Practical 1: Revision of Basic Soil Mechanics

A. Describe Phase diagram and illustrate

1. Relationship between e and n
2. Relationship among e, S, w, and Gs
3. Relationship among g, e, S and Gs

B. Prepare a note on various unit weight relationships.

C. Solve these problems related to index properties of soil.

1. The dry density d of a soil is 1.8 g/cm3. What is its dry unit weight d? Find the bulk density
 if the unit the unit weight is 19.6 kN/m3.
(Ans.: d = 17.64 kN/m3;  = 2.0 g/cm3)
2. The moisture content of a saturated soil Wsat is 35% and the relative density 'G' of its
particles is 2.7. Find the void ratio 'e' and the porosity 'n'. What will be the degree of
saturation Sr and the air content na if the moisture content 'w' gets reduced to 5% on drying
? (Ans.: e = 0.945; n = 48.6%; Sr = 14.3%; na = 42%)
3. The mass M of an undisturbed sample is 1250g and its volume V is 630 cm3. On oven
drying the sample weighs 1102 g (Ms). The average relative density G of soil is 2.68. Find
the bulk density , natural moisture content w, dry density d, void ratio e, degree of
saturation Sr and the air content na. What will be the density and unit weight on full
saturation? (Ans.:  = 1.98 t/m3; w = 13.4%; d = 1.75 t/m3; e = 0.53; Sr = 0.68; na = 0.11;
sat = 2.1 t/m3; sat = 20.58 kN/m3)
4. A sample of saturated clay weighed 1526 gm in its natural state, and 1053 gm after drying.
Determine the natural water content. If the unit weight of the solid constituents was 2.7
gm/cm3, what were the void ratio and the porosity? (Ans.: w = 45%; e = 1.21; n = 0.55)
5. A sample of silty clay was found, by immersion in mercury, to have a volume of 14.88 cm3.
Its weight at the natural water content was 28.81 gm and after oven drying was 24.83 gm.
The unit weight of solid constituents was 2.7 gm/cm3. Calculate the void ratio and degree of
saturation of the sample. (Ans.: e = 0.618; Sr = 0.70)
6. Earth is requires to be excavated from borrow pits for building an embankment. The unit
weight of undisturbed soil in wet condition is 1.8 gm/cc and its water content is 8 percent.
In order to build a 4 meter high embankment with top width 2 m and side slopes 1:1 (shown
in figure), estimate the quantity of earth required to be excavated per meter length of
embankment. The dry density required in
the embankment is 1.50 gm/cc with a 2m
moisture content of 10%. Assumed the sp.
Gravity of solids as 2.67. Also determine the
void ratio and the degree of saturation of the 1
4m
soil in both the undisturbed and remoulded
1
states. (Ans.: d = 16.7 kN/m3 , Volume of
earth = 21.55 m3, e = 0.61 and S = 34.2% in
undisturbed state, e = 0.79 and S = 34.1%
Fig: Section of the embankment
in remoulded state)

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TU CDG, 2019, MSc Engineering Geology Practical, Soil Mechanics 1.
7. The void ratio of a soil sample is 0.7 and the specific gravity is 2.72. Find the moisture
content and the bulk unit weight of the soil, if the degree of saturation is 80% and unit
weight of the water is 10 kN/m3. (Ans.: w = 20.6%;  = 18.9 kN/m3)
8. The moisture content of an undisturbed sample of a clay is 265% under 100% saturation.
The specific gravity of the solids is 2.5. the dry unit weight is 3.3 kN/m3. Determine
a) The submerged weight (Ans: 12.20 gm/cc)
b) The submerged unit weight (Ans: 2.0 kN/m3)
c) Void ratio (Ans: 6.63)
You can follow following phase diagram to solve the problem.

Water
Vw W

V=1 W = t

Solid
Vw Ws = d

9. 640 gms of dry soil was used for sieve analysis. The weight of soil retained on each sieve is
given below:
Sieve size (mm) Wt in gms
4.75 20
2.00 32
1.40 60
1.00 68
0.850 94
0.600 113
0.475 178
0.075 73
If the fine particle has PI = 6.5% and LL = 28%, classify the soil according to USCS. And
also find out the percentage of the gravel, course sand, medium sand, fine sand, and silt
and clay according to ASTM standard.
10. Undrained shear box tests were carried out on a series of soil samples with the following
results
Test No. Total Normal Stress (kN/m2) Total Shear Stress (kN/m2) at failure
1 100 98
2 200 139
4 300 180
3 400 222
Determine the cohesion and angle of friction of the soil, with respect to total stress. Use
graph if convenient.

