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A Spatial Interpolation Method for Radio Frequency Maps Based on the Discrete
Cosine Transform

Conference Paper · November 2013

DOI: 10.1109/MILCOM.2013.181

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 2013 IEEE Military Communications Conference

A Spatial Interpolation Method for Radio Frequency

Maps based on the Discrete Cosine Transform

Garrett Vanhoy, Haris Volos Carlos E. Caicedo Bastidas Tamal Bose

Dept. of Electrical and Computer Engr. School of Information Studies Dept. of Electrical and Computer Engr.
The University of Arizona Syracuse University The University of Arizona
Tucson, AZ 85721-0104 Syracuse, NY 13244 Tucson, AZ 85721-0104
{gvanhoy, hvolos}@arizona.edu ccaicedo@syr.edu tbose@arizona.edu

Abstract—Estimating radio frequency (RF) power in a geo-

graphic area is almost as old as wireless technology itself. It
is crucial to anyone who is working or doing business with
wireless technologies: wireless operators, the military, regulators,
etc. Under a cognitive radio paradigm, spectrum usage is no
longer static and is migrating towards dynamic and shared
access paradigms. Enabling this evolution requires the estimation
of the Radio Frequency map (RF map) of a given area. A
variety of methods have already been proposed and tested to
accomplish this estimation by leveraging decades of work on
spatial interpolation methods. In this work, we justify, through
analysis and simulation, using the Discrete Cosine Transform
(DCT) as a more dynamic and accurate interpolation technique
through comparison to other deterministic methods such as the
Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW) method1 .
I. I NTRODUCTION
Over the last decade there has been an explosive growth
of wireless data traffic [1] which is expected to continue in
the foreseeable future. Wireless carriers are struggling to keep
up with the demand by upgrading to newer generation tech-
nologies or by purchasing additional spectrum. Unfortunately,
most of the wireless spectrum is underutilized or reserved
for use by legacy systems such as radars [2], [3]. The 2012
President’s Council of Advisors on Science and Technology
(PCAST) report on the government’s utilization of the wireless
spectrum, called the government to release 1 GHz of spectrum
for shared access [3]. FCC followed with a goal of realizing
100 MHz for shared access [4]. Shared spectrum access and
dynamic spectrum access (DSA) [5] are currently some of the
key cognitive radio (CR) applications. The biggest issue in
realizing these technologies is creating mechanisms to enforce
fair use of the spectrum. Many solutions to the spectrum
sharing problem have been proposed, and they mainly vary
in the amount of autonomy that is allowed to each cognitive
radio. The more autonomy allowed to each radio, the more
aware they must be of their environment in order to prevent
interference. An RF map is a powerful tool that and can be
used as a part of a Radio Environment Map (REM) [6] to
make better operating decisions to decrease the probability of
interference between users. Not only cognitive radio networks,
but many other systems can also benefit from the use of REMs
including spectrum trading exchanges [7].
1 This project was supported in part by the affiliates of the Broadband Wire-
less Access and Applications Center (BWAC). BWAC is a Multi-University
Industry & University Cooperative Research Center (I/UCRC) sponsored by
the National Science Foundation (Grant #1265960.)
Fig. 1. Conceptual Illustration of the RF Map and Sampling Points
Realizing an RF map has historically been accomplished
through modeling electromagnetic propagation over a geo-
graphic area. For decades, wireless engineers and researchers
have studied and analyzed how electromagnetic waves propa-
gate. The results of those efforts include channel models veri-
fied by measurements [8] and commercial tools based on them
[9]. Estimates produced from these detailed models can be very
useful for many practical deployment operations. However,
these models are subject to changes in the environment or
transmitter location which inevitably occur in many scenarios.
Despite how detailed these models may be; their predictions
are always subject to validation, and more importantly, are not
dynamic.
We approach the estimation of the RF map as a sampling
problem. Our approach is conceptually illustrated in Figure 1.
In this figure, the real RF map is represented as a heat map
overlaying an urban landscape. The black dots represent sam-
pling points of the real RF map where a single measurement
is taken. Since a practical system will sample the RF map
using a network of spectrum sensors, it is important to keep
the number of points to be sampled to a minimum for practical
purposes. Our long-term goal is to enhance the sampling
approach with more advanced reconstruction techniques that
require less sampling points, are more accurate, and are more
robust to environmental changes. The paper is organized as
follows: we discuss the advantages and shortcomings of other
recent attempts at estimating the RF map in Section II. Then
we present an analytical foundation for our algorithm in
Section III. In Section IV, we qualify the robustness and

