Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 42 (2015) 1279–1289

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

A review and insights on Poynting vector theory and periodic averaged

electric energy transport theories
N. Calamaro a, Y. Beck b,n, D. Shmilovitz c
a
Israel Electric Corporation, 17 Lehi Street, Bnei-Brack 67899, Israel
b
Faculty of Engineering, Holon Institute of Technology, 52 Golumb st. 5810201, Holon, Israel
c
Faculty of Engineering, Tel- Aviv University, Haim Levanon st. 6997801, Tel-Aviv, Israel

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Electric energy transport theory is one of the key factors in smart grid development. Electric energy and
Received 23 April 2014 power transport theories enable the development of advanced energy metering, improve fault-location
Received in revised form algorithms, electric network diagnostics algorithms, power conditioning of active filters and of smart
17 August 2014
grids, energy storage management at energy reservoirs, and new energy forecasting analytical
Accepted 20 October 2014
algorithms. In this paper, the periodic averaged theories, including the periodic averaged formulation
Available online 18 November 2014
of Poynting vector theory, are presented. The presentation is conducted in a unique comparative
Keywords: formalism and approach, enabling the demonstration of equivalence between the various theories in
Active power general and the equivalence of some elements in the decomposition of the electrical expressions for the
Energy metering
powers in particular. The paper shows the equivalence of the modern theory of Currents' Physical
Harmonic distortion
Components to the Conservative Power Theory, and its formulation, for being applicable to various grid
Power transport theory
Reactive power monitoring and energy control applications.
A corrected computation for the reactive power by means of time-domain Conservative Power
Theory is proposed as well. Moreover, equivalence in single phase systems between Buchholz apparent
power and geometric apparent power is shown, which indicate the suitability of using apparent power
definitions to grid manufacturing and modern distribution systems design.
& 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1280
2. The general structure of power transport theories by means of physical components decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1281
3. Poynting vector theory (PVT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1281
3.1. General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1281
3.2. Outline of multi-vector PVT instantaneous theory [28] (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1281
3.3. Apparent, active and reactive powers in multi-vector PVT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1282
3.4. Equivalence between PVT distortion power and periodic averaged theories distortion power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1283
3.5. Use of PVT in defining active resistive and reactive components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1283
3.6. Critical review on PVT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1283
4. Periodic averaged electric energy transport theories. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1284
4.1. Time-domain computation of periodic averaged theory: RMS values, apparent power and active power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1284
4.2. Reactive energy computation using phase-shift methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1284
4.3. Reactive energy computation using an alternative formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1284
4.4. Conservative frequency-domain computation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1284
5. Recent periodic averaged energy transport theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1285
5.1. Current physical components theory (CPCT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1285
5.2. CPCT: theory outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1285
5.3. Orthogonality of the current physical components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1286

n
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: netzah@iec.aco.il (N. Calamaro), beck@hit.ac.il (Y. Beck),
smilo@eng.tau.ac.il (D. Shmilovitz).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.10.065
1364-0321/& 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1280 N. Calamaro et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 42 (2015) 1279–1289

5.4. A critical review of the theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1286

5.5. Comparison of CPCT reactive power with the components in the conservative theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1287
6. Conclusions and discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1287
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1288

1. Introduction
energy measurement since they do not characterize active/reac-
tive loads fully and accurately [11,12,24,25]. These theories are
Electric energy metering is the measurement of electric energy by
suitable for power conditioning [19] with instantaneous response
electric meters [1,2]. It is one of the technologies that uses electric
time at the sampling rate, and do not require storage components
energy transport theory. Electric energy transport theory is imple-
but rather only switching circuits [19]. On the other hand the
mented in additional fields such as: 1) active filtering [3,4], 2) real-
periodic averaged theories attempt to insure correct energy mea-
time power factor compensation [5] and voltage regulation [6], 3)
surement, and correct active/reactive load identification [11,12].
computation of energy propagation through networks, 4) generalized
These theories are also applicable to active filtering and power
solutions of power through electric circuits [4], 5) smart grid
conditioning with time response, of a single period [13].
management of energy storage to reservoirs [7], and 6) renewable
In this paper only the periodic averaged theories are addressed.
energy plants diagnostics [8,9].
We also include a discussion on the periodic averaged formulation
The energy metering technological branch is awakening, in terms
of the instantaneous theory of PVT. These electric energy transport
of energy transport theories. Renewable energy plants involve
theories can be classified to clusters of sub-theories as shown
converters which introduce DC and harmonics to the grid. Conven-
in Table 1.
tional meters might be insufficient for such specific applications, due
There is an on-going flow of publications on each such theory.
to the use of approximate formulas which are insufficient for such
The work in [10], and also [11–14] demonstrates research which
measurements. Moreover, implementation of control algorithms for
suggests that the various theories should be regarded as different
modern electric grids with vast distributed generation, the devel-
points of view on the same phenomena, with different optimiza-
opment of active filters, real-time power factor and voltage control
tion criteria of the active energy transmission loss.
require precision in the energy transport formulation.
In this paper a selection of reviewed papers such as [6,8–
The fact that electro-magnetic theory and circuit theory (KCL,
10,15,16] enable unified comparative discussion under the follow-
KVL) are relatively complete theories does not mean that there is
ing criteria: (a) all theories are described under some reactive
currently a unified power theory for all problems and electric
power vector decomposition; multi-vector formalism: multi-
circuits. Power theory is a higher abstraction level, and is still open
harmonic or multi-phase vector; (b) current and power compo-
to evolution [17]. Some of the reasons that make power theories
nents decomposition (in this paper we refer to mathematical
complicated are as follows:
components which signify different physical origins or phenom-
ena as physical components); (c) discussion of three apparent

These theories deal with the flow of power and energy and
power definitions, and demonstration of equivalence (not neces-
energy flow laws are not fully understood yet [4].
sarily identity), at least for single phase of Buchholz and geometric

The comprehension of what is reactive power, and an attempt
definitions.
to decompose current/power into physically meaningful com-
This paper covers a total of over 50 works including two books
ponents is not agreed on by all.
[6,19] and two related standard systems [20,21]. This review attempts

The process of generating active electric energy flow involves
to describe all the major theories under one review. The review
non-active energy flows. The laws of computation of the total,
compare and highlights the following new points of view in each
active, reactive and other energy flows are not agreed on by all
theory: 1) we demonstrate a single phase equivalence of geometrical
as well.
apparent power implemented in PVT to the Buchholz definition

For non-linear time variant systems it is not clear yet whether
implemented in conservative theory [6]. 2) A distinction is made
some decomposition theories are feasible [4].
between time-domain theories and instantaneous theories (PVT)
which preserve equivalence, and periodic averaged theories and
In general, energy transport theories can be divided into two instantaneous theories (PQT) which do not preserve equivalence.
major groups: 1) the instantaneous theories and 2) the periodic 3) A reactive energy time-domain periodic averaged formula, com-
averaged theories. The instantaneous theories are less suitable to monly used for energy metering [22], is shown to be only approximate

Table 1
Suggested cluster of current theories as in [10].