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TU CDG, 2019, MSc Engineering Geology Practical, Soil Mechanics 1.
 Engineering Geology Practical, CDG,TU, Kirtipur

Permeability Test
Theory
The permeability of a soil is a measure of its capacity to allow the flow a fluid through it. The fluid may be either a
liquid or a gas, but soil-engineering concern only with liquid permeability and the liquid is usually understood to be water.
Soils consist of solid particles with voids between them. In general, the voids are interconnected, which enables
water to pass through them; that is, soils are 'permeable' to water. The degree of soils, which is determined by applying a
hydraulic pressure difference across a sample of soil, which is fully saturated, and measuring the consequent rate of flow
of water. The 'coefficient of permeability' is expressed in terms of a velocity.
The flow of water through soils of all types, from 'free-draining' gravel and sands to 'impervious' clays, are governed by the
same physical laws. The difference between the permeability characteristics of extreme types of soil is merely one of
degree, although a clay can be ten million times less permeable than a sand. Clays, and some other materials such as
concrete, contrary to casual observation, are not impermeable, although they may appear to be so if the rate of flow
though them is no greater than the rate of evaporation loss. The method used for measuring permeability depends upon
the characteristics of the material.
Depending upon the value of Reynold's number, the flow of water through soils may be 'laminar' or 'turbulent'. In
laminar flow, a particle of water starting from a given position follows a definite path without crisscrossing the path of other
particles. In turbulent flows the particles do not follow any definite path but have random, twisting and crisscrossing path.
For laminar and steady flow, according to Darcy's law the rate of flow of water is proportional to the hydraulic gradient in
uniform and homogeneous soils.
i.e. v  I
where v = discharge velocity of water
v = ki
If q = discharge of water per unit time
q = kiA
If i =1
k=v
where i = hydraulic gradient
k = coefficient of permeability
A = cross sectional area of the soil for discharge q.
In soil mechanics, the coefficient of permeability, k expresses the degree of permeability. It has velocity dimensions.
Factors affecting the coefficient of permeability can be studied by the equation

w e3
k  C ds 2
 1 e
Where k = coefficient of permeability
C = constant
ds = average diameter of soil grains
w = unit weight of water
 = viscosity of water
e = void ratio of the soil
Viscosity and unit weight of water depend upon temperature, hence the coefficient of permeability is effected by
the climatic conditions also. Constant 'C' depends upon arrangement and shape of grains and voids. Thus, the soil in-situ
often as smaller permeability in vertical direction as compared to the horizontal due to horizontally stratified structure.
The coefficient of permeability may be determined both in the laboratory and in field by direct tests. In the laboratory,
constant head method is more suited to coarse-grained soils as the quantity of seepage in case of relatively impervious
soils is less. Variable head method is suited to fine-grained soil as the fall of head is very fast in grained soils.
Applications

Permeability is not a fundamental property of soil, but depends upon a number of factors, which are summarized as
follows.
1. Particle size distribution
2. Particle shape and texture
3. Mineralogical composition
4. Voids ratio
5. Degree of saturation
6. Soil fabric
7. Nature of flow
8. Type of flow
9. Temperature
Item 1, 2 and 3 are invariable for a given soil. Item 4 and 5 depend upon the placing and treatment of the soil, and
item 7, 8 and 9 relates only to the permeability of the fluid. Item 6 relates to the state of the natural soil in-situ, and its effect
is of crucial significance

1
 Engineering Geology Practical, CDG,TU, Kirtipur
Following are main sectors, which have applications of permeability:
1. Excavations in water-bearing ground
2. Earth dams
3. Seepage pressures
4. Piping and erosion
5. Drainage of highway and airfield bases and sub bases
6. Estimations of the yield of water and the rate of extraction from aquifers
7. Clay consolidation
8. Shear strength of soil
The rough value of coefficient of permeability for different types of soils are given in the table 4.1.
Table 4.1, Classification of soil according to permeability

Degree of permeability Soil type Range of coefficient of permeability, k

(m/s)

Very high Gravel 1.0 - 103 and more

High Sand 10-3 – 1.0
Medium Silty Sand 10-3 – 10-5
Low Silt 10-5 – 10-7
Very low Clay 10-7 – 10-9
Practically impermeable Stiff Clay Less than 10-9

According to U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, soils classified as follows:

Impervious k less than 10-6 cm/sec.
Semipervious k between 10-6 to 10-4 cm/sec
Pervious k greater than 10-4
Apparatus
Special
1. Permeameter mould (internal dia =100 mm, effective height = 127.3 mm., capacity 1000 cc)
2. Accessories of the Permeameter (cover, base, Detachable Collar, Porous Stones, Dummy Plate)
3. Round filter paper 100 mm. dia.
4. A static or dynamic compaction device (if remoulded samples are used)
5. Graduated glass stand pipe (internal dia 5 to 20 mm, preferably 10 mm)
6. Support frame and clamps
7. Funnel

