By:

Aisha Imdani
Areedz Julkarnain
Fatima Bernalyn Adjilani
Khadija Sahak

BSN 1-F
Carbohydrates Metabolism
The molecule glucose is the focal point of carbohydrate metabolism. Commonly called blood
sugar, glucose is supplied to the body via the circulatory system and, after being absorbed by a
cell, can be either oxidized to yield energy or stored as glycogen for future use.

Glycogen is the storage form of carbohydrates in humans and animals. It is found primarily in
muscle and liver tissue. In muscles it is the source of glucose needed for glycolysis. In the liver,
it is the source of glucose needed to maintain normal glucose levels in the blood.

• GLYCOGEN GLUCOSE
GLYCOGENOLYSIS
Glycogenolysis is the breakdown of glycogen into glucose 6-phosphate. This process occurs
when muscles need energy and when the liver is restoring a low blood-sugar level to normal.

• GLUCOSE GLYCOGEN
GLYCOGENESIS
Glycogenesis is the process whereby excess glucose 6-phosphate is converted into glycogen.
The glycogen is stored in the liver and in muscle tissue.

• GLUCOSE 2 PYRUVATE
GLYCOLYSIS
 Glycolisis
Glycolysis is a process in which one glucose molecule is converted into two molecules of
pyruvate. A net gain of two molecules of ATP and two molecules of NADH results from
the metabolizing of glucose to Pyruvate. In the presence of oxygen, pyruvate continues
on to the Krebs cycle (also called the citric acid cycle or tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA),
where additional energy is extracted and passed on.

 Citric Acid Cycle

The citric acid cycle is the series of biochemical reactions in which the acetyl portion of
acetyl CoA is oxidized to carbon dioxide and the reduced coenzymes FADH2 and NADH
are produced. The NADH and FADH2 produced in the citric acid cycle pass to the electron
transport chain

 Electron Transport Chain

The electron transport chain is a series of biochemical reactions in which electrons and hydrogen
ions from NADH and FADH2 are passed to intermediate carriers and then ultimately react with
molecular oxygen to produce water. NADH and FADH2 are oxidized in this process.

 ATP Production
For each mole of NADH oxidized in the ETC, 2.5 moles of ATP are formed. FADH2,
which does not enter the ETC at its start, produces only 1.5 moles of ATP per mole of
FADH2 oxidized. The energy yield, in terms of ATP production, can now be totaled for
the common metabolic pathway.
 • GLUCOSE RIBOSE-5-P
PENTOSE PHOSPHATE PATHWAY

The pentose phosphate pathway is the metabolic pathway by which glucose is used to produce
NADPH, ribose 5-phosphate (a pentose phosphate), and numerous other sugar phosphates. The
operation of the pentose phosphate pathway is significant in cells that produce lipids: fatty tissue,
the liver, mammary glands, and the adrenal cortex (an active producer of steroid lipids).

Similarly to some of the processes in cellular respiration, the molecules that go through the
pentose phosphate pathway are mostly made of carbon. The easiest way to understand this
pathway is to follow the carbon.

The breakdown of the simple sugar, glucose, in glycolysis provides the first 6-carbon molecule
required for the pentose phosphate pathway. During the first step of glycolysis, glucose is
transformed by the addition of a phosphate group, generating glucose-6-phosphate, another 6-
carbon molecule. The pentose phosphate pathway can use any available molecules of glucose-6-
phosphate, whether they are produced by glycolysis or other methods. It will enter the first of
two phases of the pentose phosphate pathway: 1) The oxidative phase and 2) The non-oxidative
phase.

1) The oxidative phase

The “oxidative” word of this phase comes from the process of oxidation. This phase is made up
of 2 irreversible steps.

 -1H2O
 +2NADPH
 +1CO2
2) The non-oxidative phase.

The non-oxidative phase is really handy because these reactions are reversible. This allows different
molecules to enter the pentose phosphate pathway in different areas of the non-oxidative phase and be
transformed up until the first molecule of the non-oxidative phase (ribulose-5-phosphate). Ribulose-5-
phosphate is the precursor to the sugar that makes up DNA and RNA, and is also a product of the
oxidative stage.

 Ribose-5-phosphate for DNA/RNA building (also produced in the oxidative phase)

Lipid Metabolism
Certain classes of lipids play an extremely important role in cellular metabolism, because they
represent an energy-rich “fuel” that can be stored in large amounts in adipose (fat) tissue.
Between one-third and one-half of the calories present in the diet of the average U.S. resident are
supplied by lipids. Furthermore, excess energy derived from carbohydrates and proteins beyond
normal daily needs is stored in lipid molecules (in adipose tissue), later to be mobilized and used
when needed.