978-0-7695-5124-1/13 $31.00 © 2013 IEEE 1045

DOI 10.1109/MILCOM.2013.181

accuracy of our proposed method through comparison. Finally,
in Section VI we provide concluding remarks.
II. BACKGROUND /L ITERATURE SURVEY
Work on RF maps in the context of REMs is fairly
recent [10]. Therefore, we present a quick overview of key
methods in RF mapping. We first start, by briefly discussing
the spatial interpolation methods that have already been studied
in the context of this problem and highlight their fundamental
differences. Thus, we qualify our choice of the using the
Discrete Cosine Transform (DCT) as an interpolation method
for this operation. Then, we discuss what has been established
about the spatial sampling pattern in other applications for
justifying the use of a square-grid pattern. Lastly, we present
relevant concepts in electromagnetic wave propagation model-
ing, which are used for the analysis of our approach.
1) Spatial Interpolation: The accuracy of estimate for an
RF map from a set of known measurements fundamentally
relies on the interpolation method employed. Therefore, we
present a few methods that have already been studied in the
context of this problem. Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW)
has been used successfully with some modifications in [11].
Local interpolation methods work remarkably well for dis-
tributed applications where sending information to a central
node for computation is impractical. Additionally, there are
no requirements about the geometry of the sampling points
which makes IDT to work well in mobile applications. Thin-
plate splines have also been used to model RF maps [12].
Splines use radial basis functions to interpolate smoothly
between points. Unlike IDW, spline interpolation is a global
method which requires knowledge of all the measured points
to produce an estimate. Moreover, a few researchers have
recently attempted to use geostatistical interpolation methods
[13]. Empirical results using this family of methods are quite
promising and address a few problems involved with practical
sensor deployment (e.g. less sensitive to maintaining a specific
placement pattern.) Geostatistical methods require that the
semivariogram of the RF map is empirically determined before
any sensor deployment. See [14] for a summary and compar-
ison of these geostatistical methods. The ideal interpolation
method should not depend on environmental parameters such
as the propagation loss exponent. The DCT does not assume
any underlying model and thus can offer an RF map estimate
for a changing environment. This is the main reason we chose
to use the DCT as an interpolation method. The spectral
characteristics of the estimated RF map will depend on the
underlying propagation model, but the estimates from the DCT
will remain robust to changes, as we will show.
2) Multidimensional Sampling: Choosing the most appro-
priate sampling pattern will depend on the application and
the preferred interpolation method. Optimal sampling patterns
minimize the amount of error for the reconstructed surface
while maximizing the necessary distance between sampling
