < DCP < BPO < silane < PMPPIC.
BPO
5% wt NaOH solution at room temperature for PALF/PA6 5 mm Twin screw TS- 5 mm/ Compared to the alkaline treatment, silane treatment has produced improved [98]
5 h, 5% wt 3-Aminopropyl(diethoxy)methylsi­ extrusion, min mechanical properties. It was observed that for 40%wt fibre contribution
lane (APDES) ethanol Injection Elastic modulus was highest, whereas for 30%wt TS and EoB was highest. Fibre
molding content has null effect on crystallization temperature, melting temperature of
the composites, with very small effect on crystallinity.
Dielectric barrier discharge (DBD) plasma PALF/PLA Long PALF- 10–14 mm, Twin screw – 1) DBD treated PALF/PLA composites delivered improved mechanical [99]
surface treatment and fibre length on PALF/ Short PALF- 0.5–3 mm extruder, properties than raw PALF.
PLA composites was studied as a function of Injection 2) Highest TS and yield strength were produced by the long DBD treated PALF
mechanical and thermal properties. PALF molding composites than that of the short PALF. Similar results were obtained for the FS
constant loading - 10%wt loading and FM.
3) IS- Similar trend of TS was observed and addition of 10 wt% PALF to the PLA
increases the brittleness of the biocomposite.
Effect of long PALF treated with 5% NaOH Long PALF/PLA Approximately < 30 mm Compression TS- 2 mm/ 1) TS- Two times higher TS and TM than neat PLA obtained. [100]

12
treatment for 1 h, 30 wt% PALF/PLA molding min 2) IS increased significantly.
20 wt% of PALFþ 10% Alkaline treatment for PALF/Nylon 6/66 6 mm Injection TS- 5 mm/ TS, TM and FS, FM- Against neat nylon composite samples, it is found [76]
30 min copolymer molding min increasing with addition of the untreated PALF. Silane treatment displayed the
Followed by 1% w/w (3- Aminipropyl) FS-1.28 mm/ highest TS, FS and FM amongst all samples.
trimethoxysilane (based on fibre weight) in min Also TM is found decreasing in case of silane treatment, but for alkaline
80:20 ethanol-water for 12 h treatment it is found higher than the silane.
IS and IM- With addition of the PALF to the resin, IS and IM properties found
decreasing.
PALF with 5–25 wt % loading (increment 5) Long unidirectional >30 mm Hand layup – Addition of PALF to increased TM and FM. Highest TM and FM were identified [101]
treated with 5% of NaOH (fibre to liquor ratio PALF/Epoxy method at 20 wt% of PALF to the Epoxy. But at 25 wt% there was decrease in the TM
1:10)þ acetic acid of 100 ml, Mold was coated and FM noted. With increasing fibre content to the Epoxy IS was found
with silicon spray decreasing.
Silane-Coupling agents- PALF loading content 30 mm Hot pressing TS-100 mm/ PALF/LDPE-TS- with increasing fibre content, TS found to be increasing [102]
Aminopropyltriethoxysilane (APS) and - 0 to 20 wt% with min PALF-MRPS > PALF-APS > PALF-PMPPIC > PALF-HDI > PALF
Mercaptopropyltrimethoxysilane (MRPS) increment of 5%, with PALF/PP-TS- with increasing fibre content, TS found to be increasing
Isocyanate treatment: Coupling agents- random orientation PALF-APS > PALF-HDI > PALF-PMPPIC > PALF-MRPS > PALF
polyphenyl isocyanate (PMPPIC)and PALF/LDPE
Diisocyanatohexane (HDI) PALF/PP
Composites Part B 174 (2019) 106927
S.S. Todkar and S.A. Patil
Fig. 6. Stress–strain curves: (a) neat PLA, (b) PLA/PALF (60/40), (c) PLA/
PALFNA (60 wt%/40 wt%), (d) PLA/PALFSI (60 wt%/40 wt%) and (e) PLA/
PALFNASI (60 wt%/40 wt%) [86].
the fluctuation of prices based on harvest results or agricultural politics
can limit their industrial application [99]. But to overcome these limi­
tations, proper surface treatment with suitable binder, compatibilizing
agent, coupling agent should be used with the PALF compatible resin
such as unsaturated polyster, epoxy, polypropylene etc. Hybridisation
with natural or synthetic fibres is also helpful [41].