General
1. Meter scale Stand Pipe
2. Balance
3. Stop watch
4. Thermometer
5. Deaired water
6. Drying Oven
7. Sieve 4.75 mm Stop Cock
8. Grease
9. Drying Crucibles h2 h1
10. Desiccator

Sample

2
 Engineering Geology Practical, CDG,TU, Kirtipur

PERMEABILITY TEST
Observation and Calculations
Table 1

Soil Sample No. Date

1. Length of sample, L (cm) = 11.53 

2. Diameter of sample, d (cm) = 10.12

3. Area of the sample, A (cm2) = 80.45 

4. Mass of the mould + Dummy Plate, W1 (gm = 4425 

5. Mass of mould + soil + Dummy Plate, W2 (gm) = 6160 

6. Mass of soil, W = W2 - W1 = (gm) =
7. Volume of soil Sample, V (cm3) =
8. Density of soil sample, t =W/V =
9. Moisture content at the start, w1 = 10% 

10. Dry density of soil sample, d = t/1+w1 =

11. Void ratio e = Gs/d - 1 =

Determination No. At the start (before saturation) At the end (after saturation)

1 2 3 1 2 3

1. Container No.

2. Mass of container + wet soil (gm) 15.5 

3. Mass of container + dry soil (gm) 10.22 

4. Mass of container (gm) 6.1 

5. Mass of dry soil, 3 – 4 (gm)

6. Mass of water, 2 – 3 (gm)

7. Water content, w = 6/5  100 (%)

8. Degree of saturation = wGs/e (%)

3
 Engineering Geology Practical, CDG,TU, Kirtipur

PERMEABILITY TEST
Observation and Calculations
Table 2

Soil Sample No. Date

1. Diameter of sand pipe (cm) = 1.35 

2. Cross sectional area of sand pipe, a (cm2) = 1.431 

3. Temperature of water, T (oC) = 22.2 

4. Correction factor due to the Temperature, Ct = T/27 =

5. Constant factor = Cf = (2.303 a L)/A =

Determination No. 1 2 3

1. Initial head, h1 (cm) 90  90  80 

2. Final head, h2 (cm) 40  40  30 
3. Head, h1 h2 (cm)

4. Time intervals (sec) 76  72  72 

a) From h1 to h1 h2 72  71  70 
b) From h1 h2 to h2 148  143  142 
c) From h1 to h2, t = (a) + (b)

5. Log10 h1/h2

6. Coefficient of permeability, k (cm/sec) at test temperature ToC = (Cf  5)/ 4(c)

7. Coefficient of permeability, k (cm/sec) at temperature 27oC = 6  Ct

Results

Average value of coefficient of permeability at test temperature, kt =

Average value of coefficient of permeability at standard temperature 27oC, k27 =

Void ratio of soil sample, e =

Type of soil =

4
 Practical 2: Grain Size Analysis (Mechanical process)

General
A qualitative determination of the particle size distribution on a soil is made by sieve
analysis and sedimentation analysis.
The sieve analysis can be carried out by wet and dry processes (mechanical
process). The former should be adopted unless the soil is known to contain little or no fines
(silt and clay fraction).
The sedimentation analysis based on the stokes law is carried out by the hydrometer
and pipette methods, the former, being convenient and quite accurate for all practical
purpose, is recommended for the general use. The method is not applicable if the soil fines
are less than 10% of the total.
Grain size analysis (Mechanical process)
Theory and applications
Soils having particle larger than 0.075 mm size is termed as coarse-grained soils. In
these soils, more than 50% of the total material by mass is larger than 75 micron. Coarse
grained soil may have boulder, cobble, gravel and sand.
Coarse grained soils may have rounded to angular bulky, hard, rock particle with the
following sizes:
Boulder :– more than 300 mm diameter
Cobble :– smaller than 300 mm and larger than 80 mm diameter
Gravel :– i. Coarse :– 80 mm to 20 mm diameter
ii. Fine :- 20 mm to 4.75 mm diameter
Sand :– i. Coarse :– 4.75 mm to 2 mm diameter
ii. Medium :– 2 mm to 425 micron
iii. Fine :– 425 micron to 75 micron
Silt and clay - < 75 micron
[Note :– 1 mm = 1000 micron]
Name of the soil is given depending upon the maximum percentage of the above
components.
Course grained soil having 5% particles of size smaller than 0.075 (cohesive nature)
are designated by the symbols:
GW – Well graded gravel
GP – Poorly graded gravel
SW – Well graded sand
SP – Poorly graded sand
Soil having greater than 12% of particles of size smaller than 0.075 mm are
designated by the following symbols:
GM or GC – Silty gravel or clayey gravel
SM or SC – Silty sand or clayey sand

