METRIC SPACES

1. Let X = R2 , the set of all points in the coordinate plane. For x = (x1 , x2 ) and y = (y1 , y2 ) in X,
define
p
(a) d(x, y) = (x1 − y1 )2 + (x2 − y2 )2
(b) d ? (x, y) = max.{|x1 − y1 |, |x2 − y2 |}
(c) d ?? (x, y) = |x1 − y1 | + |x2 − y2 |
Then each of the spaces (X, d), (X, d ? ) and (X, d ?? ) is a metric space.

2. Let (X, d) be a metric space. Show that every subset of X is open if and only if every subset
of X which consists of a single point is open.

3. Let (X, d) be a metric space and x ∈ X. Show that X − {x} is open in X.

4. Let (X, d) be a metric space and Sr (x) be an open sphere in X for x ∈ X. Let A be a subset of
X with diameter less than r which intersects Sr (x). Prove that A ⊂ S2r (x).
Hint: Prove that d(a, x) < 2r for all a ∈ A.

5. Let (X, d) be a metric space and A ⊆ X. If x is a limit point of a set A, show that each open
sphere centered on x contains an infinite number of distinct points of A. Use this result to show
that a finite subset of X is closed.
Hint: Use the result to show that a finite subset of X cannot have any limit point hence it
contains all its limit points.

6. Let (X, d)be a metric space, let x ∈ X and r > 0. One is inclined to believe that the closure of
Sr (x) must be equal to Sr (x). Give an example to show that this is not necessarily true.
Ans: Consider R with discrete metric. S1 (0) = {0}, so S1 (0) = {0} but S1 [0] = R.

7. Let X be a metric space, and let G be an open set in X. Prove that G is disjoint from set A ⇔ G
is disjoint from A.
Ans: Let open set G is disjoint from set A.
Since G ∩ A = G ∩ (A ∪ A0 ) = (G ∩ A) ∪ (G ∩ A0 ) = φ ∪ (G ∩ A0 ) = (G ∩ A0 ), so if x ∈ G ∩ A =⇒

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 x ∈ G ∩ A0 , which implies that x belongs to open set G and is a limit point of A. Therefore,
there exist an open sphere Sr (x) ⊆ G. This open sphere Sr (x) must intersect A as x is limit
point of A, which is impossible as G ∩ A = φ . Converse is trivial.

8. Let (X, d) be a metric space and Y ⊂ X be nonempty. Suppose there exist δ > 0 such that
d(a, b) ≥ δ for all a, b ∈ Y with a neqb. Prove that (Y, d) is complete.
Hint: FOr example, consider (Z,Euclidean metric). Take δ = 1. Now, observe that the only
Cauchy sequence here is eventually constant sequence.

9. Let (X, d), (Y, d 0 ) be metric spaces. On X ×Y , define metrics d1 , d2 as d1 ((x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 )) =
d(x1 , x2 ) + d 0 (y1 , y2 ) and d2 ((x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 )) = sup{d(x1 , x2 ), d 0 (y1 , y2 )}. If (X, d), (Y, d 0 ) are
complete then show that (X ×Y, d1 ) and (X ×Y, d2 ) are complete.

d
10. Let (X, d) be a metric spaces. Define d1 = inf .{1, d} and d2 = 1+d . Then (X, d) is complete
⇔ (X, d1 ) is complete ⇔ (X, d2 ) is complete.

11. Let f : N → R be any function. Prove that f is continuous.

Hint: {n} is open sphere in N.

12. Show that a function f : R → N is continuous if and only if f is constant.

Hint: If f is continuous then inverse image of open (closed) is open(closed). {n} is open and
closed both so its inverse image under f must be both open and closed, but φ and R are the
only subsets of R which is both open and closed. Therefore f must be constant.

13. Let (X, d) and (Y, ρ) be metric spaces and f : X → Y be a function. Prove that f is continuous
of and only if f (A) ⊆ f (A).  
Proof: Let f be continuous. Then, f −1 f (A) is closed in X since f (A) is closed in Y . Now,

f (A) ⊆ f (A)
 
=⇒ A ⊆ f −1 f (A)
 
−1
=⇒ A ⊆ f f (A)
=⇒ f (A) ⊆ f (A).

Conversely, let f (A) ⊆ f (A), for every subset A of X. To prove: f is continuous. Let F be any

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 closed set in Y . Then, F = F. Now, f −1 (F) is a subset of X, so by hypothesis, we have
 
f f −1 (F) ⊆ f ( f −1 (F))
 
=⇒ f f −1 (F) ⊆ F = F
=⇒ f −1 (F) ⊆ f −1 (F).

Hence, f −1 (F) = f −1 (F). Hence, f −1 (F) is closed in X which implies f is continuous.

14. Let (X, d) and (Y, ρ) be metric spaces and f , g : X → Y be continuous function. Prove that the
set {x ∈ X : f (x) = g(x)} is closed.
Solution: Let A = {x ∈ X : f (x 6= g(x))} and a ∈ A be arbitrary. Then f (a) 6= g(a), so
ρ( f (a), g(a)) = η > 0.
Since f and g are continuous, for a given ε > 0

15. Let (X, d) be a metric space and y is a fixed element of X. Prove that the real valued function
f : X → R defined by f (x) = d(x, y) is continuous on X.

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 UNIFORM CONVERGENCE

sin nx
16. Let fn (x) = √ . Show that the sequence ( fn ) converges pointwise to 0 function. Also show
n
d d
that lim fn (x) 6= lim fn (x).
n→∞ dx dx n→∞

[observe that pointwise convergence is not sufficient for interchange of limit and differentia-
tion.]

17. Let fn (x) = xe−nx . Show that the sequence of function ( fn ) is uniformly convergent on [0, ∞).

Solution: Since fn (0) = 0 for all n and for x > 0, we have e−nx → 0 as n → ∞. Therefore
fn → 0. To check: fn ⇒ 0.

0
For maxima and minima, we solve fn = 0 i.e. (1 − nx)e−nx = 0 =⇒ x = 1/n. From second
derivative test, fn has maxima at x = 1/n. Hence

sup | fn − 0| = sup xe−nx

1
= → 0.
ne
Hence, fn ⇒ 0.

x
18. Show that the sequence of functions ( fn ) given by fn (x) = 1+nx 2 for x ∈ R converges uniformly
to 0.