points. Generally, a completely random sampling pattern is the
least efficient in this sense [15]. Researchers have found that
for geostatistical methods, a square, hexagonal, or triangular
sampling pattern works almost equally well in practice [16].
For deterministic methods, there does not seem to be any
empirical results to suggest a preferred pattern. However,
the Peterson-Middleton theorem [17] proves that a hexagonal
1046
80
Rx Signal with Large, Medium, and Small Scale Effects
75
Rx Signal with Large and Medium Scale Effects
Rx Signal with Large Scale Effects Only
70
Received Signal Strength (dBm)
65
60
55
50
45
40
35
50 100 150 200 250 300
Distance (m)
Fig. 2. Signal Models for Different Spatial Scales
pattern is most optimal for a Fourier-related transform. Hence,
we chose to use the square-grid pattern for its near-optimal
performance and simplicity in implementation. We leave a
more thorough study of the optimal sampling pattern to be
part of future work.
3) RF Signal Strength Modeling: There are many models
that estimate the received RF signal strength. The choice
of an RF model depends on the channel effects that one
wants to observe. These effects are often separated into three
spatial scales: Large-scale effects (propagation loss), medium-
scale effects (shadowing), and small-scale effects (fading). The
large-scale effects are typically due to the spherical spreading
propagation loss as a function of distance. The medium-
scale effects known as shadowing, represent variations from
the propagation loss in an area due to the clutter in the
environment. Finally, the small-scale effects are rapid signal
strength variations (fading) due to constructive and destructive
combinations of multiple copies of the signal from reflections
in the environment [18]. We utilize these scales in our analysis
for understanding the scale impact on the estimation of the
RF map. Figure 2 shows a one-dimensional example of three
different propagation models.
The most widely used model for large and medium-scale
effects is the log-normal model which captures both the
propagation loss and shadowing effects [8]. The model as-
sumes that the received signal power decreases logarithmically
with distance and that the shadowing follows a log-normal
distribution around the predicted path loss.
! "
d
P L(d)[dB] = P L(d0 ) + 10nlog10 + Xσ (1)
d0
Where d is the TX-RX separation distance, P L(d0 ) is the
average path loss for at a reference distance d0 , n the path loss
exponent, and Xσ a zero-mean Gaussian distributed random
variable (in dB) with a standard deviation σ (in dB) that
represents the effects of shadowing. When used for modeling,
the shadowing effect at each point in space is not independent
across a set of nearby points, there is correlation among
them. This correlation smooths out the random variation that
is seen in Figure 2. A key parameter in our models is the
decorrelation distance. The decorrelation distance, i.e., the
 6
TABLE I. S URVEY OF D ECORRELATION D ISTANCES 10
Path−loss
Shadowing
5
10 Fading
Environment Type Freq. (MHz) Decorrelation Distance (m)