Page 1 of 4 
TU CDG, 2019, MSc Engineering Geology Practical, Soil Mechanics 2.
 Dual symbols are used for the soil having 75 micron passing between 5% to 12%. Dry
sieve analysis is performed for cohesionless soil if fines are less than 5%. Wet sieve analysis
is done if fines are more than 5% and of cohesive in nature.
For the granular soil the shape of its grading curve indicates the distribution of the soil
particles within it.
If the shape of the curve is not too steep and is more of less constant over the full
range of the soil's particles sizes then particle size distribution extends evenly over the range
of the particle sizes within the soil and there is no deficiency or excess of any particular
particle size. Such a soil is said to be well graded.
If the soil has any other form of distribution curve then it is said to be poorly graded.
According to their distribution curves there are two types of poorly graded soil:
 If the major part of the curve is steep then the soil has a particle size distribution
extending over a limited range with most particles tending to be about the same size.
The soil said to be closely graded or, more commonly, uniformly graded.
 If the soil has large percentage of its bigger and smaller particles and only a small
percentage of the intermediate sizes then its grading curve will exhibit a significantly
flat section or plateau. Such a soil is said to be gap graded.

100 -
Uniformly
Graded medium
Cumulative Percentage

75 - grained soil Gap Graded

Silty sand

50 -
Well Graded sand-
gravel-silt soil

25 -

0-
0.002 0.2 20 mm
Particle Size
Figure: Gradation Curve
Coefficient of curvature (Cc) may be estimated as:

Cc 
D30 2
D10  D60
Here,
D60 = diameter at 60% finer
D30 = diameter at 30% finer
D10 = diameter at 10% finer
Cc should lie between 1 and 3 for well graded gravel and sands.
Uniformity coefficient Cu may also estimate as:
D60
Cu 
D10

Page 2 of 4 
TU CDG, 2019, MSc Engineering Geology Practical, Soil Mechanics 2.
 Cu< 4.0 for uniformly graded soil and Cu > 4.0 for the soil either well graded or gap
graded and a glance at the grading curve should be sufficient to decide which is the correct
description.
Applications
Course grained soils (>75 micron) are classified mainly by sieve analysis. The grain
size distribution curve gives an idea regarding the gradation of the soil. In Mechanical soil
stabilization, the main principle is to mix a few selected soils in such a proportion that a
desires grain size distribution is obtained for the design mix. Hence, for proportioning the
selected soils, the grain size distribution of each soil is to be known.
Apparatus
Special
1. Set of sieves of sizes 4.75 mm, 2 mm, 850 micron, 425 micron, 150
micron and 75 micron.
2. Mechanical shaker
3. Brush
4. Sodium hexametaphosphate
General
1. Balances
2. Oven
3. Desiccator
4. Drying crucibles
5. Tray
6. Water
Procedure
1. Take suitable quantity (0.5 kg for 4.75 mm to 75 micron) of oven-dry soil
depending upon the maximum size of material present in.
2. (a) If soil seems to have more than 5% of cohesive soils, the soil taken in step 1
is spread out in the large tray or bucket and covered with water. Two grams of
sodium hexametaphosphate per liter of water used is then be added to the soil.
The mix is thoroughly stirred and left for soaking.
(b) The soaked soil specimen is washed on 75 micron sieve until the water
passing the sieve is clean.
(c) The fraction retained on sieve is tipped without loss of material in tray, tried
in the oven at 105o to 110o and weighed.
(d) Loss in mass will give percentage passing 75 micron sieve.
3. Clean the sieve and pan with brush and weigh.
4. Sieve the soil through the sieves 2 mm, 850 micron, 425 micron, 150 micron, 75
micron using a mechanical shaker for 10 minutes
5. Weigh each sieve and pan with soil retained on them.

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TU CDG, 2019, MSc Engineering Geology Practical, Soil Mechanics 2.
Precautions
1. While drying, the temperature of the oven should not be more than 105o because
higher temperature may cause permanent change in the Silt and Clay materials.
2. In wet analysis, all cohesive soil adhering to large size particles should be
removed by water.
3. In plotting, percent passing should be determined with respect to the total soil
taken for initial analysis.
4. During mechanical shaking, soil sample should not be allowed to come out. Soil
loss is acceptable if it is less than 2%.
Observation and Calculations
1. All observations are tabulated and calculations are done in the table. The
cumulative percentage of soil fraction retained on each sieve is calculated based
on the total weight of the sample taken for this analysis. Percentage passing is
calculated by subtracting the percentage retained from 100.
2. Diameter is taken on log scale and percent passing on ordinary scale for plotting
the grain size distribution curve.
3. Read the diameters corresponding to 60%, 30% and 10% finer from the graph.
Calculate coefficient of curvature (Cc) and uniformity coefficient (Cu).