10. Technical solutions to solve traditional problems of NFRC
10.1. Modifying the fibres
From last few years radiation treatment methods are used. It is
classified as UV light assisted, electron beam radiation [91], gamma
rays; radiation assisted grafting, microwave radiation. An ionizing
irradiation method of surface treatment is immerging as the new method
of fibre modification. With the controlled dose of radiation, absorption
of radiation energy by the polymer generally starts a free radical reac­
tion. More free radicals are produced than the chemical treatment and
thus improving strength of the fibre and hydrophobicity without losing
fibre strength [99].
Steam explosion is the other method suggested, raw fibres were
subjected to the exposure of the steam and its additives under high
pressure with high temperature diffuse the spaces between bundles of
fibres. It gently removes the non-cellulose parts from the fibre
morphology without much deterioration. At such elevated temperature
and pressure, lignin and hemicellulose molecules were made to become
water soluble and later removed by the washing and rinsing [100].
Fig. 7. Coefficient of thermal expansion graph of untreated and treated PALF/
KF hybrid composites [104].
13
Composites Part B 174 (2019) 106927
10.2. Modifying the matrix
10.2.1. PALF with hybrid biodegradable resins
Researchers have used PALF and combination of hybrid resins. In
this paper (Thermoplastic Starch) TPS and PLA were used along with
variations of PALF loadings. Fibre and resin interaction was studied on
an interfacial and interphasial state. Up to 60 wt% of TPS, the tensile
strength of TPS/PLA/PALF sample was found superior to that of TPS/
PALF alone. Beyond this concentration of TPS, their phase reversal re­
action took place between TPS and PLA. PALF with 8% fibre volume was
found suitable for this combination. Further increased fibre loading,
fibre was acting as stress raisers but not as load carrier [69].
10.3. Interfacial incompatibility enhancement
Interfacial compatibility is important to transfer of stress from the
matrix to the fibres. Key surface properties include surface roughness,
which provides the foundation for mechanical interlocking, and wetta­
bility and surface energy, which indicates compatibility and surface
functionality and reveal opportunities for chemical bonding [99].
Fibre matrix interaction refers to the process activities occurring at
atomic, microscopic and macroscopic levels. Fibre-surface interaction
taking place at two-dimensional boundaries between fibre and the resin
surface is an interfacial reaction. This fibre matrix interaction is critical
in terms of the transferring effective stress transfer. It may take place
mainly through the following mechanisms [101] a) Mechanical coupling
or micromechanical interlocking between two different materials
(hornification), b)surface energetic and secondary bonds which serve as
van der Waals forces of attraction of hydrogen bonding efficiency, c)
covalent bonding between the fibre and resin, d) chain entanglement e)
transcrystallinity. If the interaction takes place in the 3 dimensional as a
volume then it is regarded as interphasial interaction. Thus, properties
available at interfacial and interphasial region determine the final
strength of the composite. A strong fibre/resin bonding provide
increased rigidity, brittleness with lowered impact, flexural and tough­
ness strength. On the contrarory, a weak fibre matrix interaction pro­
vides the reduced strength with increased impact, flexural and
toughness. So depending upon the functional requirements from the
product relative fibre/matrix affinity interaction should be varied. If the
product needs high rigidity and brittleness then strong fibre matrix
interaction required with weak flexural, impact and toughness and vice
versa.
10.4. Tensile properties enhancement
Higher values of AR, cellulose content and crystallinity offer higher
tensile strength to the PALF. Smaller values of spiral angle, non cellulose
content offers comparatively higher tensile properties to the PALF. But
in case of higher cellulose content there is a negative effect on the tensile
properties as cellulose is inherently hydrophilic in nature. For further
increasing the mechanical strength with increasing fibre loading, it
should be assisted by the addition of the compatibilizer. These compa­
tibilizers will increase dispersion the fibres inside the matrix without
agglomeration or aggregation. Such homogeneous dispersion ensures
the least fibre pull out upon application of load. Fibre surface interaction
should be improved at both scales interfacial and interphasial state. It
hinders the fracture propogation through the composite sample and thus
improving the tensile properties [32].
10.5. Durability enhancement
Very few researchers have studied the durability aspect of the PALF.
Isocyanate treatment is used to treat the raw short PALF resulting in the
reaction of isocyanate functional group and hydroxyl groups of cellulose
and lignin in fibres [102]. It removes the lignin and pentosan from the
cellulosic fibres. It increases the efficiency of integrity between fibre and
S.S. Todkar and S.A. Patil
matrix adhesion. Improvement in the melt rheological performance and
durability improvement of PALF/low-density polythene was reported
[103].