Most cells in the body have limited capability for storage of Triacylglycerol. However, this
activity is the major function of specialized cells called adipocytes, found in adipose tissue. An
adipocyte is a triacylglycerol-storing cell. Adipose tissue is tissue that contains large numbers of
adipocyte cells.
  T.A.G. GLYCEROL + FATTY ACID
LIPOLYSIS

Lipolysis is the metabolic pathway through which lipid triglycerides are hydrolyzed into a
glycerol and three fatty acids. It is used to mobilize stored energy during fasting or exercise, and
usually occurs in fat adipocytes.

 GLYCEROL + FATTY ACID T.A.G.

LIPOGENESIS
Lipogenesis is the metabolic pathway by which fatty acids are synthesized from acetyl CoA.
Lipogenesis is not simply a reversal of the steps for degradation of fatty acids (the b-oxidation
pathway).

 To obtain energy from fat, triglycerides must first be broken down by hydrolysis into
their two principal components, fatty acids and glycerol. This process, called lipolysis,
takes place in the cytoplasm.
 The glycerol that is released from triglycerides after lipolysis directly enters the
glycolysis pathway as DHAP. Because one triglyceride molecule yields three fatty acid
molecules with as much as 16 or more carbons in each one, fat molecules yield more
energy than carbohydrates and are an important source of energy for the human body.
Triglycerides yield more than twice the energy per unit mass when compared to
carbohydrates and proteins. Therefore, when glucose levels are low, triglycerides can be
converted into acetyl CoA molecules and used to generate ATP through aerobic
respiration.
 The resulting fatty acids are oxidized by β-oxidation into acetyl CoA, which is used by
the Krebs cycle. The breakdown of fatty acids, called fatty acid oxidation or beta (β)-
oxidation, begins in the cytoplasm, where fatty acids are converted into fatty acyl CoA
molecules. Beta-oxidation is a repetitive series of four biochemical reactions that
degrades acyl CoA to acetyl CoA by removing two carbon atoms at a time, with FADH2
and NADH also being produced. The newly formed acetyl CoA enters the Krebs cycle
and is used to produce ATP in the same way as acetyl CoA derived from pyruvate.

Protein Metabolism
From an energy production standpoint, proteins supply only a small portion of the body’s needs.
With a normal diet, carbohydrates and fats supply 90% of the body’s energy, and only 10%
comes from proteins. However, despite its minor role in energy production, protein metabolism
plays an important role in maintaining good health. The amino acids obtained from proteins are
needed for both protein synthesis and synthesis of other nitrogen-containing compounds in the
cell. In this chapter, we examine protein digestion, the oxidative degradation of amino acids, and
amino acid biosynthesis.

 In the protein metabolism, proteins are broken down into smaller molecules, which is the
amino acid. Amino acids produced from the digestion of proteins enter the amino acid
pool of the body. The amino acid pool is the total supply of free amino acids available for
use in the human body. Dietary protein is one of three sources that contribute amino acids
to the amino acid pool. The other two sources are protein turnover and biosynthesis of
amino acids in the liver. Within the human body, proteins are continually being degraded
(hydrolyzed) to amino acids and resynthesized. Then it will now enter to the
transamination stage.
 • A.A + KETOACID NEW KETOACID + NEW A.A
TRANSAMINATION

Transamination is a biochemical reaction that involves the interchange of the amino group of an
α-amino acid with the keto group of an α-keto acid. Transamination is a step in obtaining energy
from amino acids. This stage will produce the new amino acid and the new keto-acid. The new
amino acid (glutamate) will undergo oxidative deamination. On the other hand, the new keto-
acid (pruvate, oxaloacetate, a-ketoGlutarate) will undergo gluconeogenesis and may later
on enter the Krebs Cycle

• GLUTAMATE (A.A) KETO ACID

AMMONIA(NH3)
OXIDATIVE DEAMINATION

 Oxidative deamination is a biochemical reaction in which an α-amino acid is converted

into an α-keto acid with release of an ammonium ion. Oxidative deamination is also a
step in obtaining energy from amino acids. The ammonium ion is later on converted to
urea to make it less toxic by the help of urea cycle.

 Urea Cycle
Urea Cycle is the series of biochemical reactions in which urea is produced from
ammonium ions and carbon dioxide. The urea produced is then transported in the blood
from the liver to the kidneys and eliminated from the body in urine.

 Gluconeogenesis
Gluconeogenesis is the metablic pathway by which glucose is synthesized from
noncarbohydrate materials. Glycogen stores in muscle and liver tissue are depleted within
12-18 hours from fasting or even less time from heavy work or strenous exercise. This
process takes place in the liver when glycogen supplies are being depleted and when
carbohydrate intake is low.

The carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins pathways are not independent of each other but rather are
integrally linked.

The numerous connections among pathways mean that a change in one pathway can affect many
other pathways. A good illustration of the interrelationships among pathways emerges from
comparing the processes of eating (feasting), not eating for a short period (fasting), and not
eating for a prolonged period