Urban 1800 28,35,66 [19] 50 (Macro) & 5 (Micro) [20]

Total Energy |x(t)|2

4
Suburban 2000 14* [21] 347 [22] 200 (Macro) [20] 10
Suburban 2000 4 [21] (indoor/outdoor/pedestrian)
Suburban 1900 70/118/188 [23] (flat terrain)
3
Mixed Urban 1900 58 [24] 10

Rural 900 485-866 (radial), 866-1247 (circumferential) [25]

Note: Some values were adjusted to reflect a 50% decorrelation distance. 2
10
*Vehicular; Speed 120km/h

1
10
distance that the correlation of the signal level drops to 50% 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Distance (x2 − x1)[m]
or 1/e of its maximum value depending on the model. The
decorrelation distance for small scale effects can be on the
order of centimeters which will make it very impractical to Fig. 3. Energy Contributions by Scale
estimate the signal at that scale. This generally means that for
lower decorrelation distances, there is more variation in the
energy contribution between two distances x1 and x2 from
RF map. Typical values for this decorrelation distance can be
path loss is:
seen in Table I.
& x2
Small-scale effects are typically modeled using the 2
EP L = (10nlog10 (x)) dx =
Rayleigh, Ricean, and Nagakami channel fading models. x1

III. A NALYSIS
Using the channel models chosen in the previous section,
we will analyze the DCT as an interpolation method and
demonstrate its utility. The DCT is computed as follows:
1 −1 N
N# # 2 −1
Xk1 ,k2 = xn1 ,n2 cos [ωn1 k1 ] cos [ωn2 k2 ]
n1 =0 n2 =0
With ωn1 = Nπ1 n + 12 . The DCT is often used in audio
$ %
and video compression techniques because of its unique abil-
ity to compress information. This is accomplished by first
transforming an audio stream or picture into the frequency
domain with the DCT. It is generally the case that most of
the DCT coefficients are close to zero. Thus, a judicious
choice of keeping only significant coefficients Xk1 ,k2 results
in compression without losing audio or picture quality. In
some cases, these coefficients are all below a given frequency
threshold and thus “selecting” the coefficients can be done with
a simple low-pass filter. This is the exact process we will use
here. In the case of estimating the RF map, we do not have a
signal that we want to compress, instead we want to use as few
samples possible to gather the existing information. We will
show that this process will work especially well for RF map
estimates based on common RF propagation models. First, we
will analyze the RF map as an energy signal. The energy of
the real one-dimensional RF map, f (x), is defined as:
& ∞
|f (x)|2 dx
−∞
However, we will take the limits to be the boundaries of
a length whose minimum and maximum distance from the
transmitter is x1 and x2 respectively. If each of the effects are
separated according to scale, then we can make generalizations
about the energy contribution from each of them. The average
'x2
ln2 (d) − 2 ln(d) + 2 ''
2
100n d ' [dB] (4)
ln2 (10) x1
Where n represents a path-loss exponent. Shadowing and
fading are non-deterministic. Therefore we can use the average
energy, E[X 2 ], or the variance of the zero-mean distributions
(2) to make an estimate. We assume that shadowing and fading
take values from the lognormal and Rayleigh distributions
respectively. We use the transformation of these distributions in
terms of decibels. Using their variances as the average energy
contribution over the given interval we have:
ES = σ 2 (x2 − x1 )[dB] (5)
1.6449341
EF = (x2 − x1 )[dB] (6)
α2
Where ES and EF is the energy from the shadowing and
fading components respectively. We also have that α = 2ln(10)
10
and σ being the variance of the zero-mean shadow fading [26].
These functions are plotted as a function of x2 with x1 fixed
at 10 meters.
It is clear from Figure 3 that the large-scale effects
contribute the vast majority of the energy of the RF map.
These large-scale affects are slowly-varying phenomena and
thus the energy from them will account for low-frequency
content in the DCT. Since the majority of the energy is in
low-frequency content, we expect as a consequence from the
Nyquist sampling theorem that we can produce a reasonably
(3) accurate estimate with very few sampling points. It is important
to note that we made very few assumptions about the detailed
nature of the propagation models. This suggests that the DCT
will work well for any real RF map in which the large-scale
effects account for the vast majority of the energy. Although
this analysis was performed on a one-dimensional model, we
can expect a similar relationship to hold in two dimensions.