Theory Major contributors Years of foundation (more recognized work)

1 Conservative theory (CPT) time domain frequency domain Budeanu 1927

2 Conservative theory Fryze 1932
3 Conservative-reactive power vector decomposition frequency domain Manfred Depenbrock 1960
Fryze–Buchholz–Depenbrock method(FBD)
4 Current Physical Components (CPCT) L.S. Czarnecki 1988
Frequency domain effective:
1995
5 Preceding work to standard Alexander Eagles Emanuel 1993
Standard: IEEE 1459–2000 2000
2008
6 Poynting vector theory (PVT) Emanuel, 1994
Filipski 1988
 N. Calamaro et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 42 (2015) 1279–1289 1281

to the exact formula developed herein. 4) All the presented theories is a systematic presentation of the theory, suitable for many
with the exception of conservative time-domain theory are formulated applications, yet this is not the only PVT layout. The vector
with a similar syntax: current and power components decomposition. formalism makes it possible to compare it with other theories:
This unified formalism is important for the ability to compare the CPCT [4] and PQT [3,27]. The comparability sheds light on
theories. 5) PVT is presented in multi-vector harmonic presentation. equivalences and differences between the various theories. [29]
This enables comparison of periodic averaged and instantaneous deals with an alternative PVT formulation in favor of the identi-
theories. fication of capacitive/inductive/resistive components in nonlinear
Every theory has a critical review section which presents its switched circuits gathered from information hidden in the voltage
shortcomings and counter-responses. We do not focus on a and current waveforms. Emanuel [6] covers plenty of examples of
historical critical review, but on comprehensiveness. No single PVT usage. PVT is a microscopic originated theory, while the rest of
power theory is accepted as efficient by the whole scientific the theories are macroscopically originated. [6] represents classical
community for all the cases of highly distorted signals, and several PVT, and is recommended for further reading.
phase circuits. Further, there are articles indicating the deficiencies
of all known power theories [17,23–25]. 3.2. Outline of multi-vector PVT instantaneous theory [28] (2009)
The paper is organized as follows: Section 2 provides a general
view of presenting energy transport theories by components Fig. 1 shows a graphical interpretation scheme of the theory. The
decomposition. In Section 3 PVT, which is naturally an instanta- electro-magnetic field is viewed as Fourier coefficients. A sub-
neous theory, is reviewed and presented in its periodic averaged module transfers from electric, magnetic fields to voltage and
multi-vector form. Section 4 contains a review of periodic aver- current. The main module transforms the instantaneous voltage,
aged methods including basic presentations of RMS and the current pair and electric magnetic field pair into their Fourier
various powers (active, reactive and apparent), as well as insights representation, yielding only the Fourier's coefficients of these
and comparison of the various decompositions of components in parameters. Multi-vector PVT visualizes the electromagnetic field
the theories. Section 5 reviews the more recent method of through the glasses of periodic averaging. A similar approach termed
Currents' Physical Components (CPC) as a natural method of geometric algebra is applied to electric power transport theory [31].
decomposition of current and power components. This section Multi-vector PVT is on the boundary of instantaneous and
also shows the equivalence of the physical components to other periodic averaged theories. The formulation is based on Fourier
reviewed methods. Finally, in Section 6 we conclude and discuss coefficients, which makes it comparable to other theories. Singu-
the insights shown in the paper. larly, this hides an assumption of quasi-periodicity and averaging
over an integration period. It is an instantaneous theory in the
sense that the distortion power in particular and the rest of the
2. The general structure of power transport theories by means power components are instantaneous. The basic equation of the
of physical components decomposition Poynting theorem is [6,28]
I ! ! ! !!
The power theories that we will introduce later herein provide ! ! ! ! ∂ HUB E UD
E  H U dS ¼  ∭V E U j dV  ∭V þ dV ð2Þ
a mathematical computation and physical interpretation of power S ∂t 2 2
physical components. Eq. (1) is used in all of the theories we ! ! !
where E is the electric field, H is the magnetic field, j is the
review [4]: !
electric charges current density per unit volume, B is the magnetic
9 !
S2 ¼ ∑ P 2j þ ∑Q 2k > flux density, and D is the electric flux density.
>
>
>
> The left-hand side component in (2) is the total power
j k
>
=
i ¼ ∑ ij þ ∑ik ð1Þ
transferred outwardly from the surface of the volume V. That
j k >
> power density is known as the Poynting vector. The first compo-
>
>
‖i‖ ¼ ∑ ‖ij ‖ þ ∑ ‖ik ‖ >
2 2
>
;
2
nent of the right-hand side is the power transferred to the load,
j k
known otherwise as the active power. The second component of
where Pj, Qk, are the physical or mathematical active and reactive the right-hand side is the time variation (∂/∂t) of the energy
orthogonal power components, respectively and S is the apparent volume density stored in the electro-magnetic field, known
power. k is the component index and not the harmonic index. ik is otherwise as the reactive power. Power may get out of the surface
orthogonal current. FBD [11] decomposes the components into an at two forms: current or radiation. PVT includes both forms. In
average power component and a fluctuations component, and also
breaks the components into the prime harmonic of the active,
inactive and the rest of the harmonics [6]. CPC decomposes the
current/power into five meaningful components [3]. PVT [26]
decomposes only to active, reactive and distortion inactive com-
ponents. The vector space usually spans in terms of harmonic
multiples of the prime network harmonic. Instantaneous theories
use a network phase vector space [27]. The rationale behind the
physical components decomposition is the ability to separate
various phenomena into separate terms.