Page 4 of 4 
TU CDG, 2019, MSc Engineering Geology Practical, Soil Mechanics 2.
 Ref: CDG/TU

Central Department of Geology

Engineering Geology Laboratory

Grain Size Analysis

Mechanical Method
Project:
Location of the Project:
Bore Hole No:
Description of Soil:
Date of Testing:
Depth of Sample:
Type of Analysis: Wet Dry
Soil Sample No: -
Mass of Total Soil Sample Taken for Analysis (gm) =

Cumulative
Sieve Mass of Mass of Mass of Soil Cumulative
Mass of Soil
Sieve No. Opening Sieve Sieve+Soil Retained % of Soil % Passing
Retained
(mm) (gm) (gm) (gm) Retained
(gm)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Remarks:

Tested By: Checked By:

Date
 CONSISTENCY OF SOIL

Consistency is a term used to indicate the degree of firmness of cohesive soils. The consistency of
natural cohesive soil deposits is expressed qualitatively by such terms as very soft, stiff, very stiff and hard. The
physical properties of clays greatly differ at different water contents. A soil, which is very soft at a higher
percentage of water content, becomes very hard with the decrease of water content. However, it has been
found that at the same water content, two sample of clay may be relatively soft while the other may be hard.
Consistency of the soil can be expressed in terms of:
1. Atterberg limits of soils
2. Unconfined compressive strength of soils.
The Atterberg limits of cohesive soil are founded on the concept that they can exit in any of four states
depending on their water content. These limits are also influenced by the amount and character of the clay
mineral content. In other word a cohesive soil is solid when dry but as water is added, it first turns to a semi-
solid, then to a plastic, and finally to a liquid state. The water content at the boundaries between these states is
referred to as the shrinkage limit (SL), the plastic limit (PL) and the liquid limit (LL) respectively.
Shrinkage Limit (SL) is the water contents below which no further Shrinkage takes place during
desiccation. All the particles of the mineral skeleton are then in perfect contact. Plastic Limit (PL) is the water
content under which the soil loses its plasticity and become friable. The plastic limit is the percentage moisture
content, at which a soil can be rolled, without breaking, into a thread (roll) 3 mm in diameter, any further rolling
causing it to crumble. The Liquid Limit (LL) is the water content above that the soil behaves like a semi liquid
and flows under its own weight. The difference between Liquid Limit and Plastic Limit (LL-PL) is known as the
Plasticity Index (PI). This will be higher if the soil contains clay. A soil having PI > 10% is fair clayey and for PI >
30% it is very clayey (Habib, P., 1973).
Knowing the liquid limit and plasticity index, soil may be classified with the help of modified plasticity
chart for use with Unified soil classification system.
In the classification chart following symbols are used (based on USCS for fine grained soil having {a}
LL>50 and {b} LL<50):
{a} 1. CL = Inorganic Clay of low to medium plasticity with medium dry strength
2. CH = Inorganic Clay of high compressibility, plasticity and dry strength
3. OL = Organic Silt of low compressibility
{b} 1. ML = Inorganic Silt of low Compressibility
2. MH = Inorganic Silt of high compressibility
3. OH = Organic Clay of high compressibility
But A. Casagrande (1932) gave the plasticity chart for soil having LL>30 to 50.
There is decrease in the volume of the soil sample as its moisture content decreases. Theoretically, this
decrease in volume takes place up to shrinkage limit (SL) and there will be no further decease in volume
beyond this limit with the decrease in moisture content. The soil remains saturated up to the shrinkage limit and
when once this limit is crossed, the soil becomes partially saturated. Air takes the place of moisture when
sample is Oven-dry (105oC to 110oC).
Initially consider a soil sample has volume Vo and water content Wo at point A. When moisture content is
decrease, the volume change of soil will equal to volume of moisture lost represented by the straight line AE.
Line AE gives the volume of soil at different water content. The point C and D represent the Transition State of
soil sample at liquid and plastic limits respectively. After D, the decrease in volume of soil is not linear with
decrease in moisture content. The curve line (DEB'F) result due to the entering of air into the voids of the soil.
The curve DEB'F depicts the transition from plastic to the dry condition of soil represented by point F.
In practical purposes, the abscissa of the point of the intersection B of the tangents FB and EB may be
taken as the Shrinkage limit, SL.

Applications
The value of liquid limit and plastic limit are directly used for classifying the fine-grained cohesive soil.
After classification it helps a lot in understanding the behavior of soils and selecting the suitable methods of the
structures made up or/and resting on soils.
The value of these limits are also used in calculating the flow index, toughness index, and relative
plasticity index which are useful in giving an idea about the plasticity, cohesiveness, compressibility, shear
strength, permeability, consistency and state of cohesive soils. Atterberg shows the correlation between the
plasticity index, soil type, degree of plasticity and degree of cohesiveness.