1047

Linear/Spline
DCT
Jittered
0.82
0.66
0.5
0.34
0.18
0.18 0.34 0.5 0.66 0.82
Fig. 4. Sample Points for Two Types of Interpolation Methods
IV. R ESULTS
To test our interpolation method, we first create a discrete
representation of an actual RF terrain using the simple models
presented in section II. Second, we used this representation to
provide sample points to each of the interpolation methods.
Lastly, each interpolation method reproduced an estimate RF
map with as many points as provided in the discrete repre-
sentation and the two were compared point-wise. We chose
to use the square grid sampling pattern for the DCT method
because it is easy to implement2 . However, not all square grids
are the same. Unlike some interpolation methods, the DCT is
capable of estimating the RF map outside of the convex hull
of the interpolation points. This is due to the half-sample shift
in the computation of each Xk1 ,k2 . Thus, for the same sample
density the DCT can provide an RF map estimate for a bigger
area. We plotted two example sampling patterns to highlight
this difference in 4 along with a “jittered” pattern which will
be explained later.
A. Inverse Distance Weighting
We chose to compare the DCT to the IDW method because
they are the most similar among methods previously studied
for RF map estimation. They are similar in the sense that both
of them are deterministic methods. All interpolated points with
N available sampling points are calculated as follows for the
IDW method:
N
( N
# −d
# −dexp
f (x, y) = di exp Pi di
i=1 i=1
With Pi being the value of the ith sampling point, di being
the Euclidean distance between the interpolated point and the
sample point, and dexp being a tuning parameter. Previous
empirical results have shown that dexp = 1 works best in
terms of reliability, but dexp = 2 yields lower error [11]. Our
simulations support this finding and thus we use dexp = 2
for the sake of comparison. We chose to use the more dense
pattern in Figure 4 for the IDW method.
2 The Peterson-Middleton Theorem and states that we can potentially do
better with a hexagonal sampling pattern. This investigation is out scope of
this paper and subject of future work
8
DCT
Linear
7 Spline
IDW
6
5
RMSE [dB]
4
3
2
1
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
2
Sampling Density [samples/m ]
Fig. 5. RMSE vs Sample Density
B. Sample Density Vs. RMSE
We first compared the interpolation methods in terms of the
accuracy of the RF map estimate as a function of the number
of sampling points. The “linear” and “spline” patterns refer
to MATLAB’s built-in two-dimensional interpolation functions
and were added as baseline interpolation methods. These two
methods took sampling points according to the less dense
pattern in Figure 4. Splitting a 500 meter by 500 meter grid
into 1 meter by 1 meter “pixels”, we calculated the point-wise
root-mean square error (RMSE) between the actual RF map
and its estimate. The generated RF maps contain one emitter
and shadow fading of variance 6 dB and decorrelation distance
of 50 meters. The transmission source is placed according to
a uniform random distribution and with a path-loss exponent
of 2. Each method was tested over the same 100 generated RF
maps. The result are shown in Figure 5.
The DCT clearly outperforms the other interpolation meth-
ods in terms of accuracy for the given scenario. What is
perhaps more interesting to note about these results is that for
relatively low density, a reasonable level of accuracy can be
achieved by any method. According to the results in Figure 5,
with only 9 sampling points the DCT achieves 2.1 dB RMSE
on average.
C. Sample Density Vs. Efficiency
(7)
We can also compare the interpolation methods in terms of
its reliability. We will call an estimate reliable if the estimate at
a given point has less error than the standard deviation of the
shadowing. We will call the percentage of reliable estimates
efficiency. The same parameters were used for this simulation
as the previous one. The results are plotted in Figure 6.
What we gain from these results beyond accuracy is a level
of confidence in an estimate. It is clear from these results that
the DCT not only retains a lower error overall, but also gives
estimates that are more likely to be close to its true value. This
would not be the case if many statistical outliers were produced
in the process of interpolation at the expense of other points
being more accurate.
1048
 1 1.4
DCT
1.3 IDW
0.95

1.2
0.9
DCT 1.1
0.85 Linear

Added RMSE [dB]

Spline 1
Efficiency

0.8 IDW
0.9

0.75
0.8

0.7 0.7

0.65 0.6

0.6 0.5

0.4
0.55 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
Sample Density [samples/m2] x 10
−3
2
Sampling Points [samples/m ]

Fig. 8. Added RMSE vs Sample Density

Fig. 6. Efficiency vs Sample Density

7 restrictions may be too burdensome for some applications. For

DCT
6.5 Linear many other applications we propose that these restrictions are
6
Spline
IDW
not too burdensome. It is clear that number of points can only
be a multiple of two integers to construct a grid. Thus, for
5.5
large grid sizes, increasing the number of points may have
5 to be done in large increments to obtain a desired level of
RMSE [dB]