3. Poynting vector theory (PVT)

3.1. General

There has been renewed interest in PVT in recent years

[6,26,28–30].[28] presents a multi-vector PVT formulation, which Fig. 1. Graphical scheme of multi-vector PVT as a flow diagram.
1282 N. Calamaro et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 42 (2015) 1279–1289

Fig. 2, the Poynting vector is shown, and in Fig. 3 the implementa- herein:
tion of the Poynting vector theorem for both load and source is 9
! ! =
presented. From the surface enclosing the sources, the Poynting P n ¼ ∭V E n U j n dV
B H E D  ð5Þ
vector propagates outwardly to be inward to the surface enclosing Q n ¼ 2ωn ∰V 2  2 dV ;
n n n n

the load.
In Fig. 2 the instantaneous potential v(t) is related to the where n is the harmonic index. Bn, Hn, En, Dn are the phasor Fourier
!
electric field E . The instantaneous current i(t) is related to the components of the relevant fields decomposition. According to
!
current density of charges j at (2). [26], the first element Pn of (2) and of (4) is related to the
For distorted periodic electromagnetic fields, the wave func- macroscopic instantaneous active power. That connection will be
tions E(t), H(t) are represented as a Fourier series. The energetic derived later. The instantaneous active power is as follows:
interpretation of (2) at the harmonic level is [26] as follows: pðtÞ ¼ vðtÞ U iðtÞ ð6Þ
Sn ¼ P n þ jQ n ð3Þ !
In (2) and (5) the electric field E is exerted as a power on the
! ! ! !
where n is the harmonic index. Pn, Qn, Sn are the active, reactive charges, and causes movement ( E U j ) and radiation ( E  H ).
and apparent powers Fourier series elements of the relevant The second element of (5) is related to the instantaneous reactive
instantaneous power functions, respectively. Note that (3) is the power operator q(t), to be shown as the equivalent operator to the
geometrical apparent power definition [5,6]. Reviewing the Poynt- periodic averaged reactive power Q later in the text. Note that in
ing vector power transport theory might raise a doubt regarding the current review section the relations do not yet include voltage
the efficiency of that approach in the following aspects: (a) it is and current. It is shown after manipulation that there are two
complicated due to being microscopic; (b) there is no spatial reactive sub-components.
distribution at lumped circuits, therefore it is unnecessary to insert   9
_ _ ~ >
>
that complication. PVT inserts spatiotemporal variation; (c) other ~
∯s ∑ n U P~ ds ¼ ∯s n U ∑ nE n  H n ds >
>
n
=
power transport theories are simpler than PVT, due to being   ð7Þ
_
∯s n U Dds ¼ ∯s ∑ n E~ k  H~ m þ E m  H k ds >
~ ^ U n ~ ~ n
>
macroscopic and based on KCL, KVL and power equations. Never- >
>
kam ;
theless, if there is any doubt about the physically meaningful
definitions of P, Q, and S, returning to PVT makes it clear what the
where the operator is defined as:
physically meaningful definition and phenomena are.
! !
E  H 9 ∑ E~ p H~ p ejð∢Ep  ∢Hp Þ þ ∑ ∑ ½E~ p H~ q ejð∢Ep  ∢Hq Þ
p p A Nq a p A N
3.3. Apparent, active and reactive powers in multi-vector PVT
 E~ q H~ p ejð∢Eq  ∢Hp Þ  ð8Þ
! !
Let E and H be the vectors of harmonics where every
Developing (8) further:
harmonic component is a phasor. The equations are based on
! ! n n n ! !
the Maxwell equations for calculating the scalar potential V and E  H ¼ ∑ E~ p H~ p þ ∑ ∑ ½E~ p H~ q  E~ q H~ p  ¼ E U H
the vector potential A. The electric field E is received through the p p A Nq a p A N

following equation: ! !
þ ∑ ∑ E p:q  H p;q ð9Þ
!   !   p A Nq a p A N
E ¼ E1 ; E2 ; …; En ; …; EN ; H ¼ H 1 ; H 2 ; …; H n ; …; H N ð4Þ
 is called the generalized complex geometric product in Cgn,
The field may also have components at the [x, y, z] space axes. which is the complex manifold space of dimension N [26,31]. The
Relating (2) to (3) per a single harmonic n with the definition in (6) functional simply describes energy computation operation at the
harmonic vector space. The Poynting multi-vector is defined as:
!
n
P~ ¼ ∑ E~ n  H~ n 9 ∑ E~ n H~ n ; ∯ n^ U P~ d S ¼ ∑ P n þ jQ n ð10Þ
n n S n

The periodic active power is as follows:

( " ! )
! n !
P ¼ Re ∯ ∑ En H nn n^ U d S g; P n ¼ Ref∯ ∑ E~ n H~ n n^ U d S ð11Þ
S n S n

and the reactive power is as follows:

( " )
!  n
 !
~ ~
Q ¼ Im ∯ ∑ En H n n^ Ud S g; Q n ¼ Imf∯ E n H n n^ U d S
n
ð12Þ
S n S

Fig. 2. Poynting vector [6]. Both the active and reactive power components arrive from the
Poynting multi-vector, from the non-cross-product harmonics. The
Complementary Poynting multi-vector is defined [28] as:
~ ¼ ∑
D
m; n
 n n
 N1 n  n n

m a n E~ m  H~ n þ E~ n  H~ m ¼ ∑ ∑ E~ m  H~ n þ E~ n  H~ m
j ¼ 1 k ¼ jþ1

ð13Þ
The second double summation is considered the more elabo-
rated convention, and is provided in another context of distortion
Fig. 3. Implementation of PVT to load and source �[29]. power in [6]. The operator reflects several aspects:
 N. Calamaro et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 42 (2015) 1279–1289 1283

1. The equivalent of the Distortion power DBudeanu in the Con- i(t) i(t)
servative Power Theory.
2. It is the contribution due to cross-product harmonics. In the
conservative frequency-domain power theory, it will be shown R(t)
that the sum of cross-products is equivalent to the distortion
power and that the geometric definition is equivalent to the v(t)
Non-linear
v(t)
vector product of. The equivalence will be shown herein:
load L(t)
9
in ðtÞ ¼  dq
dt
n
¼ hn ðtÞ U lH =
ð14Þ
um ðtÞ ¼  dφ dt
m
¼ em ðtÞ U lE ;