Page 1 of 4
 Table 2.1 Atterberge Correlation Chart

Plasticity Soil type Degree of Degree of

plasticity Cohesiveness
0 Sand Non- Plastic Non Cohesive
1-7 Silt Low- Plastic Partly Cohesive
7 - 17 Silty clay Med. plastic Cohesive
17 - 35 Clay High Plastic Cohesive
over 35 Fine clay Extremely Cohesive
Plastic
Table 2.2 Consistency of cohesive soils

Description Consistency index* Approximate Field identification

unconfined
compressive strength
kPa

Hard Over 300 Indented with difficult

by thumbnail, brittle

Very stiff Above 1 150 – 300 Readily indented by

thumbnail, still very
tough

Stiff 0.75 – 1 75 – 150 Readily indented by

thumb but penetrated
only with difficulty.
Cannot be moulded in
the fingers

Firm 0.5 – 0.75 40 – 75 Can be penetrated

several centimeters
by thumb with
moderate effort, and
moulded in the fingers
by strong pressure

Soft Less than 0.5 20 – 40 Easily penetrated

several centimeters
by thumb, easily
moulded

Very soft Less than 20 Easily penetrated

several centimeters
by fist, exudes
between fingers when
squeezed in first
LL  m
* IC  Where 'm' is Natural moisture content
LL  PL
Object of Practical
1. To determine Liquid Limit
2. To determine Plastic Limit
3. To Classify the Soil
4. To find Flow Index
5. To find Toughness Index

Page 2 of 4
 Apparatus
Special:
1. Cassagrande liquid limit device
2. A.S.T.M. and B.S. grooving tool (Casagrande type)
3. 425 micron sieve
4. 3 mm rod.
General
1. Spatula
2. Basin
3. Balance (0.01 gm sensitivity)
4. Water Content crucibles
5. Drying oven
6. Distilled water
7. Desiccator
Procedures
(A) Liquid Limit:
1. Adjust the cup of liquid limit apparatus (Fig 2.4, 2.5, 2.6) with the help of grooving tool
gauge and the adjustment plate to give a drop of exactly 1 cm on the point of contact on
base.
2. Take about 120 gm of an air-dried sample passing 425 micron sieve.
3. Mix it thoroughly with some water to from a uniform paste.
4. Place a portion of the paste in the cup of the liquid limit device; smooth the surface with
spatula to a maximum depth of 1 cm. Draw the grooving tool through the sample along the
symmetrical axis of the cup, holding the perpendicular to the cup.
5. Turn the handle at a rate of 2 revolution per second and count blows until the two parts of
the soil sample come into contact at the bottom of the groove alone a distance of 10 mm.
6. Transfer about 15 gm of the soil forming the edges of the groove that flowed together to a
water content crucible, and determine the water content by oven drying.
7. Transfer the remaining soil in the cup to the main soil sample in the basin and mix
thoroughly after adding a small amount of water
8. Repeat steps 4,5 and 6. Obtain at least four sets of readings in the range of 10 to 40 blows.
(B) Plastic Limit:
1. Take about 30 gm of air dried sample passing 425 micron sieve.
2. Mix thoroughly with distilled water on the glass plate until it is plastic enough to be shaped
into a small ball.
3. Take about 10 gm of the plastic soil mass and roll it between the hand and the glass plate
to form the soil mass into a thread. If diameter of thread becomes less than 3 mm without
cracks, it shows that water added in the soil is more than its plastic limit, hence the soil is
kneaded further and rolled into thread again.
4. Repeat these rolling and remoulding processes until the thread starts just crumbling at a
diameter of 3 mm.
5. If crumbling starts before 3 mm diameter thread in step 3, it shows that water added in step
2 is less than the plastic limit of the soil, hence some more water should be added. Then
mixed to a uniform mass and rolled again, until the thread starts just crumbling at a
diameter of 3 mm.
6. Collect the pieces of crumbled soil thread at 3 mm diameter in an air tight container and
determine moisture content.
7. Repeat this procedure twice more with fresh sample of 10 gm each.
Precautions:
1. Use distilled water in order to minimize the possibility of ion exchange between the soil and
any impurities in the water.
2. Soil used for liquid and plastic limit determinations should not be oven dried before testing.
3. In liquid limit test, the groove should be closed by a flow of the soil and not by slippage
between the soil and the cup.