10.6. Thermal stability improvement
Thermal stability depends upon the lignin content in the fibre. But
lignin is responsible for the hydrophilic nature of the fibre. So, for
ensuring the thermal stability it is necessary to retain the lignin and
maintain the cellulose content of PALF [56]. Type of variety also affects
the resulting thermal stability, Malaysian variety Sarawak has the
highest thermal stability followed by those from Josapine and Moris
cultivars because, it has higher in lignin content than other varieties
[14]. At the same time, resin used should be compatible enough to avoid
the formation of the voids as it leads to the crack initiation due to
evaporation of entrapped air. Addition of the refractory material such as
SiC fillers improves thermal conductivity with low thermal expansion. It
has high hot hardness with good stiffness. And because of this it is being
used in the applications which demands resistance to wear and tear
resistance at elevated temperature [74]. Authors have carried out the
Thermo mechanical analysis for the dimensional stability of the hybrid
composite samples (Kenaf/PALF/Phenolic resin) with variations in the
temperature. Coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) was determined for
each sample ranging from the temperature 200 � C–1980 � C. From TMA
graph provided, untreated and treated hybrid samples with equal fibre
ratios followed the downfall in the behavior at the rubbery phase and
thereafter. From graph (Fig. 6) it was clear that, untreated hybrid
composites due to lignin content, proved good dimensional stability
than the treated once. It was attributed to the chemical treatment which
delignified the fibres to considerable extent [104].
11. Conclusions
This review paper makes an attempt to discuss all the work in PALF
reinforced polymer composites for improving the mechanical properties.
The conclusion of the work is summarized as below:
1. Pineapple agro waste management needs to be considered right from
its cultivation. Segregated planting is the other challenge amongst all
because it creates difficulty in leaves collection.
2. A multi-step manufacturing process is required in order to produce
high-quality natural fibres, which contributes to the cost of high-
performance natural fibres as well as the improved mechanical
properties of the composites.
3. Currently, NFs are facing a major challenge on many sides their
environmental degradation against the artificial fibres on con­
sumer’s side and their quality and quantity from the farmer’s side.
For achieving a better yield of NF from the raw material and avoid
the loss of raw material due to poor processing, it is necessary to
develop a standardized method. Processing method should be
environment-friendly, water-energy conserving and easy to handle.
4. It was also suggested that instead of single chemical treatment, if two
successive different chemical treatments are carried out then it has a
leverage to the chemical and physical structure of the PALF in
delivering comparatively higher mechanical properties. If there is
poor fibre-matrix adhesion efficiency, the addition of the additives
and the binders has helped in enhancing the net adhesion efficiency.
5. Hybridization with other natural or synthetic fibres has also found
effective. Research work on the use of hybrid resins with PALF, a
single fibre or hybrid fibres with hybrid resins is scantily reported.
6. Rheological characterization of the PALF reinforced rubber com­
posites is a potential area to work. Controlling orientation of the
PALF inside the rubber is necessary for improving and delivering the
desirable characteristics.
7. PALF composites should be studied in crashworthiness point of view
along with the other mechanical tests. A very limited study related
14
Composites Part B 174 (2019) 106927
with attending the failure mechanism of NFRP for crushing is carried
out. Lateral and axial crushing stress tests should be carried out in
order to study the overall quasi-static compression moulding
behavior.
8. Pushed out delamination failure effect observed when drilling the
composite laminates. Delamination properties are currently studied
for very few composites such as bamboo, so PALF composites should
be considered for the same in comparison with glass and other fibre
composites. From results it will be easier to determine the healthy
feed and for the right choice of drill diameter to avoid delamination.
Acknowledgement
I would like to extend my gratitude to Dr.A.N.Chapgaon, Professor
Ashokrao Mane Group of Institutions, Vathar, Dr.Mahesh.B.Shelar,
Physics Department, R.I.T Islampur and Dr.P.S.Patil, Head, School of
Nanoscience and Technology, Department of Technology, Shivaji Uni­
versity, Kolhapur, Maharashtra for guiding and providing me with
research facilities. Also, authors are grateful to all the publishers (e.g.
Elsevier Publishers, SAGE, Springer, Taylor and Francis, John Wiley and
Sons, American Chemical Society) and authors who have permitted to
use figures and tables from their publications.
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