where lE and lH are the average lengths of flux lines of the vector Fig. 4. An equivalent instantaneous R, L model of time varying non-linear load [29].
fields. φm ðtÞ is the magnetic flux and qn ðtÞ is electric charge.hn ðtÞ is
the magnetic field and em ðtÞ is the electric field. The equations a non-linear load effect. The instantaneous real (pA(t)), and
above reflect the laws of conservation of electric charge, and reactive (qR(t)) powers, can be written as follows:
magnetic flux respectively. Note that in single-phase PVT for 9
pA ðtÞ ¼ Rk i2A ðtÞ =
lumped circuits, there is no significance to spatial components in h 2 i
d Lk iR ðtÞ ;
ð18Þ
comparison with the temporal component. A theoretical expan- qR ðtÞ ¼ dt 2
sion may be found in [26,31]. The non-linear generalization of the
distortion is as follows: The quantities Rk and Lk are unknown; by integrating the
n  o instantaneous power over time into instantaneous energy. We get:
Ω~ ^ ¼ ∯s_ ~ ¼
n U Dds ∑ U n I m ejφm  U m I n ejφn ejðαn  βm Þ σ nm Z t Z t
n a m;Linear
wðtÞ ¼ Rk i2 ðt'Þdt' þ Lk iðt'Þdiðt 'Þ dt' ð19Þ
þ ∑ U n I m ejðαn  βm Þ σ nm ð15Þ 0 0
dt '
n a m;Non  linear
Eqs. (18) and (19) are two equations with two unknowns and
can be written as follows:
3.4. Equivalence between PVT distortion power and periodic 2 3" # " #
averaged theories distortion power i2 ðtÞ iðtÞdiðtÞ Rk pðtÞ
4R Rt
dt
5 ¼ ð20Þ
t 2
0i ðt'Þdt' iðt'ÞdiðtÞ dt
0 dt
Lk wðtÞ
The distortion instantaneous operator includes the harmonic
functions decomposition: A few issues are to be stated regarding the above equation
  system: 1) the components pðtÞ; wðtÞ are computed as follows:
DðtÞ ¼ ∑ V j I k ejϕk V k I j ejϕj ejðαj  αk Þ ejðωj  ωk Þt σ jk )
j a k;linear pðt k Þ ¼ vðt k Þiðt k Þ
R tk þ Δt ð21Þ
þ ∑ V j I k ejðαj  αk Þ ejðωj  ωk Þt σ jk ð16Þ wðt k Þ ¼ 0 pðt 0 Þdt 0
j a k;non  linear
2) A simple proof based on linear algebra and linear differential
Performing an RMS on that operator yields:
equations theory is used to demonstrate that in the differential
Z ( )
 2 1=2 equation system (20) or (21), the rows are independent and the
2 n jϕk jϕj
D ¼ D U D dt ¼ ∑ V j I k e  V k I j e ð17Þ integrated Eq. (21) carries new information over the first row of (20).
jak