Page 3 of 4
 4. After mixing distilled water to the soil sample, sufficient time should be given to permeate
the water throughout the soil mass.
5. Wet soil taken in the container for moisture content determination should not be left open in
the air even for some time; the containers with soil samples either should be placed in
desiccator or immediately be weighed.
6. For each test, cup and grooving tool, should be clean.
Observations and Calculations:
(a) Liquid Limit (LL)
1. Use table 1 for recording the number of blows and calculating the moisture contents.
2. Use semilog graph paper; take number of blow on semilog scale (X-axis) and water
contents on ordinary scale (Y-axis). Plot all the points and draw a straight line (flow curve)
passing through these points.
3. Read the water content at 25 blows, this is the value of liquid limit.
(b) Plastic Limit (PL)
Use table 2 for calculating the plastic limit.
(c) Classification of soil
1. Calculate Plasticity Index (PI)
PI = LL – PL
2. Use plasticity chart for classification of given soil
3. Calculate the Plasticity Index of 'A' line {PIA} and classify the soil
PIA = 0.73 (LL – 20)
Where, LL is in percentage
If PI > PIA the soil is clay
If PI < PIA the soil is silt
Similarly, LL = 0 – 35 low compressibility
35 – 50 medium compressibility
> 50 high compressibility
(d) Flow Index (FL)
1. Extend the flow curve at both ends so that to intersect the ordinates corresponding to 10
and 100 blows.
2. Read the water contents at 10 and 100 blows. Difference of these two water contents is
equal to flow index.
3. The flow index may be calculate from the equation as follow:

FI 
W 1 - W 2 
log10 N1
N2

Here, W1 = water content in % at N1 blow

W2 = water content in % at N2 blow
N1 = first any number of blows
N2 = second any number of blows
(e) Toughness Index (TI)
Plasticity Index (PI)
TI 
Flow Index (FI)

Page 4 of 4
 Ref: CDG/TU
Tribhuvan University
Central Department of Geology
Geodisaster Research Center
Soil and Rock Test Laboratory

Bore Hole No: Description of Soil:

Date of Testing: Depth of Sample: Soil Sample No:
Liquid Limit
1] Determination No. 1 2 3 4 5
2] No. of blows
3] Container No.
4] Mass of Container + Wet soil, (gm)
5] Mass of Container + Dry soil, (gm)
6] Mass of Water (4 – 5), (gm)
7] Mass of Container, (gm)
8] Mass of Dry Soil (5 – 7), (gm)
9] Moisture Content (6/8) × 100, %

FLOW CURVE
40
Moisture Content,w%

34

28

Liquid Limit, LL = %
22
Plastic Limit, PL = %
Plasticity Index, PI = %
16

10
10 25 100
No. of Blows, N

Plastic Limit
1] Determination No. 1 2 3
Average Plastic Limit
2] Container No.
3] Mass of Container + Wet soil, (gm)
4] Mass of Container + Dry soil, (gm)
5] Mass of Water (4 – 5), (gm)
6] Mass of Container, (gm)
7] Mass of Dry Soil (4 – 6), (gm)
8] Plastic Limit, (5/7) × 100, %
Soil Type:
Checked By:
Date:
 Compaction Test
Theory and Applications
Compaction is the process of desification of soil mass by reducing air voids. This process should not be confused with consolidation which
is also a process of densification of soil mass but by the expulsion og water under the avtion of continuosly acting stativ load over along
period.
The degree of compaction of a soil is measures in term of its dry density. The degree of compaction mainly depends upon its moisture
content, compaction energy and type of soil. For a given compaction energy every soil attains the maximum dry density at a particular
water content which is kniown as ptimum moisture content.
In the dry side, water acts as a lubricatnt and helps in the closrer packing of soil grains. In the wet side, water starts to occupy the space
of soil grains and hinders in the closer packing of grains.
Applications
Compaction of soils increases their density, shear strength, bearing capacity but reduces their void ratio, porosity, Permeability and
settlements. The results of this test are useful in the stability of field problems like earthen dams, embankments, road and airfields. In such
constructions, the soils and compacted. The moisture content at which the soils are compacted in the field is controlled by the value of
optimum moisture content determined by the laboratory proctor compaction test. The compaction energy to be given by the field
compaction unit is also controlled by the maximum dry density determined in the laboratory. In other word, the laboratory compaction tests
result is used to write the compaction specification for field compaction of soils.
Apparatus
Special
1. Cylindrical mould (capacity 1000 cc, Internal diameter 100 mm, effective height 127.3 mm)
2. Rammer for light compaction (face diameter 50 mm, mass of 2.6 kg, free drop 310 mm)
3. Mould accessories ( detachable base plate, removable collar)
4. Sieves 20 mm and 4.75 mm
General
1. Balances of capacity up to 10 kg, sensitivity 1 gm and 0.01 gm
2. Drying oven
3. Desiccator
4. Drying crucibles
5. Graduated jars
6. Straight edge
7. Large mixing pan
8. Spatula
9. Scoop

1.90
d =Maximum dry density
1.88

1.86
Dry Density (g/ml)

1.84

1.82
moisture content
wo =Optimum

1.80

1.78

1.76
5 10 15 20

Water Content (%)