4.5
4
3.5
3 leave any further investigation into this particular problem for
2.5
2
5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Decorrelation Distance [m]
Fig. 7. RMSE [dB] Vs Decorrelation distance
D. Decorrelation Distance Vs RMSE
We also want to study the effect of the accuracy as a
function of the shadow decorrelation distance. The larger the
decorrelation distance generally means that lower frequency
content. Therefore, we expect more accuracy for larger decor-
relation distances than for smaller decorrelation distances. This
should also be similar to other interpolation methods.
To test this, we restricted each method to only 25 sampling
points and varied the decorrelation distance from 10 to 50. We
chose to this range to compare performance for more extreme
cases. Each method was tested on 500 generated maps each
with a single transmitter and a shadowing variance of 6 dB.
Figure 7 displays the results of these simulations. As expected,
each interpolation method estimates the RF map with less error
for increasing decorrelation distance. What is interesting to
see is that for small enough decorrelation distances, IDW may
outperform the DCT.
E. Sample Misplacement Vs. RMSE
Perhaps the biggest concern about using the DCT as an
interpolation method is its requirement of a given geometry.
The DCT is generally designed to work well with a grid of
points. This imposes a restriction on both the geometry of
the chosen sampling points and the number of points. These
accuracy. We propose that for such cases, a large area can be
broken up into smaller sections and the DCT calculated on
each section. This may be in fact advantageous when each
subsection has a vastly different spectral characteristics. We
later work.
40 45 50 55 In practical scenarios, a sampling point likely cannot be
placed arbitrarily. Thus, we aim to study the effect of misplac-
ing the sensors by adding a random offset to each sampling
point according to a uniform random distribution. We allow
each sampling point to vary up to half of the sampling distance
and measure the difference in RMSE between the perfect
grid and “jittered” grid. This is the same as restricting each
sampling point lie anywhere inside the grid of squares created
by the sampling points. We study this effect with shadowing
decorrelation distance of 50 meters and 6 dB variance for
100 generated RF maps. An example of this jitter applied to
a DCT sampling paradigm be seen in Figure 4. Notice that
each jittered point remains within a maximum distance of the
original DCT sampling points.
From Figure 8 it is clear that even under maximum
perturbation of each grid point, the additional error induced
is still moderate. Additionally, the error that comes from the
sensor misplacement affects the IDW and DCT methods in
similar ways. This is a surprising result because although the
IDW is not limited to the sampling point geometry, a grid
offers better results like the DCT.
There are extreme cases of these random perturbations in
which sampling points can lie right next to each other. The
most extreme case is when four adjacent sampling points lie at
the corner of their squares. In reality it would likely be better to
simply not put sampling points so close together because they
might effectively act as a single point. Thus, the purpose of
this analysis is to show that sampling points need not be placed
in a perfect grid, but have a reasonable amount of flexibility
without sacrificing performance.

1049
 V. D ISCUSSION
Looking at the results in the previous section, we can make
a few observations. First, there appears to be a number of
sensors for each interpolation method at which the benefit of
adding additional sensors becomes minimal. For example, if
we take results in Figure 5 to be for a 500 by 500 meter grid,
then increasing the number of sensors from 4 to 9 increases
accuracy by almost 1 dB. On the other hand, increasing the
number of sensors from 49 to 64 increases the accuracy by
less than .25 dB. This suggests that for a wireless environment
and interpolation method there may be a practical limit to the
expected level of accuracy. This practical limit is ultimately
imposed by the number of sampling points that can feasibly
be obtained. Therefore, any necessary gain in accuracy should
be obtained from better interpolation methods and not from
increasing the number of sensors. Second, choosing the most
effective interpolation method may depend on characteristics
of the RF map. Specifically, if the decorrelation distance
decreases, more sampling points are necessary to create an
estimate with the same accuracy. Figure 7 demonstrates this
point clearly. It is not clear what gives rise to these differences
in performance and may be the subject of future work.
VI. C ONCLUSIONS
Spectrum usage and its applications are becoming increas-
ingly dynamic, especially under a cognitive radio paradigm.
Wireless service operators, regulators, and even the military
will benefit from a dynamic estimation of wireless conditions
in a given geographic area. In this paper, we present the DCT
as an interpolation method for dynamically estimating the RF
map of a given geographical area. We showed this method
to be more accurate for decorrelation distances greater than
25 meters. This is in addition to the benefit that the DCT
does not heavily depend on propagation model parameters
and thus is well-suited for dynamic environments. We also
show that the DCT works well for a square grid configuration
of sampling points, but the performance degrades moderately
for more realistic sampling patterns. Our work presented here
only scratched the surface on applying a sampling theory
approach to estimating an RF map. We plan to extend our
work by exploring ways that can use other information from
the environment that allows estimating the RF map with even
fewer sampling points.
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