Result (16) is part of the instantaneous reactive power q(t),
with periodic averaged harmonics Qn. It is identical to the single
phase Buchholz apparent power definition, in what is known as
periodic averaged conservative theory [32,33].
3.5. Use of PVT in defining active resistive and reactive components
Another approach of PVT is presented in [30] (2010), where the
following is demonstrated: (a) identification of instantaneous
active and reactive load components, (b) extraction of additional
hidden information from the voltage and current waveforms. The
penalty for the extraction of additional information from the same
data amount is that in terms of sampling and digital signal
processing, every integration or derivative is cutting part of the
information. So the “effective” sample rate is smaller. It is known
that all theories handle LTI systems quite well. However, there are
other loads such as inverters, converters, switches and motors, and
at the most general case an unknown load structure with only the
voltage and current waveforms known. Fig. 4 [29] demonstrates
the application of Poynting vector to both a non-linear load and to
a source.
The technique assumes that at every sufficiently small sample
time, equivalent to a single period, the unknown load may be
modeled approximately as a LTI system, with instantaneous
constant values. The theory is then applied to switching circuits
in which switching between two circuits independently generates,
3.6. Critical review on PVT
In [17] a critical review on PVT is presented. It is demonstrated
here that PVT instantaneous power parameters cannot be used to
represent true physically meaningful components. That is because
PVT considers also radiated energy and not only transported
energy. As a result, instantaneous radiation phase-to-phase inter-
action [34], which contributes zero periodic energy, also appears.
Only the periodic averaged active power and instantaneous power
measurements succeed which is supported by [11,25]. The Poynt-
ing vector describes power flow out of a lumped circuit both as
radiation and current flow [34]. Electric power transport from
source to load does not occur through radiation. There is an
additional criticism of the requirement to use heavy electro-
magnetic techniques to lumped R, L, and C circuits with known
voltages and currents. A response paper [34] by Emanuel (2007)
acknowledges that load unbalance is not detected by PVT. As for
reactive energy and internal energy oscillations between phases,
PVT reveals both reactive energy and radiation of electric and
magnetic fields interacting with current and voltage correspond-
ingly. This is one of PVT's deficiencies for electric energy transport.
One of the issues raised in [17] is test cases which measure zero
instantaneous power between two load ports, while the calculated
Poynting vector is non-zero. It is claimed there that PVT contri-
butes no information regarding load parameters. [34] responds
directly to this claim. The paper points out that in a three-phased
1284 N. Calamaro et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 42 (2015) 1279–1289
balanced system the Poynting vector between two phases indi-
cates an internal non-zero oscillation-flow between two port
pairs: ab, ac, bc, where a, b and c are the three phases, while the
total three-phase instantaneous active power is zero, as [17]
stated:
pðtÞ ¼ uR iR þ uS iS þ uT iT ¼ 0 ð22Þ
A similar issue presented in [17] and responded to by [34] is the
unbalanced load case. It is indicated in [34] that PVT exposes the
physical mechanisms that determine electric energy transport,
and that is its highlight. Based on the previous chapters of the
current paper, if a multi-phase technique is operated, such as a
theory named PQT [27], it is possible to detect power oscillations
between phases. This is distortion power, due to the cross-phase
voltages and currents. Expression.s are similar to (1), and cross-
phase instantaneous power. There is a counter-response [35]
paper that responds to [34] and the main issue is that the
disagreement remains. The counter-response paper focuses on
the effectiveness of an electromagnetic theory for electric power
transport phenomena, where voltages and currents are known.
Generally speaking, it appears that multi-vector PVT [26] (2009)
has inserted a methodology and matched its ability to the other
theories by inserting a harmonics vector formalism similar to
conservative reactive vector decomposition (periodic averaged)
and CPCT (as will be discussed further). As long as power transport
theory is not a closed issue, it appears to be of added value to get
to the root of physical phenomena through PVT at least once
during a macroscopic theory lifetime. For example, taking Eq. (16)
is from a physical meaningfulness point of view more informative
than (17), which is the Buchholz apparent power in all types of
theories. D(t) oscillations sum up to zero net power, yet their
contribution to the RMS value is non-zero. These fluctuations are
hidden in (17), but they exist there.
4. Periodic averaged electric energy transport theories
4.1. Time-domain computation of periodic averaged theory: RMS
values, apparent power and active power
The conservative theory is split into two computations: time-
domain and frequency-domain. In this paper, frequency-domain
conservative theory is a synonym for periodic averaged. We will
start with time-domain computations that are periodic averaged.
The formulas for RMS voltage and Buchholz apparent power are
[32,4] as follows:
vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 9
u N >
u >
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ffi t ∑ v2 ðt n Þ > = Q Budeanu ¼
R Tn¼1 n
T
V RMS ¼ T1 0 v2 ðtÞdt ffi n ¼ 1 N ð23Þ
>
>
>
;
S ¼ V RMS UI RMS
The second expression for VRMS in (23), with the summation of
discrete values, relates to approximated DSP computation of an
integral. In digital sampling devices the sampling rate is N
samples/period. In order to work out the frequency-domain, a
Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) is applied. The complexity of FFT is O
(N∙log N). This is a much greater computation complexity than O
(N) of (23). [4] and [37] relate to the complexity problem. This is
much less of a problem with current processors' computation
power. The basic equations for the computation of active energy
and power are [4,33] as follows:
Z T Z The following theory is periodic averaged. The frequency-
1 T
EActive ðtÞ ¼ vðtÞ U iðtÞdt; P ¼ vðtÞ UiðtÞdt ð24Þ
0 T 0
T is the voltage basic sine wave period, which is called the
prime harmonic.
4.2. Reactive energy computation using phase-shift methods
The phase-shift methods reviewed herein are categorized as
conservative time-domain periodic averaged theories. The basic
formula for reactive energy shifts the instantaneous current by
7901 (or π/2 rad.) as referred to the voltage angle [3,6,16,36–39]:
RT )
EReactive ¼ 0 vðtÞiðt τÞdt ¼ v  i
RT ð25Þ
EReactive ¼ 0 vðt τÞiðtÞdt ¼ i  v
where τ ¼T/4 and T is a network period. The symbol ⊗ means the
convolution operation as in (25). The references to (25) include a
correct identification of correctness referring only to the prime
harmonic vn(t), in(t). (25) is commonly used in digital meters, and
deserves a comment regarding its accuracy. This will be discussed
in the next chapter. (25) is also relatively easy to implement and
does not require decomposition into components.
4.3. Reactive energy computation using an alternative formula
In order to comprehend the origin of (25) and to observe
whether it maintains an equivalence relation with periodic aver-
aged power theories, we use [6], [26] and especially [32] and [10].
An alternative equation is derived for the instantaneous reactive
power operator, by assuming that equivalence to the periodic
averaged theories should be maintained while reverting to the
time domain computation. An alternative time domain operator is
[32,10] as follows:
diðtÞ dvðtÞ
qðtÞ ¼ vðtÞ  iðtÞ ð26Þ
dt dt
We notice that the first component in (26) is inductive, while
the second component is capacitive. Taking one of the two right-
hand side components and expressing it in terms of a modal
(harmonic) equation yields:
din ðtÞ
qn ðtÞ ¼ vn ðtÞ ð27Þ
dt
By substituting a pure sine wave in (27) we obtain:
Z Z T  
1 T ~ n n T
Qn ¼ V n jnω0 I~n dt ¼ jnω0 V~ n I~o ¼ nω0 vn ðtÞin t  dt ð28Þ
T 0 0 4
(28) is an important result. It means that if energy and current
components' equivalence is to be maintained for the periodic
averaged power theories, only result (28) is accurate, while (25) is
approximate to a low harmonic distortion load. The exact reactive
energy equation is then:
1 N
∑ ½Q ðnω0 Þ þ Q n' ðnω0 Þ ð29Þ
Z T
Q n' ðnω0 Þ 9 nω0 vn ðt  τÞin ðtÞdt 9nQ n'' ðω0 Þ ð30Þ
0
Note that (29) and (30) include an instantaneous reactive
power q(t) as an integrand. Regardless of the fact that the above
formulations are written in the time-domain, they are affected by
harmonics issues through (30) and through the sampling rate,
which through the Nyquist theorem determines the harmonics
visible to the measurement apparatus.
4.4. Conservative frequency-domain computation
domain computation includes more complicated formulas in
terms of vector products, power parameters orthogonality, and
components decomposition. [32] and [40] present a theory named
reactive vector space decomposition. An alternative treatment that
 N. Calamaro et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 42 (2015) 1279–1289
yields identical results is [6], which presents the concept that
reactive power is a vector. The Fourier series of voltage and current
is represented as harmonic vectors as follows:
½V 1 ; V 2 ; …; V n ; …; V N ; ½I 1 ; I 2 ; …; I n ; …; I N 
The Fourier series expansions of voltage and current wave-
forms are as follows:
N N
vðtÞ ¼ ∑ V n ejnω0 t ; iðtÞ ¼ ∑ I n ejnω0 t
n¼1 n¼1
where V n and I n are phasors. The reactive power can be calculated
from voltage and current vectors as follows:
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi h i1=2 h i1=2
Q Total ¼ Q 2Budeanu þ D2Budeanu ¼ S2  P 2 ¼ V T VI T I  ðV T IÞ2
Finally:
" #1=2
h i1=2 N n
Q Total ¼ V T ðVI T  IV T ÞI ¼ ∑ ∑ ðV j I k  V k I j Þ2
j ¼ 1 k ¼ jþ1
The second row of formula (33) indicates that the reactive
power Q is a vector product of the voltage and the current in the
space defined above.
Q Total ¼ ½V n   ½I n 
N
P ¼ P Active ¼ ∑ V n UI n cos ðϕn Þ ¼ ½V n  U ½I n 
n¼0
Q 2 ¼ P 2Reactive ¼ Q 2Budeaeu þ D2Budeanu
N There is a hidden assumption: the current harmonic is gener-
Q Budeaeu ¼ ∑ V n U I n sin ðϕn Þ
n¼0
N N
Q 2Total ¼ ∑ ∑ ½V m UI n sin ðϕn  ϕm Þ  V n I m sin ðϕm  ϕn Þ
n ¼ 0m ¼ n þ 1
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Q 2Total ¼ Q 2Budeanu þD2Budeanu ¼ S2  P 2
The double summation in (37) is the same as, though more detailed
than, the single summation in (15) since includes in it the Budeanu
reactive power [6]. Budeanu originally defined reactive power as
the sum of non-cross product voltage and current harmonics, as
PActive at (35) and QBudeanu as (36) indicate. As a result, there is a
difference in (37) between QTotal and QBudeanu. In order to justify the
gap, another reactive power component was derived. This compo-
nent is named distortion power DBudeanu. Both the Budeanu reactive
power and the distortion power are non-active powers. Another
independent path is taken here, which is not the orthodox path. If
the geometrical apparent power is taken instead of the Buchholz
apparent power, then according to Eq. (36), it is found that QBudeanu
turns out to be an average fixed component of the reactive power,
while DBudeanu is the coefficient of the first harmonic of the power
waveform, meaning the net reactive power of that component
is zero. Periodic averaged theories: time- or frequency-domain,
conservative or CPCT, usually take the Buchholz apparent power. In
the PVT chapter, Eq. (16) has used the geometric apparent power
definition, and it is shown there that for single phase they are
equivalent.
5. Recent periodic averaged energy transport theories
5.1. Current physical components theory (CPCT)
More recent known theories than the conservative theory are
P–Q power theory (PQT, 1983) [44,45], Current's Physical Compo-
nents theory (CPCT, 1984) [4,13,41,42] and PVT [26], which was
reviewed in section III. These theories were invented initially for
1285
active filtering control algorithms and digital metering. CPCT is a
periodic averaged theory and was developed by Czarnecki. It is
considered as one of the most advanced energy transport theories.
ð31Þ The new concept that CPCT highlights is that, at least for LTI and
including harmonic generating loads and with/without unbalance,
it is possible to decompose the current and power to orthogonal
physical components that originate from simultaneous phenom-
ena separate from one another. Another novelty that CPCT brings
ð32Þ is that the entire harmonic spectrum is decomposed into physical
components spectra. It is correct that the author himself regards
the physical components primarily as mathematical entities and
not physical entities. But he considers them as related to physical
phenomena at the load [4]. The physical components take on a
role analogous to the concept of quasi-particles in Fermi Liquid
ð33Þ Theory [43]: quasi-particles are mathematical entities behaving in
the same way as physical particles would. In [4], CPC theory is best
explained by gradually exposing additional components.
ð34Þ
5.2. CPCT: theory outline
The voltage is defined as real and harmonic, as follows:
pffiffiffi
uðtÞ ¼ U 0 þ 2Ref ∑ U n ejnω1 t g ð38Þ
nAN
where N is the group of all harmonics and n is the harmonic index.
ð35Þ The theory is a current components theory. The harmonic admit-
tance element is defined as:
Y n ¼ Gn þ jBn ¼ I n =U n ð39Þ
ð36Þ
ated only by the voltage harmonic of the same index. There is no
energy transfer between the harmonic indices, except for what
will later be presented as the harmonics generated at the load.
That constraint limits CPCT at its current knowledge level to LTI
loads, and a transition zone between LTI and non-linear loads: LTI
ð37Þ and (39) are synonyms. Using (38) and (39), the current is
expressed as follows:
pffiffiffi
iðtÞ ¼ Y 0 U 0 þ 2Ref ∑ Y n U n ejnω1 t g ð40Þ
nAN
CPCT decomposes the current into the following components [4]:
i ¼ ia þ ir þis þiu þiB ð41Þ
where ia is the active current, ir is the reactive current, is is the
scattered (active) current, iu is the unbalanced current and iB is the
backward load generated current. Another synonym for iB is iC
customer load generated current. All the current physical compo-
nents in (41) are time dependent ia(t) and the notation ia is for a
shortcut. The first four components are a decomposition of what
is called the distribution network current. This is the current of
the active power propagating from source to load. In [4] the
active current is defined as permanent energy conversion. The
expression for active current is as follows:
pffiffiffi
ia ðtÞ ¼ Y 0 U 0 þ 2Ref ∑ Ge U n ejnω1 t g ð42Þ
nAN
Ge is the equivalent conductance, defined as follows:
G 9 Ge ¼ P=‖u‖2 ð43Þ
This is the entire voltage spectrum multiplied by a fixed
admittance and left unchanged. An instructional fact is highlighted
in the current paper: since ia þir are the active components, then
for every harmonic which does not have an ia(n) current harmonic,
it turns out that: Gn  Ge ¼  Ge zeroing the net active components
admittance Ga,conservative(n)¼ Ge þGs(n)¼ Ge þGn ¼ 0.
ir, the reactive current, is defined as the current component
phase shifted by exactly 7 ðπ=2Þ rad. in comparison to the voltage
1286 N. Calamaro et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 42 (2015) 1279–1289

phase (in each harmonics) The separation of conservative active parameter: (nω_1 ), and to an unbalanced diagonal matrix, which
current into active and scattered is similar to the FBD method is not shown in [4]. The next current physical component iB, is the
[6,35,45] (1962) of decomposition of active power/current into backward active current back to the source. It is also referred to in
averaged and non-averaged components. is is the scattered current CPCT papers as iC, the customer current. It is the current related to
which is the fluctuations active component: active power Pn propagating from load to source. The latter
pffiffiffi component sometimes, but not always, comprises the harmonics
is ðtÞ ¼ ðG0  Ge ÞU 0 þ 2Ref ∑ ðGn  Ge ÞU n ejnω1 t g ð44Þ
nAN generated by a non-linear load (HGL—Harmonic Generating Load).
Backward and forward are in terms of active energy transport.
Referring to reactive current:
( ) Viewing the active power nth order harmonic component:
pffiffiffi
ir ðtÞ ¼
^ 2Re ∑ jBn U n ejnω1 t ð45Þ P n ¼ U n I n cos ðφn Þ ¼ ðGn ÞjU n j2 cos ðφn Þ ð52Þ
n A N;ðImfY n g a 0Þ
According to CPCT, if:
The extension to three-phase systems with HGL and with phase  
voltage unbalance is discussed [4]. A few enhancements are φn  o π=2 ð53Þ
performed: a) write down phase vector equations, namely three
then the average active flow is from supply towards load. If:
single-phase equations. b) Use Buchholz apparent power defini-  
tion extended for three phases. c) Insert the load unbalance φn  4 π=2 ð54Þ
current physical component iu in each single-phase equation. It
does not exist in single phase equations. Balanced loads are then the average active flow is from the load towards the power
symmetrical. Unbalanced loads may be represented as a sum of supply. CPCT splits the current harmonic components into back-
negative sequence, zero sequence, and positive sequence phase ward and forward. It then breaks down the forward current into
vectors. In a three-phase system the current can be represented as active, reactive, scattered, unbalanced components. In [4] the two
follows: components of the LTI system are called a harmonic generating
2 3 2 3 source and a harmonic generating load.
iR IR n! o
6 i 7 pffiffiffi6 I 7 jωt pffiffiffi
i ¼ 4 S 5 ¼ 24 S 5e ¼ ^ 2Re I ejωt ð46Þ
5.3. Orthogonality of the current physical components
iT IT

A simple test case of balanced power supply source and All of the components of (55) below are orthogonal to each
unbalanced linear load admittance is considered. In this case: other in terms of inner product operator:
pffiffiffi  RT )
i ¼ 2Ref½ðGe þ jBe ÞU þ AU # ejωt g ð47Þ xðtÞ; yðtÞ 0 xðtÞyðtÞdt
ð55Þ
where: ‖i‖2 ¼ ‖ia ‖2 þ ‖is ‖2 þ ‖ir ‖2 þ‖iB ‖2 þ ‖iU ‖2
2 3 2 3
UR UR Orthogonality exists because each current physical component
6U 7 # 6U 7
U 9 4 S 5; U 9 4 T 5 ð48Þ is a group of separate orthogonal harmonics that share only a
UT US single current physical component. Orthogonality enables us to
regard various electric phenomena occurring simultaneously as
where U is the positive sequence source voltage vector and U# is separable. Another issue highlighted by CPCT is that current
the negative sequence voltage vector. The reasons for the validity relations such as (55)are equivalent to the power relations.
of (44) are as follows: 1) with a single harmonic, it is legitimate to
use only Ge, 2) unbalanced load current may be represented by
three sequence components, while the zero sequence is some- 5.4. A critical review of the theory
times neglected.
The rest of the parameters are related to the phase admittances In [35], a closure on counter-response to [17], Czarnecki accepts
as follows: the claim by de Leon and Cohen, in response to his papers, that the
current physical components are not physical entities, but rather
Ge þ jBe 9 Y e 9 Y ST þ Y TR þ Y RS ð49Þ
mathematical. [35] accepts the claim, but emphasizes that these
(49) is used in [4]. There are alternative equivalent admittance components relate to different physical stimuli and load phenom-
expressions yielding different results, [20], but (49) is still a ena. De Leon and Cohen also claim that in order for components to
legitimate expression. It represents the net current from the be really physical, they must be in line with instantaneous power
Δ connection, assuming a symmetric pure sine voltage source. theories: PQT and PVT. That position is not accepted by [35], as
Ge is called the equivalent admittance. (50) is more a universal demonstrated in the critical reviews of PVT [17] and PQT [24,49]
expression obeying KCL. Taking the sum of Δ connection admit- that have already been discussed in Section 3.F's critical review.
tances, the unbalance factor is then computed: The periodic averaged theory approach is accepted by many

scientists, even by PVT supporters [6], as better at reactive load
 Y ST þ αY TR þ αn Y RS 9A 9 Aejψ ð50Þ
identification than instantaneous theories. CPCT presents new
In the case of single harmonic load unbalance, CPC splits the ideas, fertilizing the other modern theories with novel concepts.
current into three elements: reactive current, active current and For example, there was criticism of p–q theory as compared with
unbalanced current. CPCT[50], but this has only refined the theory by others [10]. There
pffiffiffi n o pffiffiffi n o was also criticism of PVT by comparison to CPCT [17]. The issue
ia ¼ 2Re Ge Uejωt ; ir ¼ 2Re jBe Uejωt was a reactive power indicated by PVT that is not observable in the
pffiffiffi n o
iu ¼ 2Re Ge AU # ejωt ð51Þ external envelope of a three-phase system. The response to that
criticism was in a way that refined the comprehension of PVT. The
Note that for (51) current there are three-phase vectors. In CPC terminology of current components has penetrated to other
the unbalanced element is independent from the reactive and theories in modern papers [6,19],[]. The terminology of decom-
active current components. Extrapolating this result [4] can lead to position into components starts from the days of Fryze and
an extension to a series of harmonics, each with its unbalanced Depenbrock [6].
 N. Calamaro et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 42 (2015) 1279–1289 1287

5.5. Comparison of CPCT reactive power with the components in the herein between a mathematically separable component of reactive
conservative theory power to distortion power (62), so that issue is less crucial. The
author himself uses a distortion power symbolism in [4] (Eq. (46)
It seems that the various components in CPCT are different there). Not all power transport theories share that view of the
from the expressions in the conservative theory. CPCT takes all the absence of distortion. Reactive power is in CPC only an effect of the
harmonics and classifies them into five sub-groups, while the real 901 phase-shift between the voltage and current and not load-
and imaginary parts of a harmonic may be diverted into two source oscillations. In (59) and (60) QBudeanu does not generate
separate groups. None of the current elements are neglected. oscillations, and DBudeanu does.
Equivalence to conservative theory is demonstrated herein: macro
and micro. Equivalence is of importance since it is not explained
anywhere that there is equivalence at such depth. Macro: the sum 6. Conclusions and discussion
of all the real components is equivalent to the conservative active
component in (56) below and all of the imaginary components are In this paper a review of PVT in its periodic averaged repre-
collected as equivalent to the conservative reactive component in sentation along with other periodic averaged energy transport
(56) below: theories with emphasis on innovative use for smart grid applica-
iðtÞ  ir;CPCT ðtÞ ¼ ImfI C;CPCT g ¼ tions was presented. The unified syntax presented in this paper
  includes two elements: (1) representation of reactive power as a
¼ ia;CPCT ðtÞ þ is;CPCT ðtÞ þRefiC;CPCT ðtÞg þ Re I U;CPCT ðtÞ vector, either of harmonics, or of network-phases; (2) decomposi-
¼ iConservative;Active ðtÞ ð56Þ tion into components. It is shown that PVT is considered a
harmonic vector space, and in P–Q Theory is considered as a
And
    network-phase vector space. The common syntax enables a
ir;Conservative ¼ ir;CPCT þ Im iC;CPCT ðtÞ þ Im I U;CPCT ðtÞ ð57Þ comparison between the various theories. As mentioned, PVT is
presented in its modern formalism known as multi-vector. This is
The proof to (56) and (57) is provided herein. The CPCT side is
not the only common PVT formalism, yet it is generic and allows
developed in terms of admittances, while in conservative theory it
comparison with other theories. PVT is an instantaneous theory,
is developed as multiples of current and voltage. An alternative
yet the acceptance of a Fourier expansion shows similarity to the
way is to directly compute the reactive component from the
macroscopic power relations identified in other power theories.
conservative time-domain formula:
  All of the significant power relations are derived, including
RT RT pffiffiffi distortion power, reactive power, and geometric apparent power.
Q r;CPCT ¼ T1 0 vðtÞir ðtÞdt ¼ T1 0 U 0 þ 2Ref ∑ U n ejnω1 t g
nAN It was also shown that geometric apparent power (through the
pffiffiffi   PVT example) is equivalent to Buchholz apparent power (and for
2Re ∑ jBm U m ejmω1 t ð58Þ all other theories), for the single-phase case in Eq. (17). It was
mAN
shown that once instantaneous theory, is addressed with the
Focusing on the instantaneous reactive power integrand q(t), in periodic point of view, the equivalence emerges through a distor-
order to simplify the demonstration of equivalence: tion instantaneous power D(t) as in Eq. (16). Equivalence was
  shown, but not identity: the geometric apparent definition
n
qðtÞ ¼ 2Re ∑ ∑ U~ n jBn U~ n n involves a distortion power gauge transformation, which differ-
m ¼ nn A N
( ) entiates between Buchholz definition and the geometric definition
n n
þ 2Re ∑ ∑ jfU~ n Bnm U~ m ejðn  mÞω1 t  U~ m Bnn U~ n e  jðn  mÞω1 t g but preserves energy equivalence. The geometric definition goes
n A N m a n;m A N from the inward phase level outwardly, while the Buchholz
ð59Þ definition point of view is from the outward equivalent powers
( ) of a system. The multi-vector approach enables a comparative
discussion of the theories. An additional representation of PVT was
Q  Q Average ¼ 2Re ∑ ∑ jfU~ n I~ m ejðn  mÞω1 t  U~ m I~ n e  jðn  mÞω1 t g
n A N m a n;m A N
presented, enabling the extraction of hidden data at the voltage
and current waveforms (see Section 3.5 Eq. (21)). A critical review
ð60Þ
section was attached to every theory. This paper signifies the
The sign
on top of Un, Im signifies that the parameter is a phasor. different theories as different points of view, with specific areas of
Computing the RMS based on all of the harmonics regardless of strength. PVT improved the comprehension of the generation of
them being of different harmonics: distortion power, and of the single-phase equivalence of geometric
 2 apparent power to Buchholz apparent power, which is a widely
Q 2 ¼ ∑ Q 2n ¼ 2 ∑ U n I n sin ðφn Þ accepted apparent power definition. Then, CPCT was presented. A
nAN nAN
novel comparative current discussion based on existing formulas,
þ4 ∑ ∑ fU n I m sin ðφn;m Þ  U m I n sin ðφm;n Þg2 ð61Þ was presented. The equivalence of clusters of power components
n A N m a n;m A N
of the various theories was presented. Difference in the preserva-
tion of reactive energy formulas was presented. Next, a discussion
Q 2 9 Q 2Budeanu þ D2Budeanu ð62Þ
on implementations enabled by the presented theories, not exist-
The ratio between max amplitude and RMS is 1/√2, and ing prior to era of smart grid, is taken. A brief definition of areas of
therefore the factor 4 is eliminated. It was just shown in (57) that strength of periodic averaged theories vs. instantaneous theories
the reactive conservative component includes additional imagin- was provided at the introduction that is not common to the wealth
ary components that do not show in (60). These add to (60) sums, of work done on power theories. Periodic averaged theories excel
exactly as the other factors, so (62) is maintained. It is observed at energy measurement, and at active/reactive load characteriza-
that QBudeanu is a fixed average reactive power component, while tion. They are also suitable for active filtering, but they require
the distortion power D is fluctuations. This is backed up by storage components, have a latency of a single period, and some-
conservative theory [32]. The author of CPCT does not recognize times require extra processing through FFT. Instantaneous theories
the separability to a distortion current/power component, and are suitable for real-time power conditioning such as active
dedicates paper [23] to reasoning this. Equivalence was shown filtering. The unification of single phase apparent power Buchholz
1288 N. Calamaro et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 42 (2015) 1279–1289
and geometric suggested at Eq. (11) provides both ability to usage
of a single apparent power, at smart grid generation and distribu-
tion design, and in addition provides a physical meaning to
apparent power. The equivalence demonstrated between CPCT
and CPT at Section 5.5 Eqs. (57) and (62), enables potential usage
of CPCT for grid monitoring and control. The current physical
components proposed by CPCT, in Section 5.5 Eq. (41), are efficient
as indicators for several relevant phenomena: (i) unbalance cur-
rent signifies load unbalance, (ii) customer current signifies
current back propagating from the load, and load non-linearity
through current harmonics absent from the voltage spectrum, (iii)
scattered current signifies harmonic current, (iv) reactive current
changes indicates voltage changes and load changes. Up to now
CPCT was considered for active filtering. There the large amount of
current components was not optimally used because all active
filtering requires is usually reactive energy. The requirement to
perform extra processing through FFT, and inability to compensate
without storage components, also did not optimally use CPCT.
Recently CPCT was implemented for isolation of flicker turbine
customer current [51,52]. The grid, in contrast to active filtering,
requires that large amount of decomposed components. The next
innovative issue was a correction suggested for reactive energy
computation for CPT time-domain expression, at Section 4.3,
Eq. (50). The smart grid with its renewable energy facilities
increases the amount of harmonics due to the inverters required,
and the amount of reactive energy. Photovoltaic sites are known to
insert reactive energy to the grid. The gap between the approx-
imate expression used by some measurement devices and the
correction proposed in this paper increases. Furthermore, an issue
being discussed lately is reactive tariff in the context of smart grid
[53,54]. The power factor penalty function used so far is slowly
varying and less sensitive to reactive energy since the RMS
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
function S2  Q 2 is slowly varying. Reactive energy enforces
additional grid manufacturing and distribution capabilities, and
therefore can be charged for. If reactive tariff is to be implemented,
measurement devices must accurately measure the reactive
energy. Another potential implementation by the theories pre-
sented at this review, through Sections 3.4 to 5, is a metrology
simulator. Energy measurement devices are like a black-box in
regard to the implemented measurement model through clauses.
Extraction of that information is important for determining the
suitability of a device to renewable energy and multi-harmonic
facility. Injecting to the meter energy using an accurate calibrator
capable of generating harmonics and interharmonics, and com-
puting using a simulator the prediction by each of the theories,
enables comparison of the prediction to the actual measurement
and determination of the model closest to the implementation.
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