Fig 3.1 Compaction curve

Procedure
1. Take about 20 kg for 1000 cc mould and sieve this soil through 20 mm and 4.75 mm sieves.
2. Calculate the percentage retained on 20 mm and 4.75 mm sieves and passing from 4.75 mm sieve. Do not use the soil retained on
20 mm sieve.
3. Use a mould of 10 cm diameter if percentage retained on 4.75 mm sieve is less than 20 or use a mould of 15 cm diameter if
percentage retained on 4.75 mm sieve is more than 20.
4. Mix the soil retained on 4.75 mm sieve and passing from 4.75 mm sieve thoroughly in the proportion obtained in step 3.
5. Take about 2.5 kg of the soil for 1000 cc mould for light compaction.
6. Add water to it to bring its moisture content to about 4% in coarse grained soils and 8% in fine grained soils
7. Clean dry and grease lightly the mould and base plate. Weigh the mould with base plate.

Page 1 of 3
8. Fit the collar and place the mould on a solid base.
9. Compact the wet soil in three layers by the rammer of mass 2.6 kg and free fall 31 cm with 25 evenly disturbed blows in each layer
for 10 cm diameter mould.
10. Remove the collar and trim off the soil flush with the top of the mould. In removing the collar, rotate it to break the bond between it
and the soil before lifting it off the mould.
11. Clean the outside of the mould and base plate, weigh the mould with soil and plate.
12. Remove the soil from the mould and obtain a representative soil sample from the bottom, middle and top [for water content
determination.
13. Weigh the drying crucible with sample and put in drying oven at temperature 105o to 110o for 24 hours.
14. Repeat the above procedure with different water content preferably at 7%, 10%, 13%, 16%, 19% and 22% on course grained fresh
soil samples and 11%, 14%, 17%, 20%, 23% and 26% of water contents on fine grained fresh soil samples.
15. Next day, first weigh the crucibles with dry soil samples and then the empty crucibles.
Precautions
1. Adequate period is allowed for mixing the water with soil before compaction.
2. The blows should be uniformly disturbed over the surface of each layer.
3. Each layer of compacted soil is scored with a spatula before placing the soil for the succeeding layer.
4. The amount of soil used should be just sufficient to fill the mould i.e. at the end of compacting the last layer the surface of the soil
should be slightly (5 mm) above the rim of the mould.
5. Mould should be placed on a solid foundation during compaction.
Observations and calculations
1. Enter all observation in table 1 and calculate the wet density.
2. Calculate the dry density by using the equation
Where,

d  1 t
w
d = dry density (g/cc)
t = wet density (g/cc)
w = water content
Section XX
All dimension are in mm
Fig 3.2, Dimensional Apparatus for compaction

3. Plot the water content on x-axis and dry density on y-axis draw a smooth curve, called the compaction curve.
4. Read the point of maximum density and water content corresponding to maximum density from compaction curve.
5. If specific gravity of soil is known (use table 3.1) then dry density at 100% saturation can be calculated as follow,

d  Gsw
1 wGs
S
Where,
Gs = Specific gravity of soil grains
 w = unit weight of water (1 gm/cc)
w = water content
S = degree of saturation (one for fully saturated soil)
Table 3.1, Typical value of specific gravity of various type of soils

Soil type Specific gravity

Sand 2.65 – 2.67
Silty sand 2.67 – 2.7
Inorganic clays 2.70 – 2.80
Soils with mica or iron 2.75 – 2.90
Organic soils Quite variable, as low as 2.2

6. Plot the 100% saturation or zero air voids curve on the same graph. For this, in y-axis use dry density at 100% saturation
from table 3.2.
7. Similarly, degree of saturation at optimum moisture content (from graph) and maximum dry density (from graph) can be
calculated from the equation of No. 6 statement.

Page 2 of 3
 Observations and calculations

Soil sample No: Date:

Soil retained on 20 mm sieve (%) =
Soil retained on 4.75 mm sieve (%) =
Soil passing from 4.75 mm sieve (%) =

Specific gravity of soil grains = Type of test =

Diameter of mould, d (cm) = Weight of rammer =
Height of mould, h (cm) = No. of layers =
Volume of mould, V (cm3) = No. of blows/layer =
Mass of mould, W (gm) =

Determination No. 1 2 3 4 5

1. Mass of mould + compacted soil (gm)

2. Mass of compacted soil Wt (gm)

3. Wet density,  =W /V
t t

4. Crucible No.

5. Mass of crucible + wet soil (gm)

6. Mass of crucible + dry soil (gm)

7. Mass of water (5 – 6)

8. Mass of crucible (gm)

9. Mass of dry soil (6 – 8) (gm)

10. Water content, w = 7/9  100%

11. Dry density,  =  / 1+ w

d t (gm)

12. Dry density at 100% saturation (gm)

Page 